Department of Biobehavioral Sciences

Motor Learning & Control

Working title: Incorporating motor learning theory into pre-school physical education
enhances learning

← Masters project by

Amber Forrest

Type of Project: Educational Project

Advisor: Dawn Nilsen

 Motor Learning for Pre-school, 1

Abstract

The goal of physical education is to produce a physically fit individual, who has the

knowledge, skills and desire to engage in physical activity throughout their life span. While the

National Association of Sport and Physical Education emphasizes the teaching of motor skills

within nationwide, physical education programs, they offer little to no guidance on how to teach

them. Motor learning has been proven effective for enhancing skill acquisition in a variety of

contexts. Physical educators would have better results if they incorporated motor learning

principles into their teaching paradigms. Since the pre-school years are a critical time period for

developing motor skills, change should start there. This presentation defines motor learning and

demonstrates how to incorporate motor learning principles into pre-school physical education.
 Motor Learning for Pre-school, 2

Introduction

Physical education is important for every aspect of a child’s well being including

physical, social and mental health (Gallahue & Donnelly, 2003; Strong et al., 2005). The

development of motor skills is even more important for participation in physical activity &

healthy living over a person’s lifespan (Barnett, Beurden, Morgan, Brooks, & Beard, 2009;

Williams et al., 2008). According to Gallahue & Donnelly (2004), the most important time

period in learning motor skills is between the ages of 3 and 5. Some immediate benefits of motor

skill development in preschool children are the abilities to dress themselves, feed themselves or

brush their own teeth (Zwicker & Harris, 2009). Physical education has been proven to increase

success at a variety of motor skills, and motor learning principles such as goal setting, feedback

and mental imagery have all been proven effective in enhancing motor skill performance and

learning (Sullivan, Kantak, & Burtner, 2008; Taktek, Sinsser, & St-John, 2008; Zwicker &

Harris, 2009). Therefore incorporating motor learning principles into a preschool physical

education program would increase the likelihood of successful outcomes (Gallahue & Donnelly,

2003; Strong et al., 2005).

Physical education is important for developing a physically educated individual who will

possess the desire to engage in lifetime physical activity and the skills & knowledge to do so

(National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE), 2004). According to Strong et

al. (2005), a physically active person is healthier both physically and mentally. Also it has been

found that individuals who have better motor skills are more active both in childhood and later

on (Barnett et al., 2009; Williams et al., 2008). Since motor skill performance is so important for

being physically active and therefore staying healthy, it is important to ensure that individuals

receive quality motor skill training. The most important time in the development of motor skills
 Motor Learning for Pre-school, 3

are the preschool years (Gallahue & Donnelly, 2003). Therefore quality instruction in preschool

physical education is extremely important. Since motor learning has been proven effective in

increasing learning of motor skills in children, physical educators should incorporate these

principles into their instruction practices (Sullivan et al., 2008; Taktek et al., 2008; Zwicker &

Harris, 2009).

The purpose of this educational project is to inform preschool teachers and physical

educators on the importance and benefits of motor learning and how to use these principles to

teach motor skills to preschool children. It will seek to answer the following questions. What is

motor learning and what are the main principles of motor learning theory? Why is motor learning

so essential for teaching motor skills to preschool children? How can motor learning theory be

incorporated into a physical education program for preschool children? What are the effects of

incorporating motor learning into a preschool physical education program? The goal of this

educational project is to encourage teachers and physical educators to use motor learning

principles as a guide when teaching motor skills to young children.

 Motor Learning for Pre-school, 4

Presentation & Narrative

Slide 1: Title Page

Slide 2: Why is Motor Learning Important?

 Motor Learning for Pre-school, 5

The risk of inactivity and obesity in children ages 2-5 years old is on the rise, and when

these children become adults, the risk grows even more. Obesity is highly linked to diabetes,

heart disease, and overall lower quality of life (Center for Disease Control (CDC), 2009). To

combat this seemingly inevitable trend, health and physical education has upped the ante. Today

physical education is more than just playground games. Not only has physical education been

linked with health benefits such as lower cholesterol levels, cardiovascular fitness, muscular

strength and endurance, it has also resulted in better self-concepts for students as well as higher

academic achievement (Strong et al, 2005). The goal of physical education is to develop a

physically educated individual who has the knowledge, skills and desire to participate regularly

in physical activity because of the benefits exercise and activity provides (National Association

of Sport and Physical Education (NASPE), 2004). A quality physical education program provides

opportunities for students to practice motor skills.

