Zhou Enlai - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

11/17/2015
ZhouEnlaiWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
ZhouEnlai
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
ZhouEnlai(simplifiedChinese:traditionalChinese:pinyin:Zhunli
WadeGiles:ChouEnlai)IPA:[
nl](5March18988January1976)wasthefirst
PremierofthePeople'sRepublicofChina,servingfromOctober1949untilhisdeathin
January1976.ZhouservedunderMaoZedongandwasinstrumentalinconsolidatingthe
controloftheCommunistParty'srisetopower,formingforeignpolicy,anddevelopingthe
Chineseeconomy.
ZhouEnlai
Askilledandablediplomat,ZhouservedastheChineseforeignministerfrom1949to
1958.AdvocatingpeacefulcoexistencewiththeWestafterthestalematedKoreanWar,he
participatedinthe1954GenevaConference,the1955BandungConference,andhelped
orchestrateRichardNixon's1972visittoChina.Hehelpeddevisepoliciesregardingthe
bitterdisputeswiththeU.S.,Taiwan,theSovietUnion(after1960),IndiaandVietnam.
ZhousurvivedthepurgesofothertopofficialsduringtheCulturalRevolution.WithMao
dedicatingmostofhislateryearstopoliticalstruggleandideologicalwork,Zhouwasthe
maindrivingforcebehindtheaffairsofstateduringmuchoftheCulturalRevolution.His
attemptsatmitigatingtheRedGuards'damageandhiseffortstoprotectothersfromtheir
wrathmadehimimmenselypopularintheCulturalRevolution'slaterstages.
AsMaoZedong'shealthbegantodeclinein1971and1972,ZhouandtheGangofFour
struggledinternallyoverleadershipofChina.Zhou'shealthwasalsofailing,however,and
hediedeightmonthsbeforeMaoon8January1976.Themassivepublicoutpouringofgrief
inBeijingturnedtoangertowardstheGangofFour,leadingtotheTiananmenIncident.
AlthoughsucceededbyHuaGuofeng,itwasDengXiaoping,Zhou'sally,whowasableto
outmaneuvertheGangofFourpoliticallyandeventuallytakeMao'splaceasParamount
leaderby1978.
Contents
PremierofthePeople'sRepublicofChina
Inoffice
1October19498January1976
President
MaoZedong(until1959)
LiuShaoqi(until1968)
Leader
MaoZedong (CPCChairman)
1stvicepremier
DongBiwu
ChenYun
LinBiao
DengXiaoping
Succeededby
HuaGuofeng
1 Earlylife
1.1 Youth
1.2 Education
ViceChairmanoftheCommunistPartyof
China
Inoffice
28September19561August1966
1.3 Earlypoliticalactivities
1.4 Europeanactivities
Inoffice
30August19738January1976
2 PoliticalandmilitaryworkinWhampoa
2.1 EstablishmentinGuangzhou
Chairman
MaoZedong
2.2 Militaryactivities
2ndChairmanoftheNationalCommitteeOf
theCPPCC
2.3 Politicalactivities
Inoffice
December19548January1976
Honorary
Chairman
MaoZedong
3.1 Extentofcooperation
Precededby
MaoZedong
3.2 ActivitiesinShanghai
Succeededby
vacant(19761978)
DengXiaoping
3 NationalistCommunistsplit
3.3 FlightfromShanghai
1stForeignMinisterofthePRC
Inoffice
19491958
4 ActivitiesduringtheChineseCivilWar
4.1 TheSixthPartyCongress
4.2 Undergroundwork:establishment
4.3 KMTresponsetoZhou'sintelligencework
4.4 TheJiangxiSoviet
Premier
Himself
Precededby
None
Succeededby
ChenYi
Personaldetails
Born
5March1897
Huai'an,Jiangsu,Qing
Dynasty
Died
8January1976(aged77)
Beijing,China
Nationality
Chinese
Politicalparty
CommunistPartyofChina
4.5 Chiang'sEncirclementCampaigns
4.6 TheLongMarch
4.7 TheXi'anIncident
5 ActivitiesduringWorldWarII
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhou_Enlai
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5.1 PropagandaandintelligenceinWuhan
5.2 MilitarystrategyinWuhan
5.3 Adoptionoforphans
5.4 FlighttoChongqing
Spouse(s)
DengYingchao
(m.192576hisdeath)
Children
SunWeishi
WangShu[1][2]
Almamater
NankaiUniversity
Occupation
Politician
Strategist
Revolutionary
5.5 EarlyactivitiesinChongqing
Diplomat
5.6 IntelligenceworkinChongqing
5.7 Economicanddiplomaticactivities
Signature
5.8 RelationshipwithMaoZedong
6 DiplomaticeffortswiththeUnitedStates
6.1 TheDixiemission
6.2 19441945
6.3 TheChongqingnegotiations
Militaryservice
Battles/wars
EasternExpeditions
NanchangUprising
EncirclementCampaigns
SecondSinoJapaneseWar
ChineseCivilWar
6.4 TheMarshallnegotiations
