Electromechanical

Technology Series

TERC EMT STAFF

UNIFIED

DELMAR PUBLISHERS, MOUNTAINVIEW AVENUE, ALBANY, NEW YORK

12205

DELMAR PUBLISHERS
Division of Litton Education Publishing, Inc.

Copyright

(c)

1971

By Technical Education Research Center,

Copyright
all

will

is

claimed until June

1976.

1,

Inc.

Thereafter

portions of this work covered by this copyright

be

the public domain.

in

All rights reserved.

No

the copyright hereon

part of this

work covered by

may be reproduced

any form or by any means

or used

in

graphic, electronic, or

mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping,

or information storage and retrieval systems

without

written permission of Technical Education Research

Center.

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number:

73-15903

PRINTED

IN

THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Published simultaneously

Delmar Publishers,

in

Van Nostrand Reinhold,

The

Canada by

a division of

Ltd.

project presented or reported herein

formed pursuant to
Education,
Welfare.

a grant

was

per-

from the U.S. Office of

Department of Health, Education, and

The opinions expressed

herein, however,

do

not necessarily reflect the position or policy of the

U.S. Office of Education, and no official endorsement

by the U.S. Office of Education should be

inferred.

The marriage of

electronics

and technology

technical personnel in today's industries.

with combination

many

devices of
optical
skills

is

New

kinds

many

with systems and

also in electronics. This need for

who

is

combination

preparing for a career

technology.

This manual

a series of closely related publications designed

one of

is

who want

The most

pations.

for

mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, thermal, and

especially significant for the youngster

for students

new demands

occupations have emerged

who work

Increasingly, technicians

must be competent

in industrial

creating

requirements well beyond the capability of

skill

technical specialists.

is

the broadest possible introduction to technical occu-

effective use of these

manuals

is

combination textbook-

as

laboratory guides for a full-time, post-secondary school study program that

provides parallel and concurrent courses

in electronics,

mechanics, physics,

mathematics, technical writing, and electromechanical applications.

unique feature of the manuals

in this series is

the close correlation of

technical laboratory study with mathematics and physics concepts.

Each

studied by use of practical examples using modern

The reinforcement obtained from multiple applications of the concepts
has been shown to be extremely effective, especially for students with widely
diverse educational backgrounds. Experience has shown that typical junior

topic

industrial applica-

is

tions.

college or technical school students can

make

satisfactory progress in a well-

coordinated program using these manuals as the primary instructional material.

School administrators

manuals to support

programs

in

such fields

or quality assurance.

will

common
as:

be

interested

first-year

in

of these

the potential

core of studies for two-year

instrumentation, automation, mechanical design,

This form of technical core program has the advantage

of reducing instructional costs without the corresponding decrease

power so frequently found

in

in

holding

general core programs.

This manual, along with the others

in

the series,

is

the result of six years

of research and development by the Technical Education Research Center,

inc.,

(TERC),

quarters

in

national nonprofit, public service corporation with head-

Cambridge, Massachusetts.

It

has undergone a

number of

revisions

as a direct result of experience gained with students in technical schools

community

and

colleges throughout the country.

Maurice W. Roney

///

The Electromechanical Series

TERC

is

engaged

cal Technology.

in

an on-going educational program

The following

titles

in

Electromechani-

have been developed for this program:

INTRODUCTORY
ELECTROMECHANISMS/MOTOR CONTROLS

ELECTROMECHAN ISMS/DEVICES
ELECTRONICS/AMPLIFIERS

ELECTRONICS/ELECTRICITY

MECHANISMS/DRIVES

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
UNIFIED PHYSICS/FLUIDS
UNIFIED PHYSICS/OPTICS

ADVANCED
ELECTROMECHAN ISMS/AUTOMATIC CONTROLS
ELECTROMECHANISMS/SERVOMECHANISMS
ELECTROMECHAN ISMS/FABRICATION

ELECTROMECHAN ISMS/TRANSDUCERS
ELECTRONICS/COMMUNICATIONS
ELECTRONICS/DIGITAL

MECHANISMS/MACHINES

MECHANISMS/MATERIALS
For further information regarding the
its

EMT

program or for assistance

in

implementation, contact:
Technical Education Research Center, Inc.

44A

Brattle Street

Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138

iv

Preface

The three most common means of transporting energy from place to place are through
mechanical drives, electrical circuits and fluid systems. Fluids, then, hold a very important
position in modern technology. Consequently, the well-prepared technician should be acquainted with the principles of fluid circuits.
Unified Physics/Fluids provides an introductory treatment of basic fluid principles as
well as other selected topics. The materials are organized around a number of fundamental
concepts of modern technology: differential forces, flow rates, opposition to flow, energy
storage, time constants, impedance matching and resonance. The purpose of this organization is to provide a foundation for the study of several related technologies.
The sequence of presentation chosen is not completely inflexible. It is expected that
individual instructors may choose to use the materials with some variation from the given
sequence. The particular topics chosen for inclusion in this volume were selected primarily
for convenience and economy of materials.
The instructional material is presented in an action-oriented format combining many of
the features normally found in a textbook with those usually associated with a laboratory
manual. Each experiment contains:
1. An INTRODUCTION which identifies the topic to be examined and often includes
a rationale for doing the exercise.
2. A DISCUSSION which presents the background, theory, or techniques needed to
carry out the exercise.
3. A MATERIALS list which identifies all of the items needed in the laboratory experiment. (Items usually supplied by the student such as pencil and paper are not
included in the lists.)
4. A PROCEDURE which presents step-by-step instructions for performing the experiment.
In most instances, the measurements are done before calculations so
that all of the students can at least finish making the measurements before the
laboratory period ends.
5. An ANALYSIS GUIDE which offers suggestions as to how the student might approach interpretation of the data in order to draw conclusions from it.
6. PROBLEMS are often included for the purpose of reviewing and reinforcing the
points covered in the exercise. These problems may be of the numerical solution
type or simply questions about the exercise.
Students should be encouraged to study the text material, perform the experiment,
work included review problems, and submit a technical report on each topic. Following this
pattern, the student can acquire an understanding of the principles of modern technology
that will be very valuable in the study of specialty subjects and on the job. For best results,
these students should be concurrently enrolled in other technical specialty courses and in
technical mathematics (algebra and trigonometry).
This material on fluid principles comprises one of a series of volumes prepared for
technical students by the TERC EMT staff at Oklahoma State University, under the direction of D.S. Phillips and R.W. Tinnell. The principal authors of these materials were Bob
R. Hunter and Henry Allen.
An Instructor's Data Guide is available for use with this volume. Mr.
responsible for testing the materials and compiling the instructor's data

Henry Allen was

book for them.
the form of criticisms,

Other members of the TERC staff made valuable contributions in

corrections and suggestions.
It is sincerely hoped that this volume as well as the other volumes in the series, the
instructor's data books, and the other supplementary materials will make the study of technology interesting and rewarding for both students and teachers.

THE TERC EMT STAFF

v

Contents

experiment

OPPOSITION TO FLUID FLOW

experiment

PARALLEL FLUID FLOW

experiment

SERIES-PARALLEL FLUID FLOW

13

experiment

NONLINEAR OPPOSITION

18

experiment

STATIC STORAGE

22

experiment

THERMAL TIM E CONSTANTS

26

experiment

HYDRAULIC TIME CONSTANTS

30

experiment

PNEUMATIC TIME CONSTANTS

34

experiment

POWER AND ENERGY

IN

FLUI D

ENERGY STORAGE

NETWORKS

38

FLUID SYSTEMS

43

experiment 10

KINETIC

experiment 11

HYDRAULIC MATCHING

48

experiment 12

THERMAL MATCH ING

54

experiment 13

SOUND WAVES

IN Al R

59

experiment 14

SOUND WAVES

IN

Appendix

Fluid Power Symbols

71

Laboratory Report Writing

75

!N

A SOLID

64

Experiment Data Sheets

Back of Book

TO THE STUDENT
Duplicate data sheets for each experiment are provided

in

the back of

the book. These are perforated to be removed and completed while performing each

experiment.

They may then be submitted with the experiment

analysis for your instructor's examination.

VI

experiment

INTRODUCTION.

REAL OPPOSITION TO FLUID FLOW

power systems

Fluid

are widely used in industry to perform

portant tasks. These systems inevitably involve resistance to fluid flow. The
experiment is to define and examine resistance as it applies to fluid systems.

DISCUSSION.

or opposition

Resistance

energy

motion or flow, though possibly unfamiliar to

us, is something with which we come in contact everyday. When a force acts to change

we expend

that opposes the original force and limits the

where, and

change
occurs

This

motion.

of
in

many

opposing

used

in

is

mechanical motions while

called resistance.

circuits,

it

circuits,

the term reluctance

is

mal resistance
ess that limits

is

is

the

in

it

in electrical

is

by

of

energy,

thermal systems.

many

We

dissi-

processes, opposition

transfor-

generally

into

thermal

we were

Fluid circuits

basic types which

All

the fluid

1-1

being

first

two

we see a series
pumped from

of

cir-

the

through motor A, and

B.

series.

HYDRAULIC MOTORS

of

Whenever all of thefluid passes through each of the components

in a system, the components are said to be in
then through motor

to drag a

Fig. 1-

may be

will affect the resistance

the circuit. In figure

cuit.

in a

if

energy

characterized by a transformation of energy

in a fluid circuit.

we

cases results

energy. For example,

In

rise in

This experiment deals with fluid resistance

Besides limiting change of motion or flow,

mation

have gone some-

by simply rubbing our

friction

tank must pass

many

overcoming the

used and ther-

tion to fluid flow or fluid resistance.

in

of the

into thermal energy.

With magnetic

be directly concerned with the opposi-

opposition

all

appears as thermal energy.

temperature

hands together.

used to account for the proc-

heat flow

lost in

we expend must

feel the

pation

name

Since this experiment deals with fluids,

will

can

action

physical processes and goes by

several different names. Friction

is

sidewalk,

Since energy cannot be created or destroyed,

the energy

is

friction between the sidewalk and the brick.

often present a force

motion or flow, there

along

steadily

brick

to

hundreds of im-

objective of this

Series Fluid Circuit

UNIT

tank

PUMP

HYDRAULIC MOTORS

Fig.

Figure 1-2

is

known

divided so that only part of

it

Parallel Fluid Circuit

pumped

systems. Circuit drawings are greatly simpli-

B.

diagrams.
figure

electronics,

man

of

use

these symbols

in

parallel.

As with

the

schematic symbols.

For

has created sym-

bolic notation to aid in understanding fluid

fluid

in

order to read fluid system

The American Standard symbols

1-3. will

be used

more complete

list

of

in

this

American Standard

symbols see Appendix.

DISCONNECT DOUBLE CHECK VALVE

RESERVOIR BELOW FLUID LEVEL

CONNECTING LINE

RESERVOIR ABOVE FLUID LEVEL

CONNECTING LINE

FILTER STRAINER

American Standard Fluid Symbols

2

in

experiment.

QUICK DISCONNECT SINGLE CHECK VALVE

Fig. 1-3

student of fluid systems must learn to identify

Compo-

and B are said to be

by

fied

is

passes through

and part through motor

nents placed like

1-2

as a parallel fluid sys-

tem. In this system the fluid being

motor

UNIFIED PHYSICS/ FLUIDS

OPPOSITION TO FLUID FLOW

UNIFIED PHYSICS

UNIT

FLUIDS

OPPOSITION TO FLUID FLOW

PRESSURE GAUGE

HYDRAULIC PUMP FIXED DISPLACEMENT

UNIDIRECTIONAL

FLOWMETER

ADJUSTABLE RELIEF VALVE

Fig. 1-3

American Standard Fluid Sumbols (Continued)

MATERIALS
1

Hydraulic bench including pump,

V*!'

V*" ID plastic hydraulic hose

ID plastic hydraulic hose 25

relief valve,

ft

ft

long

long

ID plastic hydraulic return hose

Quick disconnect coupler (male and female)

Pressure gauges

Flow meters

Check valve

Relief valve

and reservoir

UNIT

OPPOSITION TO FLUID FLOW

UNIFIED PHYSICS

FLUIDS

PROCEDURE
Construct the hydraulic circuit shown

1.

Fig. 1-4

2.

Adjust the

relief valve

in

figure 1-4.

The Experimental Circuit

so that the pressure gauge reads

90

psi

and record the flow

in

the

data table.

4.

Replace the 25-ft hose with a one-foot hose. Record the

Calculate the resistance

in

line pressure

and

rate of flow.

each case and determine the resistance per foot of hydraulic

hose.

5.

With the 25-ft

line in place, insert a

flow meter and determine

6.

By the same method

its

quick connection between the pressure gauge and +he

resistance.

as step five,

determine the resistance of

a relief valve,

check

valve,

pressure gauge, and flow meter.

7.

Record

all

values in the data table, figure 1-5, for future use.

ANALYSIS GUIDE.

In analyzing this

mining the components' values. Explain

objective.

experiment, you should discuss possible errors

why you

feel this

Can you think of other methods of determining

in deter-

experiment has or has not reached

resistance in fluid systems?

its

UNIFIED PHYSICS

UNIT

FLUIDS

COMPONENT

OPPOSITION TO FLUID FLOW

PRESSURE

FLOW

RESISTANCE

RATE
25
1

ft

ft

Hose
Hose

14")

/4 ")

1
(

Quick connection
Relief Valve

Check Valve
Pressure

Gauge

Flow meter

RESISTANCE VALUES

%"

Hydraulic Hose per foot

Quick connection
Relief valve

Check valve
Pressure gauge

Flow meter

CALCULATIONS

Resistance =

Flow

Pressure Diff.

psi
in

units of

gal/min

rate

Fig. 1-5

Data Table
5

UNIT

OPPOSITION TO FLUID FLOW

UNIFIED PHYSICS/FLUIDS

PROBLEMS
the pressure drop across a series system containing six quick disconnect
couplers, 78 ft of %" hydraulic hose, and two flow meters if the rate of flow is five

LWhat

is

gal/min?

2.

the rate of flow of a series system containing 38 ft of %" hydraulic hose,

six pressure gauges and 15 connectors if a pressure drop of 330 psi is maintained in

What

is

the system?

3.

Find the resistance of a system having a flow rate of 38.5 gal/min under a pressure
of

466

psi.

experiment

INTRODUCTION. The

purpose of

PARALLEL FLUID FLOW

experiment

this

is

to examine fluid resistance as

it

occurs

in a

parallel fluid circuit.

DISCUSSION.
systems,

it is

In

order to understand fluid

regarded

become acquainted

necessary to

assume

with some of the elementary characteristics of

fluid
easily,

many flow

in

that

hydraulic

situations.
fluid

is

We
not

shall

com-

pressible.

motion. Fluids, substances which flow

both

include

liquids

and

gases.

The

Another

only difference between the two, for our pur-

may be

that gases

poses,

is

while

liquids

allow

easily

compressed

the type of motion that the

is

fluid exhibits.