Slide 3: Why is Motor Learning Important

 Motor Learning for Pre-school, 6

Studies have shown that there are strong correlations between motor skill proficiency and

the amount of time spent participating in physical activity. Williams et al. (2004) conducted a

study of nearly 200 three to four years olds. They tested their gross motor skills and then

compared their scores to the daily amount of time the children spend participating in physical

activity. The results showed that the stronger the child’s motor skill scores the more likely they

were to spend a greater amount of time participating in physical activity. Barnett, Beurden,

Morgan, Brooks & Beard (2009) conducted a similar study except that they studied the

correlation between childhood motor skill proficiency and adolescent physical activity levels.

They found a high correlation between object control skills and participation in physical activity

as a teenager. These studies show that motor skill proficiency is essential for participating in

physical activity and therefore a healthier lifestyle. According to many sources including Strong

et al. (2005), Reithmuller, Jones, & Okely (2009), and Gallahue & Donnelly (2003), the prime

time to develop these skills is between the ages three and five, the pre-school years.

Slide 4: Why is Motor Learning Important

 Motor Learning for Pre-school, 7

While physical education and preschool programs do place an emphasis on motor skill

development, there seems to be no specific guidelines on the best method to facilitate the

acquisition of motor skills. Motor learning principles are widely used in physical and

occupational therapy and are highly successful with both adult and child populations (Sullivan,

Kantak & Burtner, 2008; Taktek, Zissner, & St-John, 2008; Zwicker & Harris, 2009). Motor

learning principles should be incorporated into pre-school physical education to ensure that the

best methods of instruction are provided when the child will receive the most benefit from it.

Slide 5: What is Motor Learning?: Schema Theory

Many theories exist that attempt to define the process of motor learning. Of those,

Schmidt’s Schema Theory stands out (Schmidt, 1975). Schmidt believes that each movement

produced is based on a “motor response schema”, a representation in the memory of a movement

 Motor Learning for Pre-school, 8
5

plan. The schema is a broad representation of a movement, such as throwing. Having several

very specific representations of each and every way balls of various sizes could be thrown would

take an enormous amount of storage in the working memory, storage room that does not exist.

Instead, one general representation of the movement is stored in the memory, and the information

stored in the schema is adapted for each variation in order to produce the desired outcome

(Schmidt, 1975). This schema includes 4 types of information: proprioceptive and environmental

conditions surrounding the movement goal, parameters such as the force and speed needed to

complete the movement, afferent feedback after the movement is produced, and information

regarding the result of the movement. Proprioceptive information refers to the mental

representation of the body in space. For example, the child knows where his hand is before the

throw even though he cannot see it. Relevant environmental information might include the space

between himself and the target and whether or not any other children might be on the verge of

interrupting the throw by running through the middle of them. He uses the information from the

environment to determine how hard and fast to throw the ball. Then after the throw he uses

afferent feedback, or feedback from someone or something other than himself, to determine

whether his calculations were on target or not. Afferent feedback will usually be about the

performance such as “You threw too hard” rather than the outcome “you made it” because the

outcome is generally obvious for simple skills. The schema is divided into two sections the

“recall schema” and the “recognition schema”. The recall schema includes past outcomes and the

parameters associated with them. It is used to determine the current specifications necessary to

produce the desired outcome. The recognition schema is a combination of past outcomes and

afferent feedback from past movements and is used to predict the outcome of the chosen

movement plan. After the movement is completed, one compares their predictions about the
 Motor Learning for Pre-school, 9

outcome based on the recognition schema to both their own sensory feedback about the actual

outcome and the objective knowledge of results provided by a third party. Schmidt (1975) refers

to the difference between the predicted outcome and the actual outcome as an error. These errors

are used to adjust the schema to produce more accurate and efficient representations the next

time the movement is produced. Motor learning occurs as a result of the schema becoming more

accurate. The teacher’s job would be to guide the practice of the elected task and provide the

learner with accurate feedback and instruction so that the schema, or representation of the

movement, beomes accurate and efficient.