7 ResumptionofCivilWar
7.1 Militarystrategistandintelligencechief
7.2 Diplomacy
8 PRCdiplomatandstatesman
8.1 DiplomaticsituationofthePRCin1949
8.2 DiplomacywithIndia
8.3 TheKoreanWar
8.4 DiplomacywithChina'scommunistneighbors
8.5 TheGenevaConference
8.6 TheAsianAfricanConference
8.7 PositiononTaiwan
8.8 TheShanghaicommunique
9 TheGreatLeapForward
10 TheCulturalRevolution
10.1 InitialeffortsofMaoandLin
10.2 Politicalsurvival
11 Deathandreactions
11.1 Illnessanddeath
11.2 Mao'sresponse
11.3 Memorial
11.4 Suppressionofpublicmourning
11.5 TheTiananmenincident
12 Legacy
13 Seealso
14 Footnotes
15 References
16 Externallinks
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Earlylife
Youth
ZhouEnlaiwasborninHuai'an,Jiangsuprovinceon5March1898,thefirstsonofhisbranchoftheZhoufamily.TheZhoufamilywere
originallyfromShaoxinginZhejiangprovince.DuringthelateQingdynasty,ShaoxingwasfamousasthehomeoffamiliessuchasZhou's,
whosemembersworkedasgovernment"clerks"(shiye)generationaftergeneration.[3]Tomoveuptheladderincivilservice,themeninthese
familiesoftenhadtogettransferred,andinthelateyearsoftheQingdynasty,ZhouEnlai'sbranchofthefamilymovedtoHuai'an.Evenafter
themove,however,thefamilycontinuedtoviewShaoxingasitsancestralhome.[4]
Zhou'sgrandfather,ZhouPanlong,andhisgranduncle,ZhouJun'ang,werethefirstmembersofthefamilytomovetoHuai'an.Panlong
apparentlypassedtheprovincialexaminations,andZhouEnlailaterclaimedthatPanlongservedasmagistrategoverningHuai'ancounty.[5]
Zhou'sfather,ZhouYineng,wasthesecondofZhouPanlong'sfoursons.Zhou'sbirthmother,surnamedWan,wasthedaughterofa
prominentJiangsuofficial.[6]
Likemanyothers,theeconomicfortunesofZhou'slargefamilyofscholarofficialsweredecimatedbyagreateconomicrecessionthatChina
sufferedinthelate19thcentury.ZhouYinenghadareputationforhonesty,gentleness,intelligenceandconcernforothers,butwasalso
considered"weak"and"lackingindisciplineanddetermination".Hewasunsuccessfulinhispersonallife,anddriftedacrossChinadoing
variousoccupations,workinginBeijing,Shandong,Anhui,Shenyang,InnerMongoliaandSichuan.ZhouEnlailaterrememberedhisfatheras
beingalwaysawayfromhomeandgenerallyunabletosupporthisfamily.[7]
Soonafterbirth,ZhouEnlaiwasadoptedbyhisfather'syoungestbrother,ZhouYigan,whowasillwithtuberculosis.Apparentlytheadoption
wasarrangedbecausethefamilyfearedYiganwoulddiewithoutanheir.[8]ZhouYigandiedsoonaftertheadoption,andZhouEnlaiwas
raisedbyYigan'swidow,whosesurnamewasChen.MadameChenwasalsofromascholarlyfamilyandreceivedatraditionalliterary
education.AccordingtoZhou'sownaccount,hewasveryclosetohisadoptivemotherandacquiredhislastinginterestinChineseliterature
andoperafromher.MadameChentaughtZhoutoreadandwriteatanearlyage,andZhoulaterclaimedtohavereadthefamousvernacular
novelJourneytotheWestattheageofsix.[9]Bytheageofeight,hewasreadingothertraditionalChinesenovels,includingtheWater
Margin,RomanceoftheThreeKingdoms,andDreamoftheRedMansion.[10]
Zhou'sbirthmotherWandiedin1907whenZhouwas9,andhisadoptivemotherChenin1908whenZhouwas10.Zhou'sfatherwas
workinginHubei,farfromJiangsu,soZhouandhistwoyoungerbrothersreturnedtoHuai'anandlivedwithhisfather'sremainingyounger
brotherYikuiforthenexttwoyears.[11]In1910,Zhou'suncleYigeng,hisfather'solderbrother,offeredtocareforZhou.Thefamilyin
Huai'anagreed,andZhouwassenttostaywithhisuncleinManchuriaatShenyang,whereZhouYigengworkedinagovernmentoffice.[12]
Education
InShenyang,ZhouattendedtheDongguanModelAcademy,amodernstyleschool.Hispreviouseducationconsistedentirelyof
homeschooling.InadditiontonewsubjectssuchasEnglishandscience,Zhouwasalsoexposedtothewritingsofreformersandradicalssuch
asLiangQichao,KangYouwei,ChenTianhua,ZouRongandZhangBinglin.[13][14]Attheageoffourteen,Zhoudeclaredthathismotivation
forpursuingeducationwasto"becomeagreatmanwhowilltakeuptheheavyresponsibilitiesofthecountryinthefuture."[15]In1913,Zhou's
unclewastransferredtoTianjin,whereZhouenteredthefamousNankaiMiddleSchool.