We

move with

very slight com-

only

will

assume that our

fluids

type of motion known as laminar

flow. With steady laminar flow, as

pression.

we

characteristic of fluid flow that

must consider

shown

in

figure 2-1, the particles of fluid travel in fixed

All

fluids have

Viscosity

is

some degree

paths side by side. At the other extreme

of viscosity.

the internal friction drag of one

turbulent

part of the fluid on a neighboring part of the

same

fluid.

Some

fluids

viscous than others a fact

whirls and eddies

much more

are

we can

Hydraulic fluid, which

little

we

yiscosity

will

and

be

Fig. 2-

dis-

Fig.

flow

will

flow

is

like a

is

by

cloud of smoke

occurs at high speeds.

^ ^

Turbulent Flow

is

If

the

very high, the

be classified as turbulent. Turbulent

OD

^>
2-2

characterized

illustrated in figure 2-2.

Laminar Fluid Flow

3 O

usually

lence

be using, has
can

much

is

velocity of flow in a pipe

paring the flow of water to that of honey.

relatively

which

or a stream of water going over rocks. Turbu-

com-

see by

flow,

PA RALLEL FL UID FL OW

UNIT 2

UNIFIED PHYSICS

FLUIDS

PRESSURE

FLOW METER

GAUGE

ORIFICE

Fig.

To maintain

just as

electrical currents or the

of solid bodies.

Series Hydraulic Circuit

motion, energy

real fluids in

must be expended

2-3

it is

in

If

are similar for

unit of electrical resistance

is

flow of one coulomb per second, so

fluid resistance

resistance

is

increased,

new

be found by adding the

initial

resistance

and

the resistance of our second orifice or extra

measured by the

pipe length.

electric potential difference required to maintain a

the

This new total resistance can

total resistance.

these cases, but the units differ. Just as the

all

increase the length of pipe or insert

orifice,

thus giving us a reduced flow rate and a

mechanical motion

The concepts

we

another

the case of

is

R-p

measured by the pressure drop

R i + R2

(2.2)

or difference required to maintain a flow of

one gallon per minute or one cubic foot per

If

minute.
In a series circuit

2-3

we

such as the one

increased.

If

is

in

the resistance

the system. As

increased, the fluid flow rate

a small orifice

is

placed

in

in

same

pressure.

If

we

it)

is

When

of the system

branch

B,

is

we can
the

re-

equal to

we can compute

the total resistance by the equation

is

the

the flow rate (the quantity of fluid

per unit time passing through

in figure 2-4,

again see our basic relationships.

in figure

can observe the relation of pressure to

the pressure

for the

again consider a pipe system, but this

sistance in branch

quantity of fluid flowing

circuit,

we

time a parallel system as

(2.3)

decreased

consider the flow

resistance in the orifice, then

we can

state

where N

symbolically that

is

number

the

of branches.

ever, the resistance of the

equal,

we must

If,

two branches

howis

not

use the equation

(2.1)

(2.4)

where A P
system, R
tity

is

is

the pressure difference across the

the resistance, and

is

the quan-

of fluid transported per unit time

in

Should there be more than two resistances

the

system.

parallel

we need

in

to use yet another equation.

UNIFIED PHYSICS/ FLUIDS

This equation for more than

in a parallel

configuration

UNIT 2
two

resistances

The

PARALLEL FLUID FLOW

individual resistance in each branch line

Many
(2.5)

BRANCH

Fig.

2-4

will

pipe

and

electrical

systems

examine

parallel pipe

flow systems.

Parallel Hydraulic Circuit

MATERIALS
pump

Hydraulic

25-ft length of hydraulic hose

2 5-ft lengths of hydraulic hose

Adjustable flow control valve

10-qt graduated container

Stop watch
2-ft

Pressure gauge

Pressure relief valve (adjustable)

10

are

types; therefore, in this experiment

parallel

we

2 Flow meters

is

treated as an individual series circuit.

is

length of plastic hydraulic hose

Quick disconnect couplers

Assorted hydraulic fittings as needed

UNIT 2

PARALLEL FLUID FLOW

UNIFIED PHYSICS

FLUIDS

PROCEDURE
1

Set up the experimental system

Fig.

2.

shown

Flow Mechanism

2-5

Turn on the pump, and with the

figure 2-5.

in

PRV

and the flow control

valve, adjust the

flow to

GPM.
3.

Record the pressure and calculate and record the resistance of the system. Resistance
should be shown

in units

of psi-min
gal

4.

Disconnect the
stopwatch,

line at

measure

CAUTION: Be

and

record

on

is

not available

a piece

graduated 10-quart container and a

the fluid expelled

sure that the reservoir

graduated container
indicating levels

connection three and with

is

full

a glass jar

by the system

and return

may

in

one minute.

the fluid after measuring.

be calibrated with

If a

measuring cup,

of masking tape.

5.

Modify the system to that shown

6.

Adjust the

7.

Measure and record the flow and pressure of each branch of the system and calculate and
record the resistance of each branch and the total resistance.

8.

Add

PRV

in

figure 2-6*

and the flow control valve

second 5-foot length of hose

until the total

in series

10

flow rate

is

GPM,

with the present one and repeat step

7.

UNIFIED PHYSICS

UNIT 2

FLUIDS

PARALLEL FLUID FLOW

m
5

FT LINE

6
-G

>K
Fig.

2S

PRESSURE

System

CALCULATIONS

RESISTANCE

FLOW

Circuit

Parallel Fluid

RATE

One

(flow meter)

Circuit

One

(measured)

Circuit

Part

Two

One
B
Total

Two
Two

Circuit

Part

A
B
Total

Circuit

Two

measured

Fig.

2-7

The Data Table

11

25 FT LINE

PARALLEL FLUID FLOW

UNIT 2

9.

Disconnect the

line at

UNIFIED PHYSICS /FLUIDS

connection three. Using the graduated container and stop watch,

catch and record the fluid flow for one minute.

10.

Compare the

results

ANALYSIS GUIDE.

In

resistance of the flow

with those calculated.

the analysis of this experiment

you should determine the flow

mechanism. Explain the concept of flow

rate

rate

and

through different lengths of

pipe and draw an analogy with electrical flow. Determine the percentage of error of the flow
meter. Make a statement of the relationship between series and parallel pipe systems.

PROBLEMS
1.

fluid

system

changed to 250

2.

running at 10

psi,

what

is

the

GPM

under

new flow

a pressure of

100

psi.

If

the pressure

is

rate?

parallel system is made up of three branches. Branch A has a resistance of

18 (psi-min)/gal; Branch B, 30 (psi-min)/gal, and Branch C, 38 (psi-min)/gal. What

is

3.

is

the total resistance of the system?

series

be the

system has

new

pressure of

pressure required

kept at the same flow rate?

new branch

if

436

psi

and

the system

flow rate of 7.6

is

split into

Assume no added connection

has half the resistance of the original system.

12

GPM. What would

two equal branches and

resistance and that each

experiment

-\

INTRODUCTION. Series-parallel
are often used in distribution.
this

E R IE

S -P A

flow systems are more complex than either

The purpose

of this experiment

of the basic

principles associated with series

and

circuits

is

series-parallel

(any network which

is

number of

series

series-parallel

circuits

may

To

series or parallel

and

to examine the flow pattern of

and

the resistance, R,

networks

the

difference

directly proportional to

is

pressure,

in

P,

and inversely

parallel elements). In a

circuit the individual paths act as series paths.

exist within the

The

series or parallel

same system.

Figure 3-1 illustrates pipes 2 and 3

(points a and b are

parallel

re-

proportional to the flow rate, Q. In a parallel

network either

is

steady motion

in

combination of any

in series

common)
with pipes

and the

resistance,

any branch

is

less

Ry,

in

all

than the

the parallel

least resistance

circuit:

in paral-

while the
1

and

combination of pipes 2 and 3

also in series with 1, 4,

total

branch circuits
in

fluid source

maintain fluids

quires differences in pressure. In series circuits

parallel

background to approach

a sufficient

more com pi icated

The

is

type of system.

DISCUSSION. An understanding

lel

FLUID FLOW

RA L LEL

RT =

4.
is

1+

1+

R1

R2

...

fluid source.

The flow rate, Q, of a series-parallel network

is much like the action of a similar electrical

The pressure drop across a parallel circuit is

the same for all available paths andQp, the

circuit.

total parallel

Fig. 3-

Series-Parallel Piping

flow

Network

rate,

is

the

sum

of the rates

UNIT 3

SERIES-PARALLEL FLUID FLOW

Ff$.

3-2

Resistance

and Pressure Drop

of the individual paths. In the series-parallel

circuit

tance,R

Shown
T/

resistance,

is

figure 3-2, the total

in

resist

equal to the series and parallel

R s +R p The
.

total resistance

rectly proportional to the

Sum

UNIFIED PHYSICS /FLUIDS

is

dl^

of the pressure

drops across both the series and parallel cir

of

in a Series-Parallel

the

Network

system

have the characteristics of

simple series circuits and other portions
have
the characteristics of simple parallel circuits.

Systems of

when

this

type present special problems

calculating resistance of branch

compo-

nents and total resistance.

and the resistance, R

T is inversely prb^
portional to the total flow rate,Oj-.

cuits

The method of

As seen
parallel

in

system

the
is

preceding case,

one

in

solution can best be seen by

considering an example such as the one shown

a series-

which some portions

Fig.

3-3

in figure 3-3.

Series-Parallel Fluid

14

System

UNIT 3

UNIFIED PHYSICS /FLUIDS

This

system
Branch

branches:

Branch B hqs
off

contains

contains

main

three
a filter

and

flow meter, F2, and the bleed-

hydraulic

(3.2)

R-

C
_ "B B C
R
K eq"
R B + RC

motor, M-j, and flow

meter, Fj.

R 1 R2

Ry

S<|

return of the relief valve, V<|; Branch

contains

SERIES-PARALLEL FLUID FLOW

- 56(1401

196

= 40 psi-min/gal
simple method of solving for the

tance of this system

is

a sirpple series circuit.

resis-

to reduce the system to

By

can see that the bleedoff

with the motor branch.

line

is

We must

in

This result

we

that

parallel

total

visual inspection

first

com-

pute the resistance of each separate branch.

consistent with the principle

is

for parallel

must be

connection the combined

than either of the two

less

We

branches separately.

system to

have

now reduced

a simple series circuit.

the

Our next

compute the resistance value for

branch A. The flow rate through the filter in

step

Branch C:

branch

branches

_ 168

of branch

1.2
5?

to

is

140 psi-min/gal

is

the

A and
A is

sum

of the flow rates through

GPM. The

B or 4.2

resistance

180- 168

4.2

- 2,85 psirmin/gal

P9

The

Branch B:

system

total resistance of the

the

of

equivalent

series

is

the

component

sum

parts;

therefore, the total resistance of this system

- 168

is

42.85 psi-min/gal.

3.0

= 56 psi-min/gal

Most

practical

fluid

flow

systems

are

parallel or series-parallel in nature; therefore,

Since these two branches are

may be combined

as follows:

in parallel,

they

the purpose of this experiment

a series-parallel fluid system.

MATERIALS
Hydraulic

pump

unit

Hydraulic motor

2 Flow meters

Flow control

2 Pressure gagges

25-ft hydraulic hose

Stroboscope

Adjustable

relief valve

valve

is

to examine

"

PROCEDURE
1

Set up the fluid system

shown

in figure 3-4.

,'a|

25 FT LINE

3-4

Fig.

3.

4.

Adjust the

7.

until the

Record h e pressures ,P,

flow

ad

is

3.0

GPM.

and calculate the

^XS?Z

s
branch

pump

The Experimental System

Make

C and

irurr;:;p

a plot of

used as a flow meter.

of the total system

RPM

n
a"

Qf

uid ,0 pass thro

PreSSl"'e

Calcula,e the resis "ce

of

rei^-^30 gpm - 025 g

at

^^

each step.

**

*.

versus flow rate.

n the Shape f the lot

E

P
"

how

motor may be


UNIFIED PHYSICS /FLUIDS

PRESSURE FLOW
MATE

BRANCH

UNIT 3

RESISTANCE

GPM

AA
D
D
i

Total

Fig.

3-5

SERIES-PARALLEL FLUID FLOW

FLOW F ATE VERSUS RPM

RPM GPM RPM GPM

0.25

1.25

2.25

0.50

1.50

2.50

0.75

1.75

2.75

1.0

2.0

3.0

The Data Table

17

RPM

experiment

NONLINEAR OPPOSITION

INTRODUCTION.

Resistance is frequently encountered

in fluid systems.
However there is a
characterise of res.stance which is
seen quite often and which is
equally oftlTgnored T a
charactenst, ,s noniinearity. A nonlinear
resistance has a resistance value
which ch nge depl d

zz^:za^:z,

,n this

DISCUSSION.

Linear resistance has a constant value of resistance under

normal circumstances.
If
the resistance of a device
constant, then the flow rate
through
if the pressure
difference is

The

effect

it

One good way

in

to determine experimentally

system is linear or nonlinear is to

double
the value of an input and find
if the corres-

will

ponding

doubled.

m ay

sha "

if

is

double

we

ample,

be noted by the equation

output value

when

pressure,

a pipe

show

doubled.

For ex-

expands, the flow

and resistance

tion 4.2 will

is

will all change.

rate,

Equa-

this variable relationship.

(4.1)
In the case of

R =

nonlinear opposition, however,

the resistance value changes
as the operating
conditions change. That is, the

2_

A P
A Q

(4.2)

resistance

varies as the pressure difference

and flow rate

It

change.
fluid

10

15

20

25

PRESSURE
Fig. 4-

is

be shown experimentally that

as a
flowing through an expandable
tubing

30
-PSI

Q-P Plot of Nonlinear

18

may

Opposition

40

UNIFIED PHYSICS /FLUIDS

the pressure will increase to the stretch point

When

of the pipe.

this point

(forQ = 3 CFM)

reached and

is

R 2 _ 25 _ 8.33 psi/CFM
3
(forQ = 6 CFM)

the pipe begins to stretch, the pressure will

tend to stabilize. At this point the pressure

remain approximately constant and the

will

two

pipe will do

things:

NONLINEAR OPPOSITION

UNIT 4

get longer

and

_35

R3

5.83 psi/CFM

in-

crease in cross-sectional area. Using this infor-

mation we may conclude that the flow

Q, will vary but will not vary linearly.

If

moment and

the

in

about 4

equation 4.2.
the

In

the

resistance

case

of

value

flow

in

consider a parachute

pipes for a

At

falling.

is

and may not offer enough resistance to open the parachute. As the chute

then the opposition must vary as shown

opposition,

fluid

an altitude of 30,000 feet the pressure

flow rate varies and the pressure remains constant,

beyond

Let's look

rate,

nonlinear

gets

changes as

psi

closer

to

the ground, the pressure

in-

operating conditions change. In other words,

creases and so does the resistance. Eventually

the resistance varies as the flow rate varies.

the resistance gets large enough to open the

The Q-P

chute.

line.

plot of a device will not be a straight

next:

Figure 4-1 shows a nonlinear Q-P plot.