Slide 6: What is motor learning: Challenge Point

A notable body of work in motor learning is the concept of a “challenge point”

(Guadagnoli & Lee, 2004). Challenge point is a framework for determining how to enhance skill
 Motor Learning for Pre-school, 10

learning based on the difficulty of the task, availability of information about the task and/ or

environment, and the proficiency of the learner. According to Guadagnoli & Lee (2004), there

are two types of skill difficulty. Functional task difficulty means the task is considered difficult,

regardless of the skill level of the performer or the conditions surrounding the task. Nominal task

difficulty refers to tasks that may only be difficult in certain conditions or with novice

performers.

When teaching a skill that is functionally difficult, a novice will need more information

about the task and environment in order to be successful (Guadagnoli & Lee, 2004). Therefore

the role of the coach or instructor would be to provide as much information as possible during

early practice, directing the learner’s attention to the most relevant aspects of the task, and

providing feedback after each trial about errors in technique or goal achievement. A beginner

will be the most successful with a task that has a low margin of functional difficulty and when

given detailed instruction. However there is a optimum amount of information that will result in

learning. Too much information can actually be detrimental (Guadagnoli & Lee, 2004). When

teaching a skill that is nominally difficult to a beginner, practice should be set up to remove

distracting or variable elements of the task that could increase its difficulty. As the learner

progresses, variability can be added to make the task more challenging (Guadagnoli & Lee,

2004).
 Motor Learning for Pre-school, 11

Slide 7: Incorporating Motor Learning Principles into Practice

One important thing to remember when teaching motor skills is that learning is not seen,

rather it is inferred (Shumway Cook & Woolacott, 2007). Learning by definition is a permanent

change in behavior (Higgins, 1991). One assumes that a skill is learned when the performance of

the skill is high (Magill, 2007). However, do not be dismayed if the child first pursues several

incorrect methods of goal attainment. Like Thomas Edison said, “I have not failed, I've just

found 10,000 ways that won't work” (Wikiquote, 2010). For young children, motor learning is

not just learning the movement pattern or technique, but how their extremities work together,

their own physical and biological capabilities and limitations, and how to interpret and use

proprioceptive and sensory information related to the movement (Woodfield, 2004). It is much
 Motor Learning for Pre-school, 12

like an adult learning to use a new device for cooking, cleaning or building without the manual.

A series of trial and error commences to answer the essential questions: What all can it do? What

can’t it do? What happens if I do it this way? What is the best way to do it? The role of the

instructor is to enhance this process. Motor learning can be facilitated by incorporating principles

of motor learning into teaching practices. These principles include goal setting, variability of

practice, contextual interference, demonstrations and modeling, guidance & discovery, mental

practice, and augmented feedback. In the following slides, we will review each one of these.

Slide 8: Incorporating Motor Learning: Goal Setting

The first and most important of all is goal setting. The instructors role is to establish an

attainable goal and present it clearly to the learner. Without a clear goal or purpose of the

movement, learning cannot occur (Gentile, 1972). Before a goal can be established the instructor

must first be familiar with the learner’s skill level, ability and limitations. This is essential
 Motor Learning for Pre-school, 13

information for setting a goal that is attainable. Skill and ability are two very different things

(Schmidt, 1988). The child is still developing physically. Their limited musculature influences

their ability to perform. Asking a 4 year old to throw a perfect spiral 20 yards is a bit eccentric.

Knowing what the learner is physically capable of is important for establishing a reasonable

objective (Schmidt, 1988). In the beginning stages of learning, Gentile (1972) explains that the

learner is simply “getting the idea of the movement.” The goal is to perform the movement

within the bounds of the basic structure. Precision, accuracy and force come much later. The

instructors challenge, then, is to set a clear, simple goal that is both challenging and attainable. In

the picture on the left, the goal is to roll the hula hoop the farthest. It is simply worded so that

they can understand and fairly easy to accomplish once the child tries it a couple times. In the

picture on the right the goal is to kick the soccer ball to their partner. This is challenging because

they need to control the force of their kick appropriately, but it is simple enough that they can

determine success or failure on their own.