NankaiMiddleSchoolwasfoundedbyYanXiu,aprominentscholarandphilanthropist,andheadedbyZhangBoling,oneofthemost
importantChineseeducatorsofthe20thcentury.[16]Nankai'steachingmethodswereunusualbycontemporaryChinesestandards.Bythetime
Zhoubeganattending,ithadadoptedtheeducationalmodelusedatthePhillipsAcademyintheUnitedStates.[17]Theschool'sreputation,with
its"highlydisciplined"dailyroutineand"strictmoralcode",[18]attractedmanystudentswholaterbecameprominentinpubliclife.Zhou's
friendsandclassmatesthererangedfromMaJun(anearlycommunistleaderexecutedin1927)toK.C.Wu(latermayorofShanghaiand
governorofTaiwanundertheNationalistparty).[19]Zhou'stalentsalsoattractedtheattentionofYanXiuandZhangBoling.Yaninparticular
thoughthighlyofZhou,helpingtopayforhisstudiesinJapanandlaterFrance.[20]
YanwassoimpressedwithZhouthatheencouragedZhoutomarryhisdaughter,butZhoudeclined.Zhoulaterexpressedthereasonsforhis
decisionnottomarryYan'sdaughtertohisclassmate,ZhangHonghao.Zhousaidthathedeclinedthemarriagebecausehefearedthathis
financialprospectswouldnotbepromising,andthatYanwould,ashisfatherinlaw,laterdominatehislife.[21]
ZhoudidwellinhisstudiesatNankaiheexcelledinChinese,wonseveralawardsintheschoolspeechclub,andbecameeditoroftheschool
newspaperinhisfinalyear.ZhouwasalsoveryactiveinactingandproducingdramasandplaysatNankaimanystudentswhowerenot
otherwiseacquaintedwithhimknewofhimthroughhisacting.[22]NankaipreservesanumberofessaysandarticleswrittenbyZhouatthis
time,andthesereflectthediscipline,training,andconcernforcountrythatNankai'sfoundersattemptedtoinstillintheirstudents.Atthe
school'stenthcommencementinJune1917,Zhouwasoneoffivegraduatingstudentshonoredattheceremony,andoneofthetwo
valedictorians.[23]
BythetimethathegraduatedfromNankai,ZhangBoling'steachingsofgong(publicspirit)andneng(ability)hadmadeagreatimpressionon
him.Hisparticipationindebatesandstageperformancescontributedtohiseloquenceandskillsofpersuasion.ZhouleftNankaiwithagreat
desiretopursuepublicservice,andtoacquiretheskillsrequiredtodoso.[24]
Followingmanyofhisclassmates,ZhouwenttoJapaninJuly1917forfurtherstudies.DuringhistwoyearsinJapan,Zhouspentmostofhis
timeintheEastAsianHigherPreparatorySchool,alanguageschoolforChinesestudents.Zhou'sstudiesweresupportedbyhisuncles,and
apparentlyNankaifounderYanXiuaswell,buttheirfundswerelimitedandduringthisperiodJapansufferedfromsevereinflation.[25]Zhou
originallyplannedonwinningoneofthescholarshipsofferedbytheChinesegovernmentthesescholarships,however,requiredChinese
studentstopassentranceexaminationsinJapaneseuniversities.Zhoutookentranceexaminationsforatleasttwoschools,butfailedtogain
admission.[26]Zhou'sreportedanxietieswerecompoundedbythedeathofhisuncle,ZhouYikui,aninabilitytomasterJapanese,andanacute
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JapaneseculturalchauvinismthatdiscriminatedagainstChinese.BythetimethatZhoureturnedtoChinainthespringof1919,hehadbecome
deeplydisenchantedwithJapaneseculture,rejectingtheideathattheJapanesepoliticalmodelwasrelevanttoChinaanddisdainingthevalues
ofelitismandmilitarismthatheobserved.[27]
Zhou'sdiariesandlettersfromhistimeinTokyoshowadeepinterestinpoliticsandcurrentevents,inparticular,theRussianRevolutionof
1917andtheBolsheviks'newpolicies.HebegantoreadavidlyChenDuxiu'sprogressiveandleftleaningmagazine,NewYouth.[28]He
probablyreadsomeearlyJapaneseworksonMarx,andithasbeenclaimedthatheevenattendedKawakamiHajime'slecturesatKyoto
University.KawakamiwasanimportantfigureintheearlyhistoryofJapaneseMarxism,andhistranslationsandarticlesinfluenceda
generationofChinesecommunists.[29]However,itnowseemsunlikelythatZhoumethimorheardanyofhislectures.[30]Zhou'sdiariesalso
showhisconcernoverChinesestudentstrikesinJapaninMay1918,whentheChinesegovernmentfailedtosendthestudents'scholarships,
butheapparentlywasnotdeeplyinvolvedintheprotest.HisactiveroleinpoliticalmovementsbeganafterhisreturntoChina.