Let us consider

when

a force

is

mechanical spring

slowly applied and

leased, the force-displacement can be

we compute

If

the

graphically by the plot in figure 4-2. This type

opposition value at

of

several points along the curve, the resistance

will

example, flow rates of

1, 3,

behavior

is

often

called

hysteresis.

The

which is
by the shaded portion of the

hysteresis effect involves energy loss

be different at each point. Let us con-

sider, for

re-

shown

represented

and 6

graph.

CFM.
(for

Q=

There are many other examples of non-

CFM)

= 10_ =

linearity

I0psi/CFM

but

the

foregoing

examples

sufficient to illustrate the basic idea.

LOAD RELEASED

DISPLACEMENT

Fig.

4-2

Nonlinearity of a Spring

FORCE

are

UNIT 4

NONLINEAR OPPOSITION

UNIFIED PHYSICS /FLUIDS

MATERIALS
0-50 psi Air supply

ft

ft

Pneumatic hose
Pneumatic hose

Flowmeter

!4 in.

in.

ID

Hose clamps A

ID

0-30

36

Vernier caliper

(pneumatic)

Flow control value

ft Surgical

hose
1

ID

in.

psi Pressure

in.

14 in.

gauge

Ruler

PROCEDURE
1-

Set up the experimental pneumatic

system shown

in figure 4-3.

MAIN SUPPLY
VALVE

FT SURGICAL TUBING

OPEN TO ATMOSPHERE
Fig.

3.

4-3

Experimental System

Begin closing the flow control

valve until the pressure geuge
registers 0.5 psi This is the
acumen, needed with the f.ow control valve as its
purpose is to ac?as In orite

only

-d *** - * *

the SUr8 Ca ,UbS

dt e~4.
5.

'

'

Increase the flow rate using the

main supply valve in steps of
0.1
s,ep in
e da,a ,abie c
ui

^izcTc^j: r
psi

mm/cubic

CFM

* -

7.

Continue to increase the flow

Decrease the flow

in 0.1

CFM

until the

20

Do not

tube balloons and then go one

more 0.1

steps and record the pressure

at each step.

the

beino sure to

ft. CAUTION:
Do not touch the tubing with sharp
instruments
apply pressures above 5 psi more
than the value required to balloon
the tuZg

6.

"n

CFM

UNIFIED PHYSICS

FLOW RATE

FLUIDS

UN j T

DIAMETER

LENGTH

NONLINEAR OPPOSITION

PRESSURE

RESISTANCE

U.b
0.6
U./

U.O
u.y
1
I

n
.U

1
I

*3

.O
/I

.0
"7

1.8

1.9

2.0

Fig.

ANALYSIS GUIDE.

In analysing

4-4

The Data Table

the results of this experiment you should discuss the graphs

which you have drawn. Does the data tend to support the material presented

How well

has this experiment achieved

its

objective?

21

in

the discussion?

experiment
INTRODUCTION. The

STA TIC STORAGE

objective of this experiment

to gain an understand ng of
static energy

is

STOi 3QG.

DISCUSSION. The
tem

reservoir in the fluid sys-

a storage tank.

is

There are many types of

static storage apparatus: the
water reservoir
or dam, the city water tower,
the gas tank in
the automobile.

other

objects or do work. The potential

energy of a body is measured by
the maximum amount of work it is able to do. In the
case of a raised weight,

the

difference

highest

The

static storage

tank serves

many

pur-

between

position

and

potential energy

its

its

its

energy

energy

at

is

its

when

it

reaches the floor.

poses but there are three prominent

reasons
for

They

use.

its

are to maintain a constant

pressure head, to allow heat to be

removed,
and to store energy. The first is
perhaps best
illustrated by the city water
tower. The water
raised to a height

is

great

enough

pressure at

supply

to

homes

which causes

in

a pressure

adequate

To compute the potential energy of a body

we simply compute the work needed to raise
from the lowest position to

it

tion.

Work

is

its highest posiequal to the weight of the body,

w, times the height,

h, it

was

lifted.

faucet
Potential Energy = h x

the city.

and since weight = mass x acceleration

due to

The removal of heat by

a reservoir

is

neces-

gravity

sary because of the high

pressures

many

hydraulic systems.

heat removal

is

seen

found in
An example of this

PE f mgh

(5.1)

the automobile radi-

in

ator.

After the

The

third

storage,

is

purpose

of

reservoirs,

mass is released, the potential

energy becomes kinetic energy (energy
of moenergy

shown by water stored behind

dam. The water possesses energy

because of
its higher position
than the place into which it
empties. Of course, energy is also
stored
in a

city

water

known
may be

tower.

This

type of energy

object that has been raised

above
because of its

is

floor

has

some

potential

relative position

mV 2

the velocity of the mass

its

(5.2)

when

the

lowest position.

Consider liquid flowing from a

static storage water tank:

the liquid pressure equals the

atmospheric pressure at the top of

the tank
and at the orifice. See figure 5-1.

dis-

energy

the orifice is small compared

with the
cross section of the tank,
the liquid in the
If

with respect to

the floor.
it

where

as potential energy.

tance

pulls

PE = KE = mgh = 1/2

body reaches

is

Potential energy
defined as the ability of a body to
do
work because of its relative position
with respect to other bodies.

An

tion), therefore:

When it is allowed to fall, the earth

downward and thus enables it to move

tank
level

22

will fall slowly enough for

the change in
of the liquid at the top of the
tank to be

UNIFIED PHYSICS/ FLUIDS

UNIT 5

STATIC STORAGE

Fig. 5-1

neglected.

the speed

If

leaves the orifice

is

Tank Representing

of the liquid as

V and

the difference

Torricelli's

Theorem

outlet at the bottom.

it

The flow

the liquid leaves the orifice

in

is

rate at

which

determined by

height between the top of the liquid and the

orifice

This

is

is

h,

then the velocity,

Torricelli's

which the liquid

the speed of a

is

body

/2~gh.

theorem. The speed with

discharged
falling

is

from

ffom the

height, h.

in

the

^/5gh

= effective area of the openihg

2
g = 32 ft/sed
air as

shown

will use a

in figure

tank

(5.3)

= flow rate in cu ft/sec

= velocity in ft/sec

For this experiment we

vated

VA

where

the same as

rest

iii

ft

h = height from top of the liquid to the

ele-

5-2 with an

orifice in ft

23

UNIT 4

NONLINEAR OPPOSITION

UNIFIED PHYSICS

FLUIDS

MATERIALS
16 Gal. tank (storage) with outlet and valve at the bottom.

Stop watch

Gallon container

Meter stick

PROCEDURE
1

Measure the tank dimensions.

2.

Determine the volume.

3.

Determine the mass of the water.

4.

Fill

5.

Collect ten one-gallon samples of water and record the level of the water and time
in the
data table in figure 5-3.

the tank.

READING

SAMPLE NO.
TIME

5-3

Data Table

10

IN

SECONDS

WATER LEVEL
IN

FEET

FLOW RATE

Fig.
6.

Calculate and record the flow rates.

7.

Plot a graph of water height vs flow rate.

8.

Determine the potential energy of the portion of the water drained

from the tank.

9.

Determine the kinetic energy of the water leaving the tank.

24

UNIFIED PHYSICS

ANALYSIS GUIDE.
static (potential)

FLUIDS

UNIT 5

In analyzing

energy storage.

STA TIC STORAGE

your experimental data you should explain the concept of

is the flow rate affected by the liquid height? As a check of

How

your data, use equation 5.3 to find the area opening, being careful of

units.

PROBLEMS
1.

2.

What is the
236 inches?

fluid leaves a storage tank at a speed of 15 ft/sec.

let

3.

What

is

210

lbs at a height of

the flow rate

if

the out-

has a diameter of 3.0 inches?

What is the diameter of the opening of a circular

The fluid flow rate is 300 gallons per minute.
1

4.

potential energy of a block of concrete weighing

gal/min = 2.228 x 10' 3

What

is

ft

orifice passing fluid at 9.6 ft/sec?

3 /sec

the kinetic energy of 360

ft

3 of water

three?

25

in a

tank behind the orifice of problem

THERMAL TIME CONSTANTS

experiment

INTRODUCTION. Thermal

time constants are similar to those encountered

Time constants determine how long it takes for a system

to another. The purpose of this experiment is to examine thermal
systems.

in fluid

or electrical

to change from one flow rate

and determine the

resistance

thermal time constant of a thermal system.

DISCUSSION. We know

that

it takes time for

the flow of a quantity of energy, charge or

mass through

system.

we know

Likewise,

that a difference in temperature causes heat

flow from one body or place to another. In
general

terms,

material

or

the

system

resistance

can

to flow of a

be

expressed

as

ponent,

regardless

involved,

may depend on

a variety of

thermometer

a glass

If

is

moved from

the flow rate and P

If

the difference

new condisome period

water tempera-

in

it

will

take

is

not

longer period of time

for the temperature to be reached. Because

the rate at which thermal energy will be trans-

2 is pressure difference for fluid flow, voltage drop for

-

ice

the indicated temperature of the

agitated,
is

condi-

water to water at some higher temperature,

ture were not so great and the water

(6.1)

flow

of

tions.

of time.

type

the

tions will be reached only after

follows:

where

of

ferred varies with the temperature difference

electric charge

flow and temperature difference for heat flow in a material.

and because

it

is

difficult to maintain a con-

stant difference, the rate of transfer should be

The time may be expressed

in

units consistent with other conditions. So,

we

computed

any desired

rate

initial

initial

transfer

conditions.

EXAMPLE.

time would be seconds. If we deal with thermal flow, the units may be British Thermal

BTU

determined from

The

if

deal with charge flow, the normal units of

Units (BTU) per second or

is

at each instant.

Given: 5 pounds of water

Water temperature T = 32 F
Water temperature T = 212F
2
Time 6 minutes

per minute.

The thermal resistance of a material tends

more or less constant in most cases

to remain

provided that the temperature difference

small

compared to the temperature

the heat transfer takes place.

water surrounds

being heated,

will

it

at

which

a film of

If

Find: Thermal resistance R

is

Solution:

still

piece of material which

to

is

roded,

the

If

pressure difference

pipe

is

must be

(5 lb)

cor-

is:

(wt.

capacity)x(change

(heat

ture difference or a longer period of time to

transfer the same amount of heat than if the

water were being agitated.

the water

heat

take a greater tempera-

The amount of heat

creased to maintain a given flow. From this it

can be seen that the resistance of a com-

1.2

minutes

BTU
26

in

temp.

transferred BTU)
BTU/lb/F) (212-32) = 900

r = (A t) (time)
Heat transferred

in-

transferred

of water)x(specific

= 180 x 6

900

F)

BTU

UNIFIED PHYSICS

Fig. 6-1

Relative

Time Constant per Degree Change

Because energy cannot be transferred

but requires some

stantaneously
time,

it is

period

in-

single storage element.

of

holds whether

useful to be able to predict the time

required for a certain

amount

of transfer to

The time

interval

known

take place.

THERMAL TIME CONSTANTS

UNIT 6

FLUIDS

mechanical,

we

The same

relationship

are dealing with thermal,

or fluid

systems.

We must

re-

emphasize that the system always undergoes

63% of

as the

the total change during the first time

63% of the

time constant indicates the period required to

constant and completes

complete the process when the transfer con-

change during each succeeding time constant.

tinues at

we were

its initial rate. If

temperature

versus

time,

shape somewhat as shown

to plot the

would have

it

In

experiment we

this

we

will

we

plot the actual temperature change

we

perature

change

in

temperature

what was expected based on

is

only

63%

found with
where there

all
is

types of step changes

but a single

First,

and measure time and the tem-

change as the water heats.

beaker of water

in

an

ice

In

will

bath and

the

put a

let

the

water cool until the water nears the tempera-

of

original rate of

heat transfer. This same percentage will

it

second part of the experiment we

will find

that at the end of the predicted 20 seconds,

the

treat thermal

use a container of water and bubble

steam into
If

will

time constants from two standpoints.

in figure 6-1

versus time for such a process

remaining

ture of the

be

the

ice.

temperature

We

will

and

plot the time versus

compare the plotted

in

input

information with the theoretical

resistive unit

and a

given in the discussion.

27

63%

value

UNIT 6

THERMAL TIME CONSTANTS

UNIFIED PHYSICS /FLUIDS

CD

CM
rss

'

LO

LO
LO
CM

LO

O
CM

LO

00

CM
1

LO
CD
T

LO
^"

- .-

CM
CD

O
LO

<

CD
CO

<

LO

LU

CO
CO

LU

O
CO

CO

CD
CO

CM

LU

co

oj
CO

_J

LO
CD

ci

CO

LU

fVI

o
00

CM

O
CO

CO
1^
CM

CM

CM

CM

T~"

CM

CM

LO
o

LO

O
t

00
1

CM

00

G)
LO

LO

LO
LO

o
CO

o
CO

CM

CM

LO
LO

O)

G)

o
CO

CD

CO

CO

LO

LO

CO

CO

o
(J
LU
CO
LU

O
LL
o
i

Q_

LU

LU
1-

O
O
LU
CO
LU

CL

O
-1

a.

a.

TIME-MIN

LU

LU

1-

UJ
,

Fig.

6-2

The Data Table

28

UNIFIED PHYSICS/ FLUIDS

THERMAL TIME CONSTANTS

UNIT 6

MATERIALS
2 32

212 F thermometers

Steam supply

1000 ml beaker

(or other heat source)

2 225 ml flasks
5 lb ice (crushed)

PROCEDURE
two

the

flasks

and

let

them stand

until the

water

1.

Fill

2.

Insert the

steam

Read and

record in the data table, figure 6-2, the

line into

one of the

flasks

and

let

is

near room temperature.

steam bubble slowly through the water.

temperature at 15-second intervals

until

the water reaches a constant temperature.

3.

Place the second flask in the beaker and pack ice around

4.

Read and record

in

temperature reaches

the data table the temperature at 3-minute intervals until the water
a

constant temperature.

Switch the flasks and repeat steps 2 through

6.

Plot graphs of the temperature versus time in

functions on one set of coordinates and the

In the analysis of this

What might cause

the discussion?

4.

all

ice

when needed.

four cases. Place the two increasing

two decreasing functions on another.

experiment you should calculate the time constants of

each curve and compare them to each other.

in

Add

5.

ANALYSIS GUIDE.

it.

Do

the curves tend to support the information given

variations in thermal systems

which could affect the

validity

of the experimental data?

PROBLEMS
1.

What temperature

will a

system reach after one time constant

if

the total tempera-

ture is75F?