Slide 9: Incorporating Motor Learning: Practice Schedule

 Motor Learning for Pre-school, 14

The cliche “practice makes perfect” may be true, but if the practice is not organized

correctly, the amount of practice may be obsolete. Guadagnoli & Lee (2004) said it best,

“Because of our incomplete knowledge of practice variables, we are often inefficient in our

practice sessions.” Practice is a waste if it is not organized for maximum skill learning. There are

two major principles that concern practice schedule: variability and contextual interference.

Variability of practice refers to the difference in environmental factors surrounding the task from

one trial to the next (Magill, 2007). If the conditions surrounding the task are different each time,

practice is labeled as variable, and if the conditions are unchanging, practice is labeled as

constant (Gentile, 1987).

Slide 10: Incorporating Motor Learning: Variable Practice

 Motor Learning for Pre-school, 15

Most research indicates that variable practice is best for learning complex tasks no matter

the age or the skill level of the learner (Magill, 2007). However most research has been

conducted with adults, and although the participants are termed novice, by adulthood, every new

task is just some variation of another. According to Guadagnoli & Lee (2004), beginners learn

best with constant practice conditions. The instructor should limit the amount of variability in the

environment surrounding the task in the early stages of learning. If the goal is to throw a football,

placing the child as quarterback at a peewee football game would degrade any potential to learn

the skill. It would be overwhelming. The child is moving. The targets to which he is throwing are

moving, and the opponents trying to distract the quarterback are moving. Instead, let the child

stand still and throw to an adult not far from where the child is standing. The adult standing near

by will provide a stable, comfortable target for the child’s first try. The adult, as opposed to a

peer, can easily reach to grasp the football from a wide perimeter giving the child a greater

opportunity for success. Difficulty can easily be increased by moving farther away or limiting the

amount that the adult will reach for inaccurate attempts.

One important thing to remember is that although the aim is to limit variability, practice

should not dispose of the inherent qualities of the task (Gentile, 1987). For example, practicing

throwing to a spot on the floor would require a different movement pattern and would not be as

beneficial as practice throwing to a stable adult.

 Motor Learning for Pre-school, 16

Slide 11: Incorporating Motor Learning: Contextual Interference

Contextual interference also refers to organization of practice and is divided into random

and blocked schedules (Magill, 2007). In random practice, the learner is asked to perform a

different variation of the task for each consecutive trial (A, B, B, C, A, C). Blocked practice is

structured for the learner to perform the same task for several consecutive trials before switching

to a new task (A, A, A, B, B, B) (Magill, 2007). Specifically, contextual interference refers to the

disruption to schema formation caused by switching to a new task each trial (Magill & Hall,

1990). It inhibits the ability of the learner to use the feedback from the last attempt to make the

schema more accurate because they are moving on to a new task. The new task requires the

learner to focus on a totally different set of parameters and environmental considerations.

 Motor Learning for Pre-school, 17

Again in studies of adults, high contextual interference, or random practice, is

recommended for learning (Guadagnoli & Lee, 2004). It is proposed that the contextual

interference effect forces the learner to reevaluate the movement plan with each subsequent

attempt instead of just repeating one from the past. This forces the learner to more fully engage

in the problem solving process, making the result more memorable and allowing the learner to

adapt to any new changes (Magill, 2007; Magill & Hall 1990). However in studies of children

the opposite is true. Del Rey, Whitehurst & Wood (1983) showed that blocked practice is more

beneficial for children. The consecutive opportunities to attempt the task may provide more time

for the child to “get the idea of the movement” (Gentile, 1972). It may also give them plenty of

time to fully comprehend the intentions and parameters of the task. Magill & Hall (1990) suggest

that the mental capability of a child is not developed enough to benefit from contextual

interference.