Earlypoliticalactivities
ZhoureturnedtoTianjinsometimeinthespringof1919.HistoriansdisagreeoverZhou'sparticipation
intheMayFourthMovement(MaytoJune1919).Zhou's"official"Chinesebiographystatesthathe
wasaleaderoftheTianjinstudentprotestsintheMayFourthmovement,[31]butmanymodernscholars
believethatitishighlyunlikelythatZhouparticipatedatall,basedonthetotallackofdirectevidence
amongthesurvivingrecordsfromtheperiod.[31][32]InJuly1919,however,Zhoubecameeditorofthe
TianjinStudentUnionBulletin,apparentlyattherequestofhisNankaiclassmate,MaJun,afounderof
theUnion.[33]DuringitsbriefexistencefromJuly1919toearly1920,theBulletinwaswidelyreadby
studentgroupsaroundthecountryandsuppressedonatleastoneoccasionbythenationalgovernment
as"harmfultopublicsafetyandsocialorder."[34]
WhenNankaibecameauniversityinAugust1919,Zhouwasinthefirstclass,buthewasanactivist
fulltime.Hispoliticalactivitiescontinuedtoexpand,andinSeptemberheandseveralotherstudents
agreedtoestablishthe"AwakeningSociety",asmallgroupnevernumberingmorethan25.[35]In
explainingthegoalsandpurposeoftheAwakeningSociety,Zhoudeclaredthat"anythingthatis
incompatiblewithprogressincurrenttimes,suchasmilitarism,thebourgeoisie,partylords,
bureaucrats,inequalitybetweenmenandwomen,obstinateideas,obsoletemorals,oldethics...should
beabolishedorreformed",andaffirmedthatitwasthepurposeoftheSocietytospreadthisawareness
amongtheChinesepeople.ItwasinthissocietythatZhoufirstmethisfuturewife,DengYingchao.[36]
AyoungZhouEnlai(1919)
Insomeways,theAwakeningSocietyresembledtheclandestineMarxiststudygroupatPeking
UniversityheadedbyLiDazhao,withthegroupmembersusingnumbersinsteadofnamesfor
"secrecy".(Zhouwas"NumberFive",apseudonymwhichhecontinuedtouseinlateryears.)[37]Indeed,immediatelyafterthegroupwas
established,itinvitedLiDazhaotogivealectureonMarxism.
Zhouassumedmoreprominentactiveroleinpoliticalactivitiesoverthenextfewmonths.[38]Thelargestoftheseactivitieswereralliesin
supportofanationwideboycottofJapanesegoods.Astheboycottbecamemoreeffective,thenationalgovernment,underpressurefrom
Japan,attemptedtosuppressit.On23January1920,aconfrontationoverboycottactivitiesinTianjinledtothearrestofanumberofpeople,
includingseveralAwakeningSocietymembers,andon29JanuaryZhouledamarchontheGovernor'sOfficeinTianjintopresentapetition
callingforthearrestees'release.Zhouandthreeotherleaderswerethemselvesarrested.Thearresteeswereheldforoversixmonthsduring
theirdetention,ZhousupposedlyorganizeddiscussionsonMarxism.[39]AttheirtrialinJuly,Zhouandsixothersweresentencedtotwo
monthstherestwerefoundnotguilty.Allwereimmediatelyreleasedsincetheyhadalreadybeenheldoversixmonths.
AfterZhou'srelease,heandtheAwakeningSocietymetwithseveralBeijingorganizationsandagreedtoforma"ReformFederation"during
theseactivitiesZhoubecamemorefamiliarwithLiDazhaoandmetZhangShenfu,whowasthecontactbetweenLiinBeijingandChen
DuxiuinShanghai.BothmenwereorganizingundergroundCommunistcellsincooperationwithGrigoriVoitinsky,aCominternagent,but
ZhouapparentlydidnotmeetVoitinskyatthispoint.