2. If

36 cubic

reached

if

feet of water

the

amount

is

heated

in a

water heater, what

of heat transferred

is 1

1,300

will

BTU? The

be the temperature

initial

temperature

is

36 F.

3. In

the

first

sistance.

case of this experiment, calculate the heat transferred and thermal

ml. of water = 0.0021

lbs.

re-

experiment

HYDRAULIC TIME CONSTANTS

INTRODUCTION.

Hydraulic time constants are similar to those in

pneumatic or electrical
processes. The purpose of this experiment is to
determine the time constants for various simple
conditions,

and the relationship between theoretical and

experimental concepts when step

changes are involved.

DISCUSSION. We know

that it takes time for

the fluid of a quantity of energy, mass, or

charge through a system.

-P 2

amount

Hydraulic

general terms, the

In

(P

(time)

of liquid

through the pipe

resistance to flow of a material or system can

be expressed as follows:
This resistance, the properties of the liquid
and the pipe cross-section, determines the
I

or

Q
P<l

is

(7.1)

pressure difference for fluid flow,

voltage drop for charge flow and temperature

difference for heat flow in a material. When
dealing

may

any such

with

be expressed

in

situations, the time

any desired units consis-

tent with other conditions,

i.e.,

we

if

with other types of flow the units

transferred to any appropriate units.

may

changes,

the

potential

ference must be changed

flow at

in

If

the

energy

be

this

it

shown
If

of process involved,
of conditions.

It

vary with

we

carefully plot

we

known

P vs time, for

will find that at

put where there

and capacitance

is

in

ship holds whether

a variety

computed with the

is

as

step

the end of the

the dashed line of figure 7-1. This same percentage of predicted value to actual value will
be found with all types of step change in in-

must be re-emphasized that

the resistance can be

of equation 7-1, i.e.,

conditions, this time

and step

predicted 20 seconds the change in pressure is

only 63% of what was expected based on original rates of transfer, which is indicated
by

dif-

order to keep the

regardless of the type

may

in

in figure 7-1.

change,

re-

can be seen that the resistance

component,

is useful to figure the time

required for such transfers to take place. This
is simple for the case that the
initial condi-

transfer continues at its initial rate. If we plot

the pressure of a hydraulic fluid with respect
to time, it would have a nonlinear shape as

original level. If a pipe corrodes,

the pressure difference likewise has to be increased to maintain a given flow.

From

some

it

the time constant and indicates the period required to complete the process when the

its

of a given

transferred instantaneously but requires

period of time,

changes

Resistance tends to remain more or less

constant with certain types of materials provided that temperature and the physical size
of the conductor remains constant.

Because energy, mass or charge cannot be

tions continue to exist. For abrupt

deal

with coulombs the normal units of flow rate

would be coulombs per second. In dealing

sistance

time constant.

flow rate

flow

or

thermal

but

a single resistive unit

series.

we

The same

relation-

are dealing with fluid

systems.

We must

re-

emphasize the system always undergoes 63%

of the total change during the first time
con-

use

30

UNIT 7

UNIFIED PHYSICS/ FLUIDS

Fig. 7-1

stant and

completes

63%

Relative

of the remaining

change during each succeeding time constant,

provided

a single resistor-capacitor

combina-

HYDRAULIC TIME CONSTANTS

Time Constant

tion exists. For

all

practical purposes

say the system has reached

after five time constants.

MATERIALS
pump

Hydraulic

0-600

Adjustable

Check valve

unit

psi pressure

gauge

relief valve

Flow control

(gate) valve

Flow control

(needle) valve

ft plastic

25

hydraulic hose

ft plastic

hydraulic hose

Assorted fittings and hoses as needed.

its

we can

steady state

UNIT 7

HYDRAULIC TIME CONSTANTS

UNIFIED PHYSICS/ FLUIDS

PROCEDURE
1

Set up the hydraulic circuit shown

in figure 7-2.

NEEDLE VALVE
25 FT

HOSE

0
<

Fig.

With the needle valve

7-2

The Experimental Circuit

2.

open and the flow control valve fully open, adjust the relief
valve so that the pressure reading is approximately 100 psi, then close
the flow control
valve and adjust until a pressure of 200 psi is attained.

3.

Turn off the pump.

4.

Quickly open the flow control valve completely and read and record the
pressure at
intervals of 15 seconds until the pressure goes to zero.

5.

Without moving the needle valve, close the flow control valve and start the
recharge the system to a pressure of 400 psi by adjustment of the relief
valve.

6.

Read and record the pressure

7.

Replace the 25

ft

slightly

at

hose with a

15-second intervals until

ft

it

pump

to

goes to zero.

hose and again, without moving the needle valve,

repeat steps 2-4, with the exception that readings are taken at 5-second
intervals.
8.

Plot graphs of the three systems

ANALYSIS GUIDE.

on the same

set of coordinates.

n the analysis of this experiment you should calculate the time

constant of
each system. Compare them and explain the differences among them. Are
there experimental
errors that might affect the validity of the data? How well has
this experiment fulfilled its
|

objective?

32

UNIT 7

UNIFIED PHYSICS/ FLUIDS

HYDRAULIC TIME CONSTANTS

CN

CN

LO
CN
CN

LO
CN
CN

LO

o
00

CN

CN

LO
a>

LO

LO
CD

o
00

O
00

o
CD

in
CD

LO
CD

LO
LO

o
Ln

O
LO

o
in

LO
CO

LO
CO

LO

o
CN

O
CN

LO
o

LO

LO
CO

o
G>

G>

o
CO

LO

LO

in
CN

o
CO

o
CD

CM

LO

LO

o
CO

LO

LO

o
o
CN

LO

O
O

O
LU

(SEC)

UJ
QC
=>

PSI

o
o
CN

UJ
CO

D _

LU

CO Q_
LU
DC
CL

PRESSURE

TIME

Hose

ft

Q-

CD
CO

CN

No.

LO
CM

25

F/p.

7-3

I-

Dafa 7ab/e

33

PNEUMATIC TIME CONSTANTS

experiment
INTRODUCTION. Any

change from one pressure level to another in a pneumatic system, as well

any other system, requires time. In this experiment we will examine the rate of change in a
pneumatic circuit.

as in

DISCUSSION. The

use of pneumatic systems

industry can be classified into

in

two main
groups, pneumatic power and pneumatic control. Pneumatic power devices are typified
by
punches,

trimmers,

vices.

general,

In

the loads are great and speed

where

is

If

of secondary

importance, hydraulic circuits are used.

significance every day.

means of

They have

several ad-

control. Air pilot valves

can operate indefinitely without malfunction.

These valves will not burn out if overheated
fire

in its

hazard

is

explosive areas.

in

of logic control

methods

opening new areas for pneumatic control.

Logic

is

control system's ability to deter-

The

being charged can be understood by examination of figure 8-1.

As

air

storage

at

tank

inlet

diameter and the

a

be

to

and long

life

constant

rate,

it

undesirable.

is

resis-

inlet

tank walls. These have

At the same time the

air

large

When air first begins to come into the tank,

the pressure inside the tank starts to increase
However,

as the inside pressure

increases, net pressure difference forcing fluid

into the tank decreases

climbs at a slower

and thus the pressure

The

rate.

shown

result

is

the ex-

at the right in figure

occurs through the

use of fluids in motion without moving parts.

This control field is known as fluidics. Fluidic

control devices have

forced into the

cavity of the tank acts as a capacitance.

8-1.

proves

is

tendency to oppose the motion of the

course

logic control

rigid

entering the tank.

ponential curve

Pneumatic

it is

transient response of a pneumatic tank

mine an alternate course of action when the

directed

say

steady-state condition.

at a rapid rate.

The development

reached

we

two things. First, there is a

tance acting upon it caused by the small

vantages over electrical systems, the present

and create no

equilibrium and becomes constant

affected by

Pneumatic controls are taking on greater

principal

finally

and clamping depneumatic power systems

desired and light loads are involved.

is

response condi-

lifts,

rather than hydraulic systems are used

speed

is known as a transient
When the system has

period
tion.

compact

size,

low

cost,

but have response times that are

slow

compared to sophisticated electronic

computer systems. It is the response time of a
pneumatic system that this experiment will

If

the rate of increase of pressure had

mained

from the

constant

maximum

pressure

reached at time

known

re-

the

max would

have been
But since the rate actually
-

decreases exponentially, only

reached by timer

beginning,

This

63%

amount

of

max

of time

is
is

as the system's time constant.

examine.

The time constant

pneumatic system
sudden change of input,
If

is
it

subjected to a
will

require

of a series system like

figure 8-1
is
directly proportional to the
values of resistance and capacitance such that

period of time before the system can completely respond to the change. This changing

t= RC

(8.1]

UNIFIED PHYSICS

UNIT 8

FLUIDS

PNEUMA TIC TIME CONSTANTS

INLET

PNEUMATIC
STORAGE
TANK

LU
tr
ZD
CO
CO
LU
Q_

MAX

Fig. 8-

This value measures

sponds to
system

is

small, the

We

how

fast the

disturbance.

sluggish

Transient Response

If

is

system
large,

and responds slowly.

If

constant the system reaches

re-

can see

in

steady-state

condition.

In

of

for each time constant, thus an infinite time

is

approximate

the second time

Air compressor with storage tank and pressure gauge

Flow control

(needle) valve

Flow control

(gate) valve

0-1

20 pressure gauge

ft

the

system

truly

is

reaches

However, after about 5 time con-

stants the system can be considered to closely

before

steady-state.

its

MATERIALS

re-

one time

63%

of the

maining pressure difference. This continues

required

figure 8-1 that after

63%

the

system responds rapidly.

constant the system has reached

Of a Pneumatic System

pneumatic hose

Assorted fittings and hoses as needed

35

its

steady-state condition.

PNEUMATIC TIME CONSTANTS

UNIT 8

UNIFIED PHYSICS

FLUIDS

PROCEDURE
1.

Drain the pneumatic tank completely using the tank drain plug.

the compressor and record the pressure readings at the beginning and after each 20

2. Start

seconds as shown

in

the table

TIME

in figure 8-2.

20

40

60

160

180

200

220

(SEC)

80

100

120

140

PRESSURE
PS

TIME
(SEC)

240

260

280

300

PRESSURE
PS

8-2

Fig.
3.

Turn

Time-Pressure Table

off the compressor, drain the tank using the drain plug,

after each

20 seconds. Record these data

TIME

20

180

200

40

60

220

240

(SEC)

and record the readings

in figure 8-3.

80

100

120

140

160

260

280

300

320

340

PRESSURE
PSI

TIME
(SEC)

PRESSURE
PSI

Fig.

4.

Set up the pneumatic system

5.

Charge the system to 90

8-3

Time-Pressure Table

shown

in figure 8-4.

psi.

OPEN TO
ATMOSPHERE

S~>\
DRIVE

-4

(T)

d^i

f
V

STORAGE

TANK

^
J

'

COMPRESSOR
Fig.

8-4

Experimental Pneumatic System

36

UNIFIED PHYSICS

PNEUMATIC TIME CONSTANTS

UNIT 8

FLUIDS

6.

With valve B closed, open valve

7.

Quickly open valve B and read and record the pressure at 20-second intervals

one-fourth turn,

until the

pressure reads zero.

TIME
(SEC)

20

160

180

40

60

80

220

240

100

120

140

280

300

PRESSURE
PSI

TIME
(SEC)

200

260

PRESSURE
PSI
Fig.

8-5

8.

Recharge the system to 90

9.

With valve B closed, open valve

10.

Time-Pressure Table

psi.

one-half turn.

Repeat step seven.

TIME

(SEC)

40

20

60

80

100

120

140

160

PRESSURE
PSI

TIME
180

(SEC)

200

220

240

260

280

300

320

340

PRESSURE
PSI

Fig.

ANALYSIS GUIDE.
they the same?

Do

8-6

Time-Pressure Table

Plot a graph of each set of data. Find the corresponding time constants.

the

last

two graphs

indicate a linear system? Explain

your answer.

Are

experiment
INTRODUCTION. Many
ment we

shall

converted

in a

POWER AND ENERGY

FLUID NETWORKS

systems contain working fluids

examine the

basic energy

IN

motion under pressure.

in

system and see

relations of a fluid

In this experi-

how power

is

hydraulic motor.

DISCUSSION. Energy appears

forms. Man has used

many

in

ferent

dif-

work = force x distance

these various

(9.1)

forms to divide physical science into different

The

fields.

and magnetic energy, mechanics and

use

quickly

thermal

volves

energy,

of

We

power which

is

measured

in

in-

how

terms

expressed as work per unit

Power = Work
Time

have nuclear and chemical

also

is

but also

of time.

sound energy, optics involves electromagnetic

energy, and magnetics deals with magnetic
energy.

done. This

is

done, we are

in-

concerns

acoustics

it

is

how much

terested not only in

fluids

mechanical energy, thermodynamics

when work

Generally

electronics field involves electrical

= Force x Distance

Time
(9.2)

energy. All of these energy forms have similar

them.

separate

man

has chosen to

addition,

each of these

even though

properties

In

One unit of power is the horsepower. Origiknown as the amount of work done by a

nally

forms may be transformed into the other

forms.

ability to

major property of energy

change

defined differently today.

form.

its

one minute, the horsepower

draft horse in

its

is

is

For some of the

systems used today the horsepower

is

defined

as follows:

The change from one form of energy to

happens

another

Merely standing

around

us

the

all

the sunshine

in

energy

electrical

energy, a generator changes

to
it

min.

feel

= 746 watts

A motor

the change of light energy into heat.

changes

One Horsepower = 33,000 ^-^1^

time.

you

lets

mechanical

back.

Since this experiment deals with energy

loud

speaker changes electrical energy to sound.

a fluid

system,

Any

shown

in figure 9-1.

device

used

energy to another

is

body

as

your

changes

we

form,

is

acts

one form of

called a transducer.
a

when

transducer

it

all

energy, no matter

what

Therefore,

measure

energy

is

The

of

energy

measured

in

tance of one foot.

upon

acting

Each tiny

such that the force

transfer.

bit

the same

is

is

a cross-sectional

of this area

is

known

in

the

upon

it

uniform over the entire

The force on one

total area

work or energy is
the ft. -lb. which is the amount of work done
on a one-pound body when it is moved a disunits as work.

is

pipe has a portion of the force acting

its

basically the same.

is

force F

indicated.

area.

Work

in

consider the pipe section

area of the fluid in the pipe in the direction

and mechanical energy or motion;

see that

let's

Even

energy through digestion

chemical

into heat

thus

change

to

(9.3)

bit of unit area of the

as pressure.