Slide 12: Incorporating Motor Learning: Demonstrations & Modeling

 Motor Learning for Pre-school, 18

There is also research on the benefits of demonstrating the desired movement or

modeling errors made by the learner in skill acquisition (Schmidt, 1988). Vinter & perruchet

(2002) discovered that observation can induce motor learning in children and adults. Fagard &

Lockman (2009) found positive performance effects of observational training at just 12 months

old! One danger with modeling might be that children misinterpret the goal. Modeling the

movement perpetually might make the child think the goal is to produce the demonstrated

movement pattern instead of producing the desired outcome (Gentile, 1972). However, a review

of the effects of observation by Ashford, Davids and Bennett (2007) found that this was not the

case. In fact, in a comparison between adults and children, adults were more likely to focus on

copying the movement dynamics while children focused on successful completion of the task

goal. Either way, in practice it is good to make sure the child fully understands that the goal is

the successful outcome not the movement pattern.

Slide 13: Incorporating Motor Learning: Guidance

 Motor Learning for Pre-school, 19

Similar to modeling is the practice of guiding the learner through the movement either by

physically leading them through the steps or by verbal step by step instructions (Schmidt, 1988).

It is often tempting when a child cannot quite get the hang of the movement, to place your hands

on them and guide them through it or to give them step by step instructions and corrections.

While this may limit errors during practice, it may actually be detrimental to learning (Schmidt,

1988). Remember from earlier that a single performance or even performance within the context

of one practice is not indicative of learning. Learning is a permanent change in behavior

exhibited over time (Higgins, 1991). Magill (2007) suggests that a large quantity of verbal

instruction about the task may actually overwhelm the learner. Remember from challenge point

that while beginners need an ample amount of encouragement and feedback, too much

information can actually degrade performance (Guadagnoli & lee, 2004).

Slide 14: Incorporating Motor Learning: Discovery

 Motor Learning for Pre-school, 20

Discovery learning is more like a trial and error process, allowing the child to experiment

with the parameters of the task and various movement plans (Schmidt, 1988). This might result

in more errors during practice, as the child is experimenting with a variety of motor plans and

will not always pick a successful one. Therefore, more variability will be visible throughout early

practice. Piek (2002) would argue that this variability is a necessary element in learning. When

the child is able to experiment with the ability of his or her musculoskeletal, sensorimotor and

proprioceptive systems, the child ends up with a wide repertoire of successful movements. This

repertoire allows the child to select the most efficient motor plan for their ability and the task at

hand, as well as adapt to future variations of the task. With practice and successful execution, the

child’s motor skills will become more accurate and efficient (Piek, 2002).

Discovery learning provides opportunities for the child to experiment with different

motor plans and variations of the task (Moyer, 2000). If teaching the mechanics of throwing,

give them a variety of objects to throw with different sizes, shapes and textures such as a

volleyball, frisbee, tennis ball, wiffle ball, foam block or wood block. Ask the child to think

about their movements. Which objects are harder and easier to throw? Which objects go the

farthest, highest, or lowest?Ask them to experiment with throwing with two hands and one,

throwing overhanded and underhanded, throwing while stepping and standing still. What is the

best way to throw each object? Which way of throwing, allows them to throw the farthest or

most accurately? Allowing the child to determine these relationships on his own may increase

confidence in his ability to perform the task and make the experience more memorable.
 Motor Learning for Pre-school, 21

Slide 15: Incorporating Motor Learning: Mental Practice

Mental practice and imagery may also be useful. This refers to the practice of asking the

learner to imagine the aesthetic and kinesthetic factors of the movement when performed

correctly (Taktek et al., 2008). Taktek et al (2008) assessed the effects of two types of mental

imagery, visual and kinesthetic, on motor skill acquisition of children. Visual imagery asks the

subject to imagine how the movement would look if done correctly while kinesthetic asks the

learner to imagine how it would feel if done correctly. Taktek’s et al (2008) results showed a

significant influence of a combination of either type of mental imagery and physical practice on

retention of motor skills and transfer of the skill learned to a new skill.