Soonafterhisrelease,ZhoudecidedtogotoEuropetostudy.(HewasexpelledfromNankaiUniversityduringhisdetention.)Although
moneywasaproblem,hereceivedascholarshipfromYanXiu.[40]Inordertogaingreaterfunding,hesuccessfullyapproachedaTianjin
newspaper,Yishibao,forworkasa"specialcorrespondent"inEurope.ZhouleftShanghaiforEuropeon7November1920withagroupof
196workstudystudents,includingfriendsfromNankaiandTianjin.[41]
Zhou'sexperiencesaftertheMayFourthincidentseemtohavebeencrucialinhisradicalization.Zhou'sfriendsintheAwakeningSociety
weresimilarlyaffected.15ofthegroup'smembersbecameCommunistsforatleastsometime,andthegroupremainedcloselateron.Zhou
andsixothergroupmemberswoundupgoingtoEuropeinthenexttwoyears,andZhoueventuallymarriedthegroup'syoungestmember,
DengYingchao.
Europeanactivities
Zhou'sgrouparrivedinMarseilleon13December1920.UnlikemostotherChinesestudents,whotraveledtoEuropeonworkstudy
programs,Zhou'sscholarshipandpositionwithYishibaomeantthathewaswellprovidedforanddidnothavetodoanyworkduringhisstay.
Becauseofhisfinancialposition,hewasabletodevotehimselffulltimetorevolutionaryactivities.[41]Inalettertohiscousinin30January
1921,ZhousaidthathisgoalsinEuropeweretodiscoverthesocialconditionsinforeigncountriesandtheirmethodsofresolvingsocial
issues,forthepurposeoflaterapplyingtheselessonstoChinaafterhisreturn.Inthesameletterhetoldhiscousinthat,regardinghisadoption
ofaspecificideology,"Istillhavetomakeupmymind."[42]
WhileinEurope,Zhou,alsonamedasJohnKnight,studiedthedifferingapproachestoresolvingclassconflictadoptedbyvariousEuropean
nations.InLondononJanuary1921,Zhouwitnessedalargeminers'strikeandwroteaseriesofarticlesfortheYishibao(generally
sympathetictotheminers)examiningtheconflictbetweenworkersandemployers,andtheconflict'sresolution.AfterfiveweeksinLondonhe
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movedtoParis,whereinterestinRussia's1917OctoberRevolutionwashigh.Inalettertohiscousin,Zhouidentifiedtwobroadpathsof
reformforChina:"gradualreform"(asinEngland)or"violentmeans"(asinRussia).Zhouwrotethat"Idonothaveapreferenceforeitherthe
RussianortheBritishway...Iwouldprefersomethinginbetween,ratherthanoneofthesetwoextremes".[42]
Stillinterestedinacademicprograms,ZhoutraveledtoBritaininJanuary1921tovisitEdinburghUniversity.Concernedbyfinancial
problemsandlanguagerequirements,hedidnotenroll,returningtoFranceattheendofJanuary.TherearenorecordsofZhouenteringany
academicprograminFrance.Inspring1921,hejoinedaChineseCommunistcell.[43]ZhouwasrecruitedbyZhangShenfu,whomhehadmet
inAugustofthepreviousyearinconnectionwithLiDazhao.HealsoknewZhangthroughZhang'swife,LiuQingyang,amemberofthe
AwakeningSociety.Zhouhassometimesbeenportrayedatthistimeasuncertaininhispolitics,[44]buthisswiftmovetoCommunism
suggestsotherwise.[45]
ThecellZhoubelongedtowasbasedinParis[46]inadditiontoZhou,Zhang,andLiuitincludedtwootherstudents,ZhaoShiyanandChen
Gongpei.Overthenextseveralmonths,thisgroupeventuallyformedaunitedorganizationwithagroupofChineseradicalsfromHunan,who
werelivinginMontargissouthofParis.ThisgroupincludedsuchlaterprominentfiguresasCaiHesen,LiLisan,ChenYi,NieRongzhen,
DengXiaopingandalsoGuoLongzhen,anothermemberoftheAwakeningSociety.UnlikeZhou,mostofthestudentsinthisgroupwere
participantsintheworkstudyprogram.AseriesofconflictswiththeChineseadministratorsoftheprogramoverlowpayandpoorworking
conditionsresultedinoverahundredstudentsoccupyingtheprogram'sofficesattheSinoFrenchInstituteinLyoninSeptember1921.The
students,includingseveralpeoplefromtheMontargisgroup,werearrestedanddeported.Zhouwasapparentlynotoneoftheoccupying
studentsandremainedinFranceuntilFebruaryorMarch1922,whenhemovedwithZhangandLiufromParistoBerlin.Zhou'smoveto
Berlinwasperhapsbecausetherelatively"lenient"politicalatmosphereinBerlinmadeitmorefavorableasabaseforoverallEuropean
organizing.[47]Inaddition,theWesternEuropeanSecretariatoftheCominternwaslocatedinBerlinanditisclearthatZhouhadimportant
Cominternconnections,thoughthenatureoftheseisdisputed.[48]AftermovingoperationstoGermany,ZhouregularlyshuttledbetweenParis
andBerlin.