The

pressure

equal to the force divided by the area.

unit of

We

(9.4)

see that:

38

UNIFIED PHYSICS

UNIT 9

FLUIDS

POWER AND ENERGY IN FLUID NETWORKS

CROSS-SECTIONAL

AREA

END VIEW

SIDE VIEW
Fig. 9-

We

can see that pressure has additional

Pipe Section

where the pressure

sig-

is

P
1

when we

nificance

sideration. Consider a

and thickness

at the

in

lefthand face

righthand face

is

energy

bring

volume of
the pipe.
P<|

is

If

con-

into

pressure

is

is

to a point where the

equal to (P

and that on the

in a

-AP, then the net force

the right

is

(P-,

is

If,

given time, a quantity (volume) of fluid

Q
= P A-(A-AP)A =
1

2 ).

fluid passing a given point per unit of time.

pushing this disc-shaped volume of fluid to

net

Fluid flow rate measures the quantity of

the pressure

crosses an area A, then the

fluid of area

volume flow

rate

defined as

APA

Q = ^~

inP/sec or gal/min

directly

comparable to

(9.7)

-AP)A

(9.5)

is

which

is

electric current

the rate of flow of electric charge for

incompressible fluids.
Since the volume of this disc
force per unit

is

That

is

In

(9.6)

to a place with pressure P

is work per unit
2
volume times volume per unit time, i.e., (P*

the pressure drop per unit length along

P )Q.
2

the pipe.

Thus,
If

concerns

is

A PA = AP
A1

dynamic system one of our primary

is that of power. Power is the rate of
doing work. Hence the power input to fluid
moving from a place where the pressure is P<|

A1, the net

volume due to pressure

this pressure

drop per unit length

is

uni-

the

form (the same all along the pipe), the work

done by pressure,forces per unit volume as a

volume of water moves

pipe

is

distance d. Therefore the

work done per

volume of

motion

in

two-

Q< p 1-P2>

(9.8)

or

this

is

along the distance

d.

volume of

moving

power = flow

rate

times

pressure

dif-

ference.

unit

In this experiment we will examine the

power required to turn a hydraulic motor and
then measure the power output of the motor,

pressure

drop per unit length times the distance orAP

fluid in

0 =

is

distance d along the

the force per unit volume times the

fluid

power delivered to

net

terminal element

The work done per unit

fluid from a point

thus finding

39

its

efficiency.

POWER AND ENERGY IN FLUID NETWORKS

UNIT 9

UNIFIED PHYSICS

FLUIDS

MATERIALS
pump

Hydraulic

Adjustable

Flow control

2 0-300

psi

unit

relief valve

valve

Flowmeter

Hydraulic motor

Dynamometer

Assorted fittings and hoses as needed

pressure gauge

PROCEDURE
1.

Set up the hydraulic system shown

good

repair

and

all

in figure 9-2.

Be absolutely sure that the hoses are

of the hose clamps are tight. High

loading the hydraulic motor

in this

pressures will

in

be developed while

experiment.

Q9

9
j;

DYIMO

Fig.

2.

With the

3.

Adjust the
at

4.

5.

gauge

relief valve

relief

9-2

Experimental Hydraulic Network

backed off and the flow control valve open,

and flow control valves to allow

flow of

start the

GPM

pump.

at a pressure of

100

psi

with no load.

Read pressure gauge B and subtract its value from that of gauge A to determine the
pressure drop due to the resistance of the motor. Record this drop in the data table.
Using the dynamometer, load the motor and record the torque delivered by the motor at
the RPM attained just before it stalls. At this point also record the flow rate and pressures

and

B.

Calculate the power into the motor, power out of the

efficiency.

40

motor and motor

POWER AND ENERGY IN FLUID NETWORKS

UNIT 9

UNIFIED PHYSICS/ FLUIDS

NO LOAD
SETTING
R
FHRPF IN
FLOW PRESSURE PRESSURE LU VV pn\A/F
ruvvcn
RPM POUNDS
RATE
A
B
RATE
IN
i

A
100

150

Pfl\A/FR

OUT

motor
IVIU lUn
EFF

200

250

300

200

1.5

200

2.0

200

2.5

200

3.0

Pressure drop due to

Fig.

6.

Keeping the flow constant

psi

up to 300

at

motor resistance with no

9-3

The Data Table

GPM,

increase the pressure

Repeat steps 4 and 5 for each value of pressure.

8.

Keeping the pressure at gauge

9.

with no load

in

steps of

50

psi.

7.

steps of 0.5

toad.

GPM

to 3

constant at 200

psi

with no load, increase the flow

in

GPM.

Repeat steps 4 and 5 for each increment,

10. Plot graphs of the

power

into the system versus efficiency

system versus efficiency.

41

and the power out of the

POWER AND ENERGY IN FLUID NETWORKS

UNIT 9

ANALYSIS GUIDE.

In this

experiment we have observed fluid power

involved, identify the losses, and elaborate

rate as seen in this

force

pressure,

UNIFIED PHYSICS

network.

In

FLUIDS

Discuss the variables

losses.

upon the efficiency with respect to pressure and flow

your own words, explain the relations of energy, power, work,

as related to fluid power systems of the type
in this

and volume

torque,

experiment.

PROBLEMS
1-The

oil

in

horsepower

2.

A man

system

is

being delivered?

is

being

moved

at

12

GPM

while the pressure

is

1500

psi.

What

unloads steel stock from

unloads one ton of

steel in

a flatbed truck to a cart, a vertical drop of

4 feet. He
one hour's time. Calculate the work done and the power used in

horsepower.

3.

4.

What horsepower motor will be

fluid at a pressure of 3000 psi?

mechanic

tries

handle which

5.

What

is

required to drive a hydraulic

unsuccessfully to loosen a nut.

18

in.

long.

What torque

is

He

pump

handling 100

exerts a force of

exerted and what work

is

70

42

of

on the wrench
done?
lb

the power exerted by a hydraulic motor to produce a

speed of 1380
force of 12 lbs acting tangentially at a radius of 6 inches?
is

GPM

RPM

with a

experiment
INTRODUCTION. The

KINETIC ENERGY STORAGE

IN FLUID SYSTEMS

10

fluid

objective of th.s experiment

moving in a
to examine

is

fluid

DISCUSSION. Many systems contain working

fluids

in

motion

under

pressure.

hydraulic systems are utilized

perform marry functions.

in

These

industry to

Hydraulic presses,

and punches are common examples. Hydraulic systems are used in automills,

cutters,

mobiles

braking and transmission

systems. All of these functions do work and,
therefore, must involve the transformation of
in

network possesses energy due to

energy.

depends on the pressure of the system. If the

system shown in figure 10-1 is subjected to a
pressure at the inlet, the

system

is

mechanical

As the
less

fluid enters the tank

resistance than

effect

is

capa-

it

encounters

the inlet because the

cross-section has enlarged greatly. If
the valve
partially

filled.

Then

closed,
if

in

the

the valve

energy, potential and kinetic. These types of

the pressure

energy can be associated with two characteristics of the network, which we shall call capa-

pressure as that in the

in

the tank

tank
is
is

is

eventually

closed completely,

equal to the same

line. If at this

addition, another

point we
stop the supply of fluid into the inlet
and not
let it flow backwards, the fluid
in the tank is

also always present. This property

resistance, which does not contribute to the

under pressure. The tank, like an electrical

capacitor, now has statically stored an

citance

and inertance.

property

is

is

initial

citive.

is

a fluid

motion The

store potential energy. This type of storage

their

The energy of

its

this kinetic energy.

In

storage of energy, but to

amount of each
present
energetic

in

of

its

the

dissipation.

three

The

properties

any one system determines the

processes

that

occur within

the

system.
Fluid capacitance

tem that determines

is

the property of

its

a sys-

ability to statically

Fig, 10-1

amount

We can show this by

opening the valve and seeing that work
is
done by turning the hydraulic motor until the
of

energy.

pressure drops to zero. This stored energy

is
the result of compressing the fluid.
We see,
then, that an ideally incompressible fluid
cannot store potential energy, i.e., there
would

be zero fluid capacitance.

Fluid Capacitor

43

UNIT

10

UNIFIED PHYSICS/ FLUIDS

ENERGY STORAGE

KINETIC

\
/

II

=0

P
t

Fig. 10-2

Fluid inertance

is

which determines
Inertance

energy.

its
is

is

is

length of pipe

us

in

as a

Qas

fluid

in

moving automobile

keeps

in a pipe.

This

proportional to inertance.

The

shown

in figure

KE =1 pP A-Q-

moving when

it

Flow in a Pipe

(10.1) can be written in times ot the flow rate

ability to store kinetic

removed, so does fluid

momentum

Acceleration of Fluid

of importance

momentum which

power

AREA

the property of a system

motion or flow. Just

has a

We

of fluid in a length of a pipe

density of the fluid

its

10-2 will help

call

the qua ntity-^-, the inertance

of

is

length () times the

(10.4)

(p).

so that the fluid kinetic energy

fip

becomes

K E =^-IQ 5

Therefore, the kinetic energy of this mass of

2
fluid

(I)

the system

the pipe area (A) times

1(^) Q 2
(10.3)

understanding fluid inertance.

The mass

(10.5)

is

From equation

KE =l m v 2 = lpAv 2

(10.1)

10.4,

we

tance of a fluid network

is

see that the iner-

dependent upon

the type of fluid and the dimensions of the

The

velocity of fluid in a pipe

is

the flow rate

pipe.

divided by the area,

small diameter, long pipe

more inertance than

(10.2)

may have

a large short pipe.

In actual fluid piping, significant resistance

effects are present along with the inertance

so that the kinetic energy given by equation

effect

44

The

inertance

effect

tends to pre-

UNIFIED PHYSICS /FLUIDS

UNIT

dominate only when the pressure changes

but they

needed to accelerate the fluid (when the pipe

tern,

changes

its

KINETIC ENERGY STORAGE

10

follow the basic resistance pat-

all

cross-section) are relatively large.

Since fluid resistance

in a

pipe decreases

more

J P 2- P

1>

(10.6)

rapidly with increasing pipe area than does

inertance,

it

overshadow resistance
ever,

if

ertance

where

easier for inertance effects to

is

can

effects

large

in

fluid acceleration

is

pipes.

large

enough,

be seen even

in

R =

Howin-

small

2 to pressure

capillary tubes.

There are four basic types of fluid resistance that are the most frequently en-

found

countered;

cations.

porous

(a)

automobile

oil

filter,

resistance

(b)

like

All

an

three

= flow rate

of these types of

in fluid

flow and occur

resistance

various appli-

some unique

In

this

experiment we

will

measure the

kinetic energy stored in a fluid network.

features

MATERIALS
pump

Hydraulic

Solenoid-actuated valve

Flow meter

Adjustable

unit

Strip chart recorders

or

dual-channel recorder

Assorted fitting and hoses as needed

relief valve

k2 resistor

6 kfi

0-600

psi

25

hydraulic hose

Hydraulic motor

DPST

ft

resistors

pressure gauge

switch

DC power

are

in

capillary tube, (c)

turbulent pipe flow, and (d) orifice flow. All

of these resistances have

fluid resistance

(P2 -Pi) = pressure drop from pressure

supply

45

UNIT

10

UNIFIED PHYSICS/ FLUIDS

KINETIC ENERGY STORAGE

PROCEDURE
1.

Set up the system shown

in figure 10-3.

Fig.

2.

10-3 The Experimental System

Place the switch in the position to deactivate the solenoid, thus allowing fluid to pass
through the motor. With the motor running, adjust the relief valve to a pressure of 100
psi.

3.

Record the flow

inertartee of the

4.

at this pressure

25

ft

hose.

in

the data table

in

figure

10-4 and calculate the

Density of hydraulic fluid at room temperature = 56.9 lb/ft*.

Using equation 10.1, calculate the kinetic energy of the fluid

in

the 25

ft

hose and record

it.

5.

Calibrate and position the recorder, turn on the

D C power supply and

start the chart

trace.

6.

Throw

the

DPST

switch and run the recorder until the hydraulic motor stops.

46

UNIFIED PHYSICS/ FLUIDS

7.

Stop the recorder, throw the DPST switch to allow

setting to

8.

9.

UNIT

200

10

KINETIC ENERGY STORAGE

fluid to flow,

and change the pressure

psi.

Repeat steps 3 through

Repeat step 7 for

6.

a pressure of

three chart traces in

300

psi

and then repeat steps 3 through

6.

This

will give

all.

power versus time for each pressure measured. Your curves are volts versus seconds.
order to plot power versus time you must square the voltage and divide byyour6k2

10. Plot
In

resistance.

PRESSURE

FLOW

PSI

Fig. 10-4

ANALYSIS GUIDE.
stored

in

In

CALCULATED
ENERGY

MEASURED
ENERGY

The Data Table

the analysis of this experiment you should determine the kinetic energy

the hose by finding the area under the power curve.

Compare the measured and

calculated values and explain any differences. Explain the relation

of inertance, capacitance, and resistance in the experimental network.

47

experiment

H YD RA ULIC MA

HIN G

TC

dynamic systems the load must be compatible with the system output.
experiment we shall examine a method of matching load characteristics to those of a sys-

INTRODUCTION.
In this

In all

tem output.

DISCUSSION.
function

the

efficiently,

capabilities at
patible.

almost any system,

In

That

one device

any and
is,

or

all

if it is

and

load

to

output

apply

of

most drivers can develop

Also,

small forces.

relatively

points must be com-

the output characteristics of

part

them.

turn

It

not possible to

is

directly

forces

required

the

to

the

wheels.

system must be

met determines the quality of performance

Our major problem is to match the requirements of steering or turning the wheels with
reasonable forces which can be developed by

and effectiveness of the system. There may be

the average driver.

many

turned only a limited amount, but the load on

input to the next

suitable for those of the

part.

The degree

to which these conditions are

them

equipment where these condi-

must be established

tions of compatibility

the

any

different places or points within

single piece of

optimum output

is

vide

if

the

ent nature where

the

the

turning

beyond the average

The ordinary driver, on

is

other

hand, can develop a

force of several pounds and he

a vastly differ-

distance through

the

to

reasonable

not particu-

is

is

not desired to transfer

larly

maximum amount

of energy. Rather, the

which he can develop the force. Thus, we are

may

situation
fer of

it

require that there be

energy because

tions in

if

NO

trans-

in

requires

into

to

it

significant

temperature

make
will

it

in

if

of heat flow

register,

the

be reduced which

One

to

In

make

to

matching more meaningful,

moves through

that

reasonably large distance. Our task then

match the machine to the

is

the front wheels.

that

that

We must

adjustments

certain

also first recognize

can

be

selecting the size of the steering

limited

of

turning,

the

easier the turning.

us consider

may

But

larger

a large steering

modern

is

wheel move-

too slow to be practical with

speeds.

The

intermediate

the weight of the car and the location of the

which we use

engine, the front wheels usually carry most of

which we can trade distance for

the load, so a rather large force

is

required to

wheel

require such extended turning as to be

ment which

involved. Because of

made by
wheel for

wheel, the

the

tiring to the driver or result in

Each time one of us drives an automobile,

is

some other

driver manipulates and the output turning of

concept

let

interpose

device or system between the wheel which the

of the major

the

we

ambient

some examples.

the matter of steering

is

driver.

will result

making any measurements

order

the position of being able to exert at least

This requires that

of having the measuring device alter the situation.

as

thermometer

amount

an erroneous reading.

problems

would themselves be changed by

the transfer. For example,

restricted

some force on something

there were, the condi-

which we were interested and wished

to observe

in

such that the torque required to pro-

person's capabilities.

to be obtained.