The subjects used for the aforementioned study were between 8 and 10 years old. The

question to be asked is whether a younger child possesses the ability to accurately imagine the
 Motor Learning for Pre-school, 22

characteristics of a movement. Schmidt (1988) suggests that mental practice allows the learner to

run a mental trial and error, using previous experience to predict outcomes of various movement

plans. Does a child have the proper amount of experience related to the task for this to be a

useful technique? Gabbard (2008) states that the ability to interpret kinesthetic information is not

fully matured until at least age 8, and indications of significant development of this ability are

not evident until after age 5. This suggests that kinesthetic mental imagery would not be

effective because they would be unable to adequately imagine the kinesthetic parameters of the

movement. A study by Mojina, Tijus & Jouen (2008) confirms these notions. They asked 5 and 7

year olds to carry a puppet to its home and then to imagine carrying it to their home. When they

compared the actual movement time to the imagined movement time, they found that 5 year olds

were not able to use motor imagery effectively. However Gabbard (2008) explains that body

awareness and vision develop much faster. So, visual mental imagery may be best for this age

group. The instructor can enhance learning by asking the child to imagine him or herself

performing the movement successfully before each trial.

 Motor Learning for Pre-school, 23

Slide 16: Incorporating Motor Learning: Feedback

Augmented feedback about the results and or performance of the movement can also be

beneficial to the learner (Sullivan et al., 2008). Augmented simply refers to the fact that the

information is provided by an external source. A child may receive visual feedback about the

outcome of the movement by watching the flight path of the ball he or she is throwing, or

proprioceptive feedback about the coordination of the joints in the arm while throwing, but this is

referred to as intrinsic feedback (Gentile, 1972). Augmented feedback is considered to be more

accurate and aids in the development of the schema (Schmidt, 1975). Augmented feedback can

be provided in the form of knowledge of results about the outcome or knowledge of performance

about the movement itself (Magill, 2007).

 Motor Learning for Pre-school, 24

In a study of feedback effects on acquisition of an arm movement utilizing a lever,

Sullivan, Kantek & Burtner (2008) found that children with 100% feedback performed best on

retention and transfer tests. 100% feedback means that feedback was provided on each trial. In

this experiment, they provided both a visual image of the performance trajectory overlaying the

goal trajectory and an error score. Young children have no frame or reference for interpreting

their own sensory feedback, therefore frequent feedback about the achievement of the movement

plan and movement goal is necessary for the child to learn the motor skill. Instructions should be

simple, clear and informative so that the child can easily interpret and use the information for the

next trial. As the child progresses less feedback will be necessary.

Slide 17: Effects of Incorporating Motor Learning Principles

Motor learning techniques have been proven effective in a variety of contexts (Ashford et

al., 2007; Fagard & Lockman, 2009; Higgins, 1991; Sullivan et al, 2008; Taktek et al.,2008;
 Motor Learning for Pre-school, 25

Vinter & Perruchet, 2002). In each case, the effects of utilizing motor learning principles

enhanced skill acquisition and learning. While much of the current research refers to adult

subjects, the studies presented in this educational project show that children benefit just as much,

although the principles must be adapted to their ability and skill proficiency. Even infants benefit

from motor learning principles (Fagard & Lockman, 2009). Therefore incorporating motor

learning techniques and practices into pre-school physical education programs will inevitably

result in enhancement of skill acquisition. Galluhue & Donnelly (2003) state that the prime time

to learn gross motor skills is between the ages of 3-5. This suggests that the chances of motor

skill acquisition after this age will decline. Therefore it is important to provide the most

proficient instruction during this critical time period.

Slide 18: Effects of Incorporating Motor Learning Principles

 Motor Learning for Pre-school, 26

As the child’s skill proficiency increases, so will his or her appreciation and enjoyment of

physical activity. These children will be more likely to participate in physical activity of their

own free will (Williams et al. 2004). Not only will they more frequently participate in games and

activities during their pre-school years, this effect will continue into adolescence (Barnett et al.,

2009). Increased physical activity has been positively correlated with better health and

longetivity (CDC, 2008). Therefore introducing motor learning concepts to young children will

result in healthier adults, which was the goal of physical education all along (NASPE, 2004).
 Motor Learning for Pre-school, 27

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