ZhoureturnedtoParisbyJune1922,wherehewasoneofthetwentytwoparticipantspresentattheorganizationoftheChineseYouth
CommunistParty,establishedastheEuropeanBranchoftheChineseCommunistParty.[49]Zhouhelpeddrafttheparty'scharterandwas
electedtothethreememberexecutivecommitteeasdirectorofpropaganda.[50]Healsowroteforandhelpededitthepartymagazine,Shaonian
(Youth),laterrenamedChiguang(RedLight).ItwasinZhou'scapacityasgeneraleditorofthismagazinethatZhoufirstmetDengXiaoping,
onlyseventeenyearsold,whomZhouhiredtooperateamimeograph(copy)machine.[51]Thepartywentthroughseveralreorganizationsand
namechanges,butZhouremainedakeymemberofthegroupthroughouthisstayinEurope.OtherimportantactivitiesZhouundertook
includedrecruitingandtransportingstudentsfortheUniversityoftheToilersoftheEastinMoscow,andtheestablishmentoftheChinese
NationalistParty(KuomintangorKMT)Europeanbranch.
InJune1923,theThirdCongressoftheChineseCommunistPartyacceptedtheComintern'sinstructionstoallywiththeKMT,ledatthetime
bySunYatsen.TheseinstructionscalledforCCPmemberstojointheNationalistPartyas"individuals",whilestillretainingtheirassociation
withtheCCP.AfterjoiningtheCCP,theywouldworktoleadanddirectit,transformingitintoavehicleofrevolution.Withinseveralyears,
thisstrategywouldbecomethesourceofseriousconflictbetweentheKMTandtheCCP.[52]
ZhounotonlyjoinedtheKMT,butactuallyhelpedorganizethefoundingoftheNationalistPartyEuropeanbranchinNovember1923.Under
Zhou'sinfluence,mostoftheEuropeanbranch'sofficerswereinfactcommunists.Zhou'swiderangingcontactsandpersonalrelationships
formedduringthisperiodwerecentraltohiscareer.Importantpartyleaders,suchasZhuDeandNieRongzhen,werefirstadmittedtothe
partybyZhou.
By1924,theSovietNationalistalliancewasexpandingrapidlyandZhouwassummonedbacktoChinaforfurtherwork.HeleftEurope
probablyinlateJuly1924,[53]returningtoChinaasoneofthemostseniorChineseCommunistPartymembersinEurope.
PoliticalandmilitaryworkinWhampoa
EstablishmentinGuangzhou
ZhoureturnedtoChinainlateAugustorearlySeptember1924tojointhePoliticalDepartmentofthe
WhampoaMilitaryAcademy,probablythroughtheinfluenceofZhangShenfu,whohadpreviously
workedthere.[54]TheexactpositionsZhouheldatWhampoaandthedatesheheldthemarenotclear.
Afewmonthsafterhisarrival,possiblyOctober1924,hebecamedeputydirectoroftheAcademy's
PoliticalDepartment,andlater,possiblyNovember1924,directorofthedepartment.[55]Eventhoughit
wastechnicallyresponsibletothecentralgovernment,Zhou'spoliticaldepartmentoperatedundera
directmandatetoindoctrinateWhampoa'scadetsintheideologyoftheKMTforthepurposeof
improvingloyaltyandmorale.WhilehewasservinginWhampoa,Zhouwasalsomadethesecretaryof
theCommunistPartyofGuandongGuanxi,andservedastheCCPrepresentativewiththerankof
majorgeneral.[56]
TheislandofWhampoa,tenmilesdownriverfromGuangzhou,wasattheheartoftheSoviet
NationalistPartyalliance.ConceivedasthetrainingcenteroftheNationalistPartyArmy,itwasto
providethemilitarybasefromwhichtheNationalistswouldlaunchtheircampaigntounifyChina,
whichwassplitintodozensofmilitarysatrapies.Fromitsbeginning,theschoolwasfunded,armed,
andpartlystaffedbytheSoviets.[57]
InWhampoaMilitaryAcademyas
Directorofthepoliticaldepartment
ThePoliticalDepartment,whereZhouworked,wasresponsibleforpoliticalindoctrinationandcontrol.Asaresult,Zhouwasaprominent
figureatmostAcademymeetings,oftenaddressingtheschoolimmediatelyaftercommandantChiangKaishek.Hewasextremelyinfluential
inestablishingthepoliticaldepartment/partyrepresentative(commissar)systemwhichwasadoptedinNationalistarmedforcesin1925.[58]
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ConcurrentwithhisWhampoaappointment,ZhoubecamesecretaryoftheCommunistParty'sGuangdongProvincialCommittee,andatsome
pointamemberoftheProvincialCommittee'sMilitarySection.[59]ZhouvigorouslyextendedCommunistinfluenceattheAcademy.Hesoon