There are some situations of

is

The front wheels need be

is,

device

of course, a gear train with

force.

product of the input force and the input

48

The
dis-

UNIFIED PHYSICS /FLUIDS

UNIT

HYDRAULIC MATCHING

11

tance which the steering wheel moves equals

Obviously, there

the produce of the output force and the out-

will

put distance. Except for small friction effects,

this is the conservation of energy. In this

must

forces

'be applied to the brake shoes

order to achieve the best overall

in

pressure of a fluid system

stopping

within

vehicle

r -

reasonable

time or suitable distance.

P = Pressure
their ability to exert force

for

some
put

satisfactory

on brake

a small force

in

and create

pedals.

This

result.

is

A=

We must

This basic equation

ing a

in

between

lift,

will

match the

and

fixed diameter cylinder,

minimum

to

While the forces applied to the brake shoes

great, this force actually

very short distance.

can

ever,

several

exert

inches

the

The

100

lb.

and

a cylinder

desired

moves the

lift

minimum

F = 100

force

b)

A-

lb.

through

we might

A
choice

of

appropriate

ameters and lengths,

to the forces

and

the brake shoes.

we

travel

cylinder

large

of small

distance

= 0,785

sq. in.

either

hydraulic or mechanical, provides for a conversion

WD 2

di-

can match the inputs

which are required at

The brake mechanism,

c)

_ F

input force and relatively

to the required large output

P = 100

force but relatively small application distance.

0.785

49

_lb.
sq. in

in.

pressure required

the weight.
a)

weight

diameter of

trade distance for force.

By

we

we could

operator, how-

necessary. Thus,

if

if

pressure in order to

For example, suppose we are given

of

Let's calculate the

For example,

available forces

vehicle.

shoe

a useful tool for design-

the load F.

lift

and movements to those required to stop the

may be

applied

is

a certain fixed external load F to

calculate the

the

is

hydraulic circuit.

were given

operator and the brake drum, some device or

element which

Area on which the pressure P

at the brakes

another example

interpose

lines, psi

in.

which the available forces (from the operator)

do not match the requirements of the
machine.

the

lbs.

we need
that we can

the larger forces which will accomplish the

desired

in

F= External force applied to the system,

operation,

suitable force amplifier so

in

(11.1)

when

Vehicle operators, however, are limited

Thus,

is

if

they are to create retarding forces adequate

for

make com-

The general equation which we will use to

match an external force with the internal

to those of the steering situation. Large

lar

In a practical case,

results.

problems simi-

a car present

be unequivocably best.

promises

which

single solution

there will frequently be a need to

manner the output capabilities of the driver

are matched to the requirement of the car.

The brakes on

no

is

= 127

psi

UNIT

In actual practice

exceed 127 Ib/sq.

because of internal
fittings,

valves,

resistance

etc.

If

to

diameter cylinder with a

-in.

the

in

we were

this result

in

is

_ work
=

1 1

.4)

to

do the job

one second
lb -ft
_ work in one minute
(11-4)
33,000 lb -ft
minute
per
ft
lb
_
_
.1QQ
^ p
33,000
33,000

HP

2-in.

area by four.

where F

one minute.

we could reduce our 127 Ib/sq in

by % because we have increased the piston

A<i
L

can use equation

re-

cylinder,

P9

we

calculate the horsepower needed to

order to raise the

in

in.

lines,

With

the pressure will have to

force

place* the

UNIFIED PHYSICS/ FLUIDS

HYDRAULIC MATCHING

11

constant

in

550

H P = 0.00303
(11.2)

fluid

In

Using the values above

equation gives

in this

we must go one

circuits

step

further and calculate the gallons per minute

us

required to obtain this value of the horse-

For values

power.

= 127

lb /sq in

are

= 0.785 sq

in

the low and

medium
pumps

pressure ranges (up to 1,500 psi), gear

most commonly used type. Their

the

volumetric efficiencies are high (95%) and so

in

are their mechanical efficiencies (90%). Since

Ao = ttDI = ul2r= 3
4

gear

14

used

pumps have been

in

the most

hydraulic systems,

it

is

common

type

worthwhile to

have some idea of the size of the gears, capaciP

1

(127)

ties,

(.785)

A2

and

horsepower for these

flow from a gear

31.8

units.

For

standard involute gears, the theoretical rate of

(3.14)

pump

can be computed by

the following formula.

psi

This result verifies that ?2

the cylinder diameter

is

is

indeed

of

P<|

if

D- Dp 7rLN

doubled.

4(231)
(11.5)
If

we want

tain distance,

to raise the force through a cer-

we must

use the following equa-

where

tion

work = force x displacement

As an example, suppose we
Force = 100

Q=

DQ =

(11.3)

are given

outside diameter of the gear,

the gear,
1

GPM

Dj = working depth diameter of

lb

Displacement =

theoretical delivery rate,

in.

ft

= width of the gear,

= rotating speed of the pump,

in,

then

W=F xD
W = (100) x

(1)

= 100

lb

RPM.

-ft

50

in.

UNIFIED PHYSICS

The hydraulic flow

UNIT

11

motor,

we

FLUIDS

rate,

GPM,

at a certain

by

HYDRAULIC MATCHING
could use equation

1.7.

rated horsepower can be obtained using

q-

HP (1714)

RPM

(11.6)

Q=

where

flow

rate,

GPM

P = discharge pressure,

HP (33.QOO
(2tt)

)_

(11.7)

(torque)

The torque can be determined by

psi

(11.8)

GPM

our previous example the required

would be
In

where

D = displacement

of

pump

in cu.in.

per

revolution

HP

(1714) = 0 .00303 (1714)

[31.8}
P

= 0.163

P = difference

GPM

At

in pressure, psi

this point the calculations

would be comwould be matched

to the pump and the pump would be matched
pleted. Notice that the load

In

order to find the

number

of revolutions

per minute that must be applied to the

pump

to the motor.

MATERIALS
1

Hydraulic bench unit

Relief valve

/2 "

dia.

10 5

x 5" stroke hydraulic cylinder

lb

weights

Stopwatch

Pressure gauge (0-50 psi)

PROCEDURE
1.

Set up the hydraulic circuit

shown

in figure 11.1.

WT.

i
TV

j;
Fig. 11-1

Experimental Circuit

UNIT

11

HYDRAULIC MATCHING
pump and

UNIFIED PHYSICS

2.

Start the

3.

Switch hoses on the cylinder

to force the piston to
the bottom.

4.

With the

pump

off,

switch the hoses back to

the original position.

pump and measure and

7.

Repeat steps
3 through 5 adding weights

8.

Calculate the

FLUIDS

adjust the pressure to

50. psi using the relief
valve.

6.

power required to

raise the

in 5-,b

steps until

you have data for ,oads from

weights at each 5-lb step.

Plot a graph of load

versus power.

TIME

(sec)

POWER

10
15

20
25

30
35

40
45
50

Fig. 11-2

The Data Table

52

(lb

-ft/sec)

UN.HEDPHYS.CS/FLU.os

Vou shouid exp,in the curve p.otted

in step
Why? What factors
**

"

affect the validity of the data?

PROBLEMS
1.

2
-

3
"

Calculate the total

oneZ^

work done

1A

in

Ca CU,ate
'

the entire experiment using

equation

^
f

hVdraU,iC SVStem
is

1.3.

- * - wor k

H P

^ '
dL^r!:"""
,n 30 seconds? What

w-th a 2 in
m. d,a. cyhnder

in

7Wb

rder to

the HP? What

is

the

in

GPM

prob.e.

weight 10

required?

in

ft

experiment

INTRODUCTION. Many examples

experiment we

will

th ERMAL MA TCHING

12

of thermal matching are to be found

match the output of

thermal system to

teresting history.

It

long and

was necessary

it

or a large increase

in-

became

amount

given

of fuel produces a given

heat and chemical reactions and the conver-

heat

thermal behavior.

something

fluid"

like a gas or like

about

at

is

it

amount

model for representing

a satisfactory

the temptation was

far,

great to give the entity, heat, other proper-

the "electric

which was being considered

is

Having gone this

for the early investigators of

thermal phenomena to think of "heat" as a

fluid,

small body, so

of heat. Within certain limits, this picture of

sion of thermal into mechanical energy.

was natural

in

body

in a large

consistent to consider that the burning of a

important to understand the relation between

It

In this

life.

load.

small increase of temperature

at the start

when

of the Industrial Revolution

everyday

burning of a given amount of fuel, produces

DISCUSSION. Thermodynamics, the study of

energy transformation involving thermal
energy and heat flow, has had

its

in

ties

of a fluid, such as inertia and velocity.

The

rate of

flow Q, of heat, by conduction

the same time. Temperature was then thought

through a body per second per unit area,

of as something analagous to a pressure, being

turns out to be proportional to the tempera-

proportional

quantity

to the

ture change times a constant K,

of heat fluid

put

it

amount

an

quantitatively,

(Q) of heat to a

addition

body

of

To

This relation

is

represented symbolically by

an
(12.2)

Q= KAT

raise its

will

is

the thermal conductivity of the material.

contained by the body and inversely proportional to the heat capacity of the body.

where K

temperature by an amount (AT) equal to the

body

heat capacity of the

The thermal conductivity of

(1/C) multiplied by

ability to

the quantity.

conduct

conductivity and

AT

(12.1)

tivity

heat.

We

a material

is

its

are interested in

the opposite of conduc-

in

We

resistance.

can

above relation and combine

it

rearrange the

with the equa-

tion (12.1) to give us a relation for resistance

The tendency of bodies

equilibrium

is

to

thermal

reach

to heat flow.

thus equivalent to the tendency

of heat to flow

from

R=4I

a region of higher tern

(12.3)

perature to one of lower.

It

was natural for the early investigators to

develop this concept of heat as a fluid and

That

this picture of heat as a fluid

or less self-consistent was

is

more

shown by the

that heat can be produced in several ways:

They naturally
went on to assume the amount of heat contemperature

fact

by

it

is

metallic, or

reaction in

it,

by producing

air.

pressure.

in

equilibrium had inertia

and velocity. Heat, however, does not turn

chemical

out to have these properties of

been demonstrated that

such as the burning of a mix-

ture of fuel and

its

tained by a system

sending an electric current through the body,

if

as

tain an unlimited

given current, or the

54

it

amount

is

a fluid. It

has

possible to ob-

of heat flow

from

UNIFIED PHYSICS /FLUIDS

UNIT

THERMAL MATCHING

12

system, provided only that mechanical work

assume, for our example, that the burned

was done to the system. "Heat", then, or

gases

"thermal energy",

better,

not a separate

is

to

are

pass through a four-inch long

metal tube and

in this

manner

transfer heat to

form of energy that can

be changed into other forms such as electrical

and make the heat-exchange tube 10 feet

or mechanical energy.

long. This

entity but merely a

The heat
energies,

is

the water. Let us

because

transfer, like the transfer of other

but

We

find that consideration

be used for the transfer of heat.

that

We must

which

most

of

transfer

efficient

will facilitate

heat

from

an impractical design for a heater

would not fit into many houses,

is

it

might be highly

four feet of absorbing material and

of the rest of the tube actually con-

all

case

the

if

relatively

reduced

heat to the water. Thus,

pan over

we

if

of the pan

On

little.

place a 10-inch frying

which

be a large portion

will

ferred

accomplishing relatively

is

the other hand,

if

we

we

see that here are

two extremes neither of which is an

mum situation. If most of the heat is

heating unit with an effective dia-

meter of 4 inches, there

al-

temperature to the

in

point where they could transfer almost no

emitting source to the absorbing device.

As an example,

This would be the

little.

the hot, burned gases by then had

ready been

the

efficient.

first

tributes

determine from the apparatus design or application, those factors

it

the

in

must be given to the choice of elements which

will

to the other extreme

However, we
might find that most of the heat is absorbed

quite often critical to the opera-

tion of a system.

now go

in

the

optitrans-

we

four feet of tubing,

first

could make a heater with only this amount of

heat transferring material.

place a pan of

four-inch diameter on a heating unit which

has an effective diameter of 10 inches, a large

portion of the heat which

is

not be transferred to the vessel.

there

efficient

BTU

In

to

the

transfer

each case,

heat

of

BTU

per minute, or

per second,

rating
case,

previous example

re-

of the heater.

we must match output and

teristics

by choice of

which the absorbing

size or

In

different

input charac-

enough

in

vessel contacts or fits the

maximum amount

if

we

are

we matched

the output of

However,

answer.

cross-sectional

area

there
to

must be

permit

the

products of combustion to pass up through

the

flue.

This precludes using a very small

tube which also might be unable to transfer

element, there will be a size of vessel which

absorb the

heat-

Had we started with a smaller diameter of tube, we might have found quite a

heating element. For any given size of heating

will

the

of the device by varying the length of the

this

by the manner

match

tubing.

matched with the thermal gene-

characteristics

to

the burned gas to the absorbing characteristics

quires that the heat-absorbing characteristics

of the pan be

is

the heat generated by the burned gas

terms of the

in

here

to have a reasonable thermal efficiency. In the

Providing the most

pan.

task

absorbing capabilities of the water-heater with

not an effective coupling of the heat-

is

device

ing

Our

generated will

the required

of heat.

amount

of heat per unit of time

with the available temperature differentials.

Another type of heat-absorbing problem

might involve the design of

Thus, there

a gas water-heater.

Experience has shown that certain recovery

rates are desired

which

in

which the gas must be burned to main-

tain

desired

amount

an

optimum area which

amount of heat with

available temperature differential. In this

turn determines the

rate at

is

transfer the desired

the design of the device

the

maximum

some

of hot water. Let us

55

rate

given input.

is

will

the

way

varied to produce

of heat

absorption

for

UNIT

UNIFIED PHYSICS/ FLUIDS

THERMAL MATCHING

12

heat-

the radiator. This requires that the thermal

absorbing material of the gas water-heater to

input to the radiator match the thermal out-

problem

The

of

matching

the heat liberated by the flame

is

the

comparable

to the thermal transfer problem involved

in

cooling an internal combustion engine found

in

put of the engine.

The matching

maximum

the

an automobile.

is

sometimes done to achieve

transfer of power. In the case

of thermal systems, the rate of flow of heat

(Q/t)

the heat which

we can determine

maximum

load conditions.

which heat

at

is

Inasmuch

as the

from the

transferred

water to the surrounding

air

varies

most

with the temperature difference, the

difficult cooling conditions will

found
this

Q/t = P

(12.4)

is

for the

The cooling system must be designed

cooling

(P).

be transferred to the cooling water.

likely to

rate

equal to the power

the power to be developed by the

From
engine,

is

probably be

The power being

system

is

transferred in a thermal

simply the rate of flow of heat.

Figure 12-1 shows a heat transfer system.

constant temperature heat source

with
into

is

in

If

contact

block of material, the flow rate (Q)

it is:

the hottest weather of summer. At

in

time there

is

the smallest temperature

difference between the water and the

this condition, along

speed, which

is

Q - KAtAT

(12.5)

air. It is

with some assumed car

used to determine the size of

where

the radiator.

As an example,

let

us assume

some exposed

= flow quantity

= thermal conductivity of the

block in BTU/(ft 2 hrF/in.)

= area

= time

AT

= temperature difference

cross-sectional area and given thickness of the

core through which the cooling

If

the exposed area

is

made

air

must

order

there

that

radient to

air the

be

sufficient

BTU

pass.

very small, the

temperature of the cooling water must

in

in ft

rise in

thermal

in

hours

transfer the heat to the passing

greater the

temperature difference,

the greater the rate of heat transfer,

factors being equal.

If,

all

other

in

nyT,)

on the other hand, we

use a radiating element with

20 times the

pre-

= length

in

inches

vious exposed area, then the water will be

cooled so

much

that only a small

the water in the block

is

amount

of

allowed to circulate

Obviously, the

ideal

through

the

radiator.

solution

lies

somewhere between these

This equation

may

also be used to determine

the power being transferred.

ex-

experiment we

tremes. Again, for optimum performance, it is

necessary to match the cooling requirements

different

of the engine with the cooling capabilities of

maximum power

In this

will

match the use of

aluminum masses in order to achieve

transfer from a heat source.

UNIFIED PHYSICS /FLUIDS

UNIT

12

THERMAL MATCHING

CONSTANT
TEMPERATURE
HEAT SOURCE

AREA A
"

"

1
i

UJ
Heat Transfer System

Fig. 12-1

MATERIALS
1

Bunsen burner

3/4 x 3/4 x 3/4

in.

aluminum blocks

Ring stand

3/4 x 3/4 x 3/8

in.

aluminum block

Screen 6 x 6

3/4 x 3/4 x 3/16

Pair of tongs

3/4 x 3/4 x

in.

Stop watch

VA

Water for cooling

PROCEDURE
1

Set up the heat transfer system shown

in

figure

2-2.

SCREEN
%"

%"

Fig.

%" MASS

12-2

Heat Transfer System

57

in.

in.

aluminum block

aluminum block

UNIT

12

THERMAL MATCHING

UNIFIED PHYSICS

2.

Determine and record the temperature of the mass before heating

3.

Light the burner and heat the mass for 5 minutes to allow

it

FLUIDS

it.

to reach constant tempera-

ture.

4.

Place a large drop of water on the top surface of the smallest mass and place it on the
heated mass. Measure and record the time required to bring the water drop to boiling
temperature. Be certain that the complete 3/4" surface of the mass is contacting the
heated source mass. Cool the mass and repeat the reading three times for accuracy.

5.

Repeat step 4 for each of the other masses.

6.

power required to bring the top surface of each mass to the

temperature of the source mass. Thermal conductivity of aluminum 1.5 x 10 3 BTU/(ft 2
Calculate the

amount

of

hrF/in.).

7.

Plot a graph of the heat velocity versus the length of the mass. (Note: Since the

amount of heat

is

needed

to boil the waterdrop each time,

distance/time required. This velocity times

ANALYSIS GUIDE.

we

same

are interested in the

Q is power.

the analysis of this experiment you should determine which mass

matched the source block to give maximum energy transference. Explain why. Explain any
factors which might contribute to errors in this experiment.

Initial

In

Temperature of masses (T^)

TIME

MASS SIZE

3/4 x 3/4 x 3/16

in.

3/4 x 3/4 x 3/4

in.

1/2

AVERAGE

POWER REQUIRED

(Q/t) (d)

in.

3/4 x 3/4 x 3/8

3/4 x 3/4 x

in.
.

Fig. 12-3

The Data Table

58

_:

experiment

13

SOUND WA VES

IN AIR

While resonance effects in gases are

useful in many cases, there are times when
they are quite unwelcome. In this experiment
we will examine the phenomenon of resonance and
measure the velocity of sound in air.

The phenomenon of the

rela-

tively large

amplitude of vibration of a system

when driven by a small periodic force applied
at

proper time

intervals

is

known

Resonance may occur

nance.

capable of vibrating by

itself.

in

as reso-

any system

Perhaps the best

way

to illustrate the idea of resonance

give

some examples. Suppose

pended by
thread

is

ball

is

is

to

sus-

wire from a point P and a light

attached to the ball at C as shown in

figure 13-1.
oscillate

By

with

itself it is a

pendulum and can

The tiny force

a definite period.

Fig. 13- 1

the thread can exert without breaking will displace the ball a very small distance. When the
force is removed, the ball swings back to the
left beyond its rest position.
again applied while the ball

right,

ment

may

the force

is

is going to the
the ball will attain a second displace-

slightly greater than

recall

pushed

in a

when,
swing.

its

as a child,

At

first

one.

You

you were being

just the right

time you
boost and went higher than the

were given

previous

time.

These

mechanical resonance.

Small Force Applied at Proper Intervals

Will Cause Resonance

59

If

are

examples

of

UNIT

SOUNDWAVES IN AIR

13

UNIFIED PHYSICS /FLUIDS

A'

etc'

13-2

Fig.

Resonance in a Stretched String Producing a

Wave of Large Amplitude

Most musical instruments such

the

gan,

even

clarinet,

depend on vibrating

the

are applied.

quency,

voice,

produce

cavities to

air

their particular sound.

as the or-

human

will

Let the applied force have

and

f,

occur when

The tones produced by

VT

such devices are amplified and enriched by

resonance.

where L
is

process control,

In

instrumentation, and

fluid

flow systems, resonance often occurs

and

sometimes unwelcome.

is

Let us look at resonance

nance

in

a pipe

as the

Then we may write

V
but

is

waves. Let us take

look at a wave on

wave

is

at the

end B where the

The wave

AB

traveling

string

a string

is

is

It

returns along the string as

condensation

(trough)

is

rarefaction.

When
return

in

the string

large

amplitude

when an

wave

length.

will

factions

alternating

force of small amplitude and the right period

relationship

60

(crest)

in

one end, the

such

or

way

that

rarefaction

returned as a condensation or

densations

be built up

(13.3)

In the case of a pipe, closed at

dissipated.

and

waves are totally reflected

continue this back-and-forth motion until

is

(13.2)

2L

string equals one-half the

held fixed.

A'B' with the trough preceeding the crest.

energy

= V/f = 2L,

This equation indicates that the length of the

reflected

in

its

VT

toward the

shown

will

X =

of figure 13-2

The wave

right with a velocity V.

have returned

only compressional

fixed at both ends. In string

a single transverse

will

= 2Lf

also equal to fx,

course, are compressional rather than transverse, since a gas transmits

time

front of a trough at the end of that

pipe. Reso-

much like resonance of a

The waves in the pipe, of

(13.1)

the length of string. This condition

at the beginning of

is

stretched string.

is

= 2L

true because the front of a crest leaving

time.
in

a fre-

Then resonance

a period, T.

return
is

the pipe end

as

as

is

open, con-

rarefactions

and

condensations.

an important factor

in

rare-

This
deter-

UNIFIED PHYSICS /FLUIDS

UNIT

SOUND WA VES IN A IR

13

ID

Fig. 13-3

mining

what frequency

.at

pipe

Resonance
or

air

column will resonate. If pipe of length L is

open at each end as shown in figure 13-3,
then condensation c enters at one end and
returns as a rarefaction

The

r.

rarefaction re-

turns to the other end and leaves as a conden-

sation because the pipe

The lowest frequency

resonate is found by

VT
where T

is

open

is

at

both ends.

which the pipe

at

will

in

an Open Pipe

will

be heard. This observable fact

resonance, and

as

up in the tube with a node at the

closed end and antinode very near the open
end. This situation can occur when the length
of the tube is any odd number of quarter

wave

lengths

emitted

of

by the

the

sound

waves

fork.

Resonance

3A
4

5X

will

being

occur

when

= 2L

the time between entrances of con-

4'

(13.6)
,

etc.

equals 1/f
f

if

when

known

are set

densation into the pipe.

Since

occurs

it

is

standing waves

= V/2L

(13.4)

the frequency increases, resonance will oc-

cur whenever
f

where n

is

= nV/2L

(13i5)

whole number.

For the purposes of

this

experiment we

will

use the fundamental equation of wave motion

= fX

to determine the velocity of

held over an air column

shown

in figure 13-4,

factions will travel

flected.
is

in air.

vibrating source (such as a tuning fork)

If a
is

sound

If

in a

closed tube, as

compressions and

down

the tube length

rare-

the tube and be

is

adjusted until

reit

equal to exactly one-forth the wave length

of the tone from the fork, the returning

wave

back at the top of the tube pre-

Diagram Showing Relationship Between Wave Length of Sound and

cisely in phase with the next vibration of the

Distance to First and Second Points

will

fork,

arrive

and

tone of unusually loud volume

Fig.

13-4

of Resonance

UNIT

13

SOUND WA VES IN AIR

UNIFIED PHYSICS /FLUIDS

TUNING FORK

CLAMP

GLASS TUBE

WATER

FLEXIBLE

TUBE

METER
STICK

Fig.

13-5 Resonance Tube Apparatus

The apparatus used

in the experiment consists

of a glass tube about 4-ft long and 1-in.
inside

Since the frequency of the fork

is given by
manufacturer and X can be calculated
from measurements taken at points of reso-

the

diameter fitted with a rubber stopper and tubing connection to a water reservoir
whose

nance, the velocity of sound in air

calculated from the equation, V = f\.

can be changed to make the water rise or

in the tube itself as shown in
figure 13-5.

level
fall

may be

MATERIALS
1

Glass tube,

One-hole rubber stopper

Water reservoir

1-in.

diameter, 48-in. long

3 Lab stand clamps

3 Tuning forks 384, 426 2/3, and 512 frequencies

Rubber hammer

Rubber tubing

Meter Stick

PROCEDURE
1.

Set up the apparatus as shown

2.

Raise the water level

in

in

figure 13-5.

the glass tube until

62

it is

near the top.

UN,F,EDPHYS,CS/FLU,DS

9 ,OTk

wwifv^nT'"

4. Strike the

6
-

6.

UNIT

*OP

"

'

8.

9,

10.

*"

" Wi "

bare 'v

*- * *-

tuning fork with a rubber

hammer.

ZZSZZ X*"^

*e

unt
"

By approaching the resonance

point
you can.

,irct

carefully

tions as accurately as

7-

50

13

point

is

reached

4, 5,

and 6 to determine

l_

--

The

from above and below, determine

Measure L,. the distance from

the bottom bar of the fork
to the

Repeat steps

2 and L3

first

its

posi-

point of resonance.

Repeat the entire process with

each of the other forks.

Record the frequencies of the forks

Trial

Frequency

L-!

in

the data table (figure 13-6).

= A/4,

ft.

L 2 = 3A/4,

ft.

L 3 = 5A/4,

ft.

Fig. 13-6

The Data Table

your error of measurement

case.

PROBLEMS

2.

From

the measurements taken, determine

the period of each fork.

63

in

each

INTRODUCTION.

SOUND WAVES

///

experiment

While resonant effects

may
we

are quite undesirable. In this experiment

measure the velocity of sound

DISCUSSION. The
the amplitude

vibration

produced by

applying a small periodic force at prescribed

intervals

known

is

may occur

in

capable of

way to

full

as resonance.

Resonance

almost any physical system

vibrations.

illustrate the

Perhaps the best

concept of resonance

is

to review an example given in the preceding

experiment.

Suppose
a point

in

many

cases, there are times

examine the phenomenon

will

and

is

suspended by

a light-thread

Fig. 14-

a wire

from

attached to the

is

resonance and

shown in figure 14-1. By itself it is a

pendulum and can oscillate with a definite
ball as

period.

The

tiny force that the thread can

exert without breaking will displace the ball

only a very small distance.

removed, the

ball

yond

position.

its

rest

When

the force

swings back to the

applied while the ball

ball will attain a

a ball

.of

when they

in a solid.

relatively large increase of

of a

be useful

IN A SOLID

is

If

the force

is

left beis

again

going to the right, the

second displacement

greater than the first one. This

of mechanical resonance.

Small Force f Applied at Proper Intervals

Will Cause Resonance

is

slightly

an example

UNIFIED PHYSICS /FLUIDS

UNIT

SOUND WA VES IN SOLID

14

A'

etc'

Fig.

14-2

Resonance in a Stretched String Producing a

Wave of Large Amplitude

Many

musical instruments such as an organ,

or a clarinet, depend on vibrating air cavities
to produce their particular sound. Their tones

occur when

are amplified

where L

VT
(14.1)

and enriched by resonance.

is

the length of string. This condition

true because the front of a crest leaving A

at the beginning of time T will have returned
is

process control,

In

instrumentation, and

fluid flow systems, resonance can occur

and

as the

is

sometimes unwelcome.

time.

front of a trough at the end of that

Then we may write

The vibration of an open pipe is much like

the vibrations of a stretched string. The waves

I v=2Lf

are longitudinal rather than transverse, since a

gas transmits only longitudinal waves. First let
us take a look at the wave length of free vibra-

tion of a string.

The

but

is

also equal to f

VT

= V/f = 2L, or
(14.2)

G3
,

and

(14.3)

shown in figure
14-2 has a single transverse wave traveling toward the right with a velocity V. The wave is

This equation indicates that the length of the

string equals one-half the wave length of the

reflected

vibration.

at

the

string

end where the

string

is

attached to an object.

The wave

the string as

the second sketch, the

shown

in

trough preceeding the

this back-and-forth

dissipated.

build

crest.

motion

string

It will

until its

large vibratory

up on the

returns along

when

energy

amplitude

quency

and

a period T.

have a

Then resonance

in

on approaching a more dense medium,

the waves are reflected in such a way that a

is

condensation or a rarefaction
condensation or a rarefaction.

a periodic force

Let the applied force

the case of a vibration traveling

pipe,

will

of small amplitude and the right frequency

applied.

In

continue

um

is

is

less

is

the medi-

dense, condensations return as rare-

fre-

factions

will

condensations. This relationship

65

returned as

When

and

rarefactions

return
is

as

important

UNIT

Fig.

in

14-3

Resonance

air

column. Suppose we have

length L which
figure 14-3.

end and returns

pipe

open

is

quency

at

open

is

at

in

an Open Pipe

where

determining the resonant frequency of a

pipe or

in

UNIFIED PHYSICS /FLUIDS

SOUND WA VES IN SOLID

14

14-4, the reflection at the closed

with
as a

any whole number.

For the pipe closed at one end

each end as shown

condensation c enters at one

change

in

figure

in

end occurs

phase of 180. In this case

condensation because the

both ends. The lowest

at

n can be

pipe of

which the pipe

the fundamental frequency will be

fre-

resonate

will

is

= V/4L

(14.6)

found by

VT
where

is

= 2L

The wave

the time between the entrance of

a close-ended pipe

must always

have a particle velocity node at the closed end

and

successive condensations into the pipe.