arrangedforanumberofotherprominentCommuniststojointhePoliticalDepartment,includingChenYi,NieRongzhen,YunDaiyingand
XiongXiong.[60]ZhouplayedanimportantroleinestablishingtheYoungSoldiersAssociation,ayouthgroupwhichwasdominatedbythe
Communists,andSparks,ashortlivedCommunistfrontgroup.HethusrecruitednumerousnewCommunistpartymembersfromcadetranks,
andeventuallysetupacovertCommunistPartybranchattheacademytodirectthenewmembers.[61]WhenNationalistsconcernedwiththe
increasingnumberofCommunistmembersandorganizationsatWhampoasetupa"SocietyforSunYatsenism",Zhouattemptedtosquelch
ittheconflictbetweenthesestudentgroupssetthebackgroundforZhou'sremovalfromtheacademy.[62]
Militaryactivities
ZhouparticipatedintwomilitaryoperationsconductedbytheNationalistregimein1925,laterknownasthefirstandsecondEastern
Expeditions.ThefirstwasinJanuary1925whenChenJiongming,animportantCantonesemilitaryleaderpreviouslydrivenoutofGuangzhou
bySunYatsen,attemptedtoretakeGuangzhou.TheNationalistregime'scampaignagainstChenconsistedofforcesfromtheGuangdong
ArmyunderXuChongzhi,andtwotrainingregimentsoftheNationalistPartyArmy,ledbyChiangKaishekandstaffedbyAcademyofficers
andcadets.[63]ThefightinglastedthroughMay1925,withthedefeat,butnotdestruction,ofChen'sforces.[64]Zhouaccompaniedthe
Whampoacadetsontheexpeditionasapoliticalofficer.
WhenChenregroupedandattackedGuangzhouagaininSeptember1925,theNationalistslaunchedasecondexpedition.Nationalistforcesby
thistimehadbeenreorganizedintofivecorps(orarmies),andadoptedthecommissarsystemwithPoliticalDepartmentsandNationalistparty
representativesinmostdivisions.TheFirstCorps,madeupoftheNationalistPartyArmy,wasledbyWhampoagraduatesandcommandedby
ChiangKaishek,whopersonallyappointedZhoudirectoroftheFirstCorpsPoliticalDepartment.[65]Soonafter,theNationalistParty's
CentralExecutiveCommitteeappointedZhouNationalistPartypartyrepresentative,makingZhouchiefcommissaroftheFirstCorps.[66]The
firstmajorbattleofexpeditionsawthecaptureofChen'sbaseinHuizhouon15October.Shantouwastakenon6November,andbytheendof
1925,theNationalistscontrolledallofGuangdongprovince.
Zhou'sappointmentaschiefcommissaroftheFirstCorpsallowedhimtoappointCommunistsascommissarsinfouroftheCorps'five
divisions.[67]FollowingtheconclusionoftheExpedition,ZhouwasappointedspecialcommissionerfortheEastRiverDistrict,whichplaced
himintemporaryadministrativecontrolofseveralcountiesheapparentlyusedthisopportunitytoestablishaCommunistpartybranchin
ShantouandstrengthentheCPC'scontroloflocalunions.[68]ThismarkedthehighpointofZhou'stimeatWhampoa.
Politicalactivities
Inpersonalterms,1925wasalsoanimportantyearforZhou.ZhouhadkeptintouchwithDengYingchao,whomhehadmetinthe
AwakeningSocietywhileinTianjinand,inJanuary1925,ZhouaskedforandreceivedpermissionfromCCPauthoritiestomarryDeng.The
twomarriedinGuangzhouon8August1925.[69]
Zhou'sworkatWhampoacametoanendwiththeZhongshanWarshipIncidentof20March1926,inwhichagunboatwithamostly
CommunistcrewmovedfromWhampoatoGuangzhouwithoutChiang'sknowledgeorapproval.ThiseventledtoChiang'sexclusionof
CommunistsfromtheAcademybyMay1926,andtheremovalofnumerousCommunistsfromhighpositionsintheNationalistParty.Inhis
memoirs,NieRongzhensuggestedthatthegunboathadmovedinprotestofZhouEnlai's(brief)arrest.[61]
Zhou'stimeinWhampoawasasignificantperiodinhiscareer.Hispioneeringworkasapoliticalofficerinthemilitarymadehiman
importantCommunistPartyexpertinthiskeyareamuchofhislatercareercenteredonthemilitary.Zhou'sworkintheCCPGuangdong
RegionalCommitteeMilitarySectionwastypicalofhiscovertactivitiesintheperiod.TheSectionwasasecretgroupconsistingofthree
membersoftheProvincialCentralCommittee,andwasfirstresponsiblefororganizinganddirectingCCPnucleiinthearmyitself.These
nuclei,organizedattheregimentallevelandabove,were"illegal",meaningtheywereformedwithoutNationalistknowledgeorauthorization.