Since

in

loop at the open end. Consequently, the

closed pipe will sustain only

equals 1/f

odd numbered

harmonics. The equation for the resonant

f

or

if

= V/2L

quencies of the pipe closed at one end

(14.4)

the frequency increases, resonance will

fre-

is

= n V/4L

occur when
f

where

= n V/2L

must have the values of

(14.5)
etc.

T
1

Fig. 14-4

Closed Pipes with

Odd Numbered Harmonics

66

1,

3, 5, 7,

UNIFIED PHYSICS/ FLUIDS

UNIT

SOUND WA VES

14

IN SOLID

METAL ROD

GLASS TUBE

CORK DUST
CORK STOPPER
CLAMPS

STAND

14-5

Fig.

Velocity of

In

experiment we

this

will

nance by setting up waves

glass tube.

in

Kundt's Tube Apparatus for Measuring the

Sound in Metal Rods by Resonance

examine
the

These waves are created by

shown

be one-half a wave length as

longi-

is

between

cor-

responding points of adjoining patterns will

air inside a

tudinal vibrations in a metal rod which

tioned inside the glass tube as

particular pattern, the distance

reso-

shown

in figure

14-6.

posi-

in figure

Since the

14-5.

air

is

forced to vibrate

in

reso-

nance with the rod, the frequencies are the

same. From the basic wave equation we have

The
air

location of the stationary waves

may

resonance

with

the

tions.

rosin or

rod.

the tube vibrates

vibration

The rod

woolen cloth to

There may be

patterns,

in

natural

quency of the metal

a

the

and

be figured out from what happens to

the cork dust as the air

with

in

set

a variety of

is

in

Dividing,
fre-

fx

or

"va

"

up

If

vibra-

the rod

a node,

cork dust

is

clamped

at the midpoint,

and has antinodes

Xr =

2L

CORK DUST

14-6

Cork Dust Pattern Obtained by Resonance

67

~
*a

stroked

but regardless of the shape of the

Fig.

Vr = V a

at either

end

making

UNIT

SOUND WA VES IN SOLID

14

UNIFIED PHYSICS
The

Finally

velocity of

calculated

where
velocity of

sound

in air,

velocity of

sound

in

fPS

wave length of sound

in air, ft.

wave length of sound

in

length of the rod,

Vg

metal rod, FPS

the rod, ft

sound

in air (in

fPS)

FLUIDS

may be

from

= 1,087

1.1T

fPS

where T is the number of degrees above or

below 32 F. The velocity of sound increases
with rising temperature.

ft.

MATERIALS
Glass tube approx. 4

ft.

Woolen cloth

long

2 Metal rods (Brass and Steel)

Meter stick

Cork dust

Thermometer

Rosin

Stopper

Chamois skin

PROCEDURE
end of one metal rod into the

1.

Insert the disc

2.

Clamp the metal rod

3.

at

Put enough cork dust

its

in

glass tube.

exact midpoint as shown

in figure 14-5.

the glass tube to lightly cover the bottom of the curved

surface

of the tube.

4.

Put a stopper

5.

The clamps may have to be readjusted

6.

Stroke the free end of the metal rod slowly but firmly with the rosin
cloth.

7.

The

8.

Do not measure

9.

Measure the distance of the

glass

10. Divide

1 1

tube

in

the other end of the glass tube.

may have

later for better

resonance effect.

to be adjusted for better resonance.

the end half-waves.

maximum number

of dust patterns.

by the number of patterns to get the average of A/2.

Scatter the cork dust.

UNIFIED PHYSICS

FLUIDS

UNIT

14

12.

Repeat steps 6 through 10 a second and third

time.

13.

Repeat the entire process with a rod of

different material.

14.

Measure the temperature of the room.

15.

Measure the length of the rods used.

KIND

TRIAL

DISTANCE OF

OF ROD

CORK DUST

NUMBER OF
CORK DUST

PATTERN

PATTERNS

SOUND WAVES IN SOLID

LENGTH OF
HALF WAVE
A/2, Ft

Fig. 14-7

The Data Table:Velocity of Sound in Metal

Rods by the Resonance Method

ANALYSIS GUIDE.

Write a paragraph explaining your interpretation

of the things observed
What are the conditions for resonance in a metal rod?
Lould resonance occur in a metal pipe?
related to resonance in the metal rods.

PROBLEMS
1.

2.

Using the equations

Given

in

the experiment, calculate the velocity of sound

Xg

= 0.125

= 3ft
= 1150fPS

Vr

ft

Find

Va

69

in

the metal rods.

UNIFIED PHYSICS/ FLUIDS

APPENDIX
FLUID POWER SYMBOLS

Main Line Conductor

Pilot Line

For Control

Drain Line

Enclosure Outline

Instrument Line for Indicator,

Recorder or Sensor

Crossing Lines

Joining Lines

Hydraulic Flow Direction

Pneumatic Flow Direction

Line with Fixed Restriction

Line Flexible

Plugged Part

Quick Disconnect Single Check

<>H-

Disconnect Double Check

Reservoir Below Fluid Level

Connecting Line

Reservoir

Above

Connecting Line

Filter Strainer

71

Fluid Level

APPENDIX

UNIFIED PHYSICS

Hydraulic

Pump

Fixed Displacement

Unidirectional

Hydraulic Pump Variable

Displacement Unidirectional

Hydraulic Motor Fixed Displacement

Unidirectional

Hydraulic Motor Fixed Displacement

Bi-directional

Hydraulic

Pump Motor
-

Operating

in

One

in

Other Direction as a Motor.

Direction as a

Pressure

Pump. Operate

Gauge

Totalizing

Flow Meter

Flow Meter

Temperature

Check Valve

Adjustable Flow Control Valve

Adjustable Flow Control Valve

with Integral Check

72

FLUIDS


UNIFIED PHYSICS

FLUIDS

APPENDIX

Relief Valve Adjustable

JL

-t

Two-Way Valve Normally Open

AA/V

Two-Way Valve Normally Closed

Infinite Position

-EE
-WV

AAV

Four-Way Valve
Operated

Two

Position

Pilot

p3m
3Hm

Three-Way Valves Two Position

Mechanically Actuated Normally

Open
Three-Way Valve Two Position
Mechanically Actuated Normally
Closed

Four-Way Valve - Tandem Center

Three Position Manual Operated

Four-Way Valve - Closed Center

Three Position Manual Operated

11

Double Acting Cylinder Single

1

End Rod

Single Acting Cylinder Single

End Rod

Accumulator, Gas Charged

UNIFIED PHYSICS

FLUIDS

LABORATORY REPORT WRITING

There are a number of different forms

that a technical laboratory
report

A.

Th*

2.

Your

3.

Date the experiment was performed.

Experiment title and number.

partner's name.

Data Section. The data section should

include:
A neat drawing of the experiment setup.
1.

B.

2.

list

serial

of equipment used, including the

manufacturer's name, model number and
number.

3.

Measured and calculated data

4.

Curves.
Cti0t

in

tabular form.

na ySiS SeCti n Sh Uld COntain a

technical discussion
?
should, in general, include brief
discussions of each of the points
ment.oned in the "Analysis Guide" and the
solutions to any problems given at
i

'

take

Cover Page. The cover page should

include:
1.
Your name.

4.

mav

n?lF *?;

of the data.

!'
It

^ctory

'

the end

Ln

report on

m,tted

ot the
th experiments
some of

,n a satisfactory

report fo.der,

^ory

t0
and SUbmit 3 formal
you have performed. All formal reports
should be sub
and are normally due about 1 week after

that

experiment was performed. The formal report

should include the following:
A.
Title Page. The title page should

the time that the

contain the following:

2.

3.

B.

Title of the experiment.

Name of the person making the report.

Date the experiment was performed.

Introduction Section. The introduction

should consist of a paragraph which sets forth
the technical objective of the experiment.

Theory Section. The theory section should

include a
which

is

pertinent to the particular experiment.

75

brief discussion of the theory

LA BORA TOR Y REPOR T WRITING

UNIFIED PHYSICS
D.

Method of

Investigation

Section.

The

method
a

the following:
.

brief discussion of

be made

the model

Ai^suU:,utt,ruTar f
computed

2.

All

3.

All curves.

^
^Xt-r
How
2.

valid

1
.

2.

3.

What

is

id

indude

serial

sm th

**

<

values in tabular form.

1.

nm0f ^^"^ H
Tr^'
"ber, and the
number

lict eh,.i^i

^Z^yZTL
"'

eC,i n
-

ana VSiS

SeC,i

t^e* o:Z"rm ad!

'

include

the calculating
j
Calculat,ons end
measurements are to be compared,

how

Equipment List.
equipment
Lkt Th
The equiDment
should show the
of every item.

"

should

neat drawing of the

experimental setup.
" ef 0ut,,ne of the experimental
procedure,
Aa briefx outline of the calculations
to

4.

'"vestigation

FLUIDS

E.

nf
ot

'

^^
" Sh Uld

,n

** -* -P- <* -*
a

" of each o, the

the data?

are the probable sources

of error?

Notes taken from reference

material.

The
The

actual calculations
performed.
actual rough experimental

data.

meanfjS

<*

76

*- Moratory report

Is

by no

EXPERIMENT

Date:

COMPONENT

PRESSURE

FLOW
RATE

25
1

ft

ft

Hose CA")

Hose

.Quick connection
Relief Valve

Check Valve
Pressure

Gauge

Flow meter

RESISTANCE VALUES
K"

Hydraulic Hose per

foot

Quick connection
Relief valve

Check valve
Pressure gauge

Flow meter

CALCULATIONS
Resistance =

*^*Oiff.
Flow

rate

,n units

psi

of

gal/min

F'9- 1-5

Data Table

[re^T^e"

EXPERIMENT

Name

Date:

Class

Instructor

PRESSURE
RESISTANCE

FLOW

Circuit

RATE

One

(flow meter)
Circuit

One

(measured)

Circuit

Part

Two

One
B
Total

Two
Two

Circuit

Part

Total
Circuit

Two

measured

Fig.

2-7

The Data Table

CALCULATIONS

EXPERIMENT

Name

Date:

Class

READING

SAMPLE NO.
TIME

IN

SECONDS

WATER LEVEL
IN

FEET

FLOW RATE

Fig.

5-3

Data Table

10

EXPERIMENT

Name

Date:

Class

Instructor

o
CN

LO
LO
CN

O
CN

O
CNJ

LO
O)
LO

o
00

O
00

CN
CN

LO
CO

O
LO

<
UJ

G>
CO

CO
CO

<
H
CO

CN

LU

LU

GO

LO
co

o
CO

CO

O
^

LU

O
LO

CN

CN

CN
LO

LO

CN

05

00

LO

LO

lo

o
CO

CN

CD
LO
'

LO

o>

CO

o
CO

CO

LO
LO

CO

u_
o
i

TIME-SEC

Q_
TIME-MIN

LU
1-

a.

ME-SEC

a.

LU

LU
1-

hJ

Fig.

6-2

The Data Table

EXPERIMENT
Date:

Name

Class

CN

CN

00

LO
CN
CN

LO

225

CM
LO
Q)

LO

Instructor

LO
CD

00

O
10

CD

LO
CD

LO
LO

o
LO

O
LO

LO

LO

'

LO
CO

00

LO
CD

'sT

120

CN

LO
O

LO
O

LO
CO

O)

O)

O
CO

LO

LO

LO
CM

o
CD

o
CD

O
CN

LO

LO

LO

00

CO

La

LO

LO

o
o
CM

o
(SEC)

PRESSURE

O
o

o
O

LJJ

LU

CC

LU

8
LU

PSI

TIME

O
a
LU
CO

"
LU

h-

Hose

ft

9
O

CM

8!

No.

25

LO
CN

Fig.

7-3

o
rN

Data Table

o
o
CN
lu
OC
z>
CO CO
CO q.
UJ
oc
a.

EXPERIMENT

Date:

TIME
0

(SEC)

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

PRESSURE
PSI

TIME
160

(SEC)

180

200

220

240

260

280

300

PRESSURE
PSI
I

Fig.

TIME
(SEC)

20

8-2

40

Time-Pressure Table

60

80

100

120

140

160

260

280

300

320

340

PRESSURE
PSI

TIME
(SEC)

180

200

220

240

PRESSURE
PSI
1

Fig.

8-3

Time-Pressure Table

TIME
(SEC)

40

20

160

180

60

80

220

240

100

120

140

280

300

PRESSURE
PSI

TIME
(SEC)

200

260

PRESSURE
PSI
Fig.

TIME
(SEC)

20

8-5

Time-Pressure Table

40

60

80

100

140

120

160

PRESSURE
PSI

TIME
(SEC)

180

200

220

'

240

260

280

PRESSURE
PSI

Fig.

8-6

Time-Pressure Table

300

320

340

EXPERIMENT

Name

Date:

Class

Instructor

NO LC)AD
SETTI IXV3
PRESS
A

FLOW PRESSURE PRESSURE FLOW POWER

FORCE IN
R ATP
nM
C
A
B
RPM POUNDS
RATE
IN
i

100

150

200

250

300

,200

1.5

200

2.0

200

2.5

200

3.0

Pressure drop due to

Fig.

9-3

motor resistance with no

The Data Table

load.

Pn\A/F R

OUT

IVIU

OR

EFF

EXPERIMENT

10

Name

Date:

Class

Instructor

PRESSURE
PSI

FLOW

CALCULATED
ENERGY

100

200

300

Fig. 10-4

The Data Table

MEASURED
ENERGY

EXPERIMENT

11

Date:

Name
Class

WEIGHT

(lbs)

TIME

POWER

(sec)

0
5
10
15

20

25
30
35

40
45
50

Fig. 11-2

The Data Table

(lb

-ft/sec)

EXPERIMENT

12

Name

Date:

Class

Initial

Temperature of

nriasses(Ti)

riME

MASS SIZE

3/4 x 3/4 x 3/16

in.

3/4 x 3/4 x 3/4

in.

1/2

AVERAGE

POWER REQUIRED

in.

3/4 x 3/4 x 3/8

3/4 x 3/4 x

in.

Fig. 12-3

The Data Table

(Q/t) (d)

EXPERIMENT

13

Name

Date:

Class

Trial

Frequency

L-j

Instructor

= X/4,

ft.

L 2 = 3X/4,

2
3

Fig. 13-6

The Data Table

ft.

L 3 = 5X/4,

ft.

EXPERIMENT
Date:

14

Name
Class

KIND

TRIAL

OF ROD

DISTANCE OF

Instructor

CORK DUST

NUMBER OF
CORK DUST

PATTERN

PATTERNS

Fig. 14-7

The Data Table:Veiocity of Sound in Metal

Rods by the Resonance Method

LENGTH OF
HALF WAVE
X/2, Ft