TheSectionwasalsoresponsiblefororganizingsimilarnucleiinotherarmedgroups,includingsecretsocietiesandkeyservicessuchas
railroadsandwaterways.ZhoudidextensiveworkintheseareasuntilthefinalseparationoftheNationalistandCommunistpartiesandthe
endoftheSovietNationalistalliancein1927.[70]
NationalistCommunistsplit
Extentofcooperation
Zhou'sactivitiesimmediatelyafterhisremovalfromhispositionsatWhampoaareuncertain.AnearlierbiographerclaimsthatChiangKai
shekputZhouinchargeof"anadvancedtrainingcenterfortheCCPmembersandcommissarswithdrawnfromthearmy".[71]Morerecent
ChineseCommunistsourcesclaimthatZhouhadanimportantroleatthistimeinsecuringCommunistcontrolofYeTing'sIndependent
Regiment.TheregimentandYeTinglaterplayedaleadingroleintheCommunists'firstmajormilitaryaction,theNanchangRevolt.[61]
InJuly1926,theNationalistsbegantheNorthernExpedition,amassivemilitaryattempttounifyChina.TheExpeditionwasledbyChiang
KaishekandtheNationalRevolutionaryArmy(NRA),anamalgamofearliermilitaryforceswithsignificantguidancefromRussianmilitary
advisorsandnumerousCommunistsasbothcommandingandpoliticalofficers.WiththeearlysuccessesoftheExpedition,therewassoona
racebetweenChiangKaishekleadingthe"rightwing"oftheNationalistPartyandtheCommunists,runninginsidethe"leftwing"ofthe
Nationalists,forcontrolofmajorsoutherncitiessuchasNanjingandShanghai.AtthispointtheChineseportionofShanghaiwascontrolled
bySunChuanfang,oneofthemilitariststargetedbytheNorthExpedition.DistractedbyfightingwiththeNRAanddefectionsfromhisarmy,
SunreducedhisforcesinShanghai,andtheCommunists,whosepartyheadquarterswaslocatedinShanghai,madethreeattemptstoseize
controlofthecity,latercalled"thethreeShanghaiUprisings",inOctober1926,February1927,andMarch1927.
ActivitiesinShanghai
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ZhouwastransferredtoShanghaitoassistintheseactivities,probablyinlate1926.Itseemshewasnotpresentforthefirstuprisingon
October2324,[72]buthewascertainlyinShanghaibyDecember1926.EarlyaccountscreditZhouwithlabororganizingactivitiesin
Shanghaiafterhisarrival,or,morecredibly,workingto"strengthentheindoctrinationofpoliticalworkersinlaborunionsandsmugglearms
forthestrikers."[73]ReportsthatZhou"organized"or"ordered"thesecondandthirduprisingson20Februaryand21Marchexaggeratehis
role.MajordecisionsduringthisperiodweremadebytheCommunistheadinShanghai,ChenDuxiu,theParty'sgeneralsecretary,witha
specialcommitteeofeightpartyofficialscoordinatingCommunistactions.Thecommitteealsoconsultedcloselyondecisionswiththe
CominternrepresentativesinShanghai,headedbyGrigoriVoitinsky.[74]ThepartialdocumentationavailableforthisperiodshowsthatZhou
headedtheCommunistPartyCentralCommittee'sMilitaryCommissioninShanghai.[75]HeparticipatedinboththeFebruaryandMarch
actions,butwasnottheguidinghandineitherevent,insteadworkingwithA.P.Appen,theSovietmilitaryadvisortotheCentralCommittee,
trainingthepicketsoftheGeneralLaborUnion,theCommunistcontrolledlabororganizationinShanghai.Healsoworkedtomakeunion
strongarmsquadsmoreeffectivewhentheCommunistsdeclareda"RedTerror"afterthefailedFebruaryuprisingthisactionresultedinthe
murderoftwenty"antiunion"figures,andthekidnapping,beating,andintimidationofothersassociatedwithantiunionactivities.[76]
ThethirdCommunistuprisinginShanghaitookplacefromMarch2021.600,000riotingworkerscutpowerandtelephonelinesandseized
thecity'spostoffice,policeheadquarters,andrailwaystations,oftenafterheavyfighting.Duringthisuprising,theinsurrectionistswereunder
strictordersnottoharmforeigners,whichtheyobeyed.TheforcesofSunChuanfangwithdrewanduprisingwassuccessful,despitethesmall
numberofarmedforcesavailable.ThefirstNationalisttroopsenteredthecitythenextday.[77]
AstheCommunistsattemptedtoinstallasovietmunicipalgovernment,conflictbeganbetweentheNationalistsandCommunists,andon12
AprilNationalistforces,includingbothmembersoftheGreenGangandsoldiersunderthecommandofNationalistgeneralBaiChongxi
attackedtheCommunistsandquicklyovercamethem.OntheeveoftheNationalistattack,WangShouhua,whowasboththeheadoftheCCP
LabourCommitteeandtheChairmanoftheGeneralLabourCommittee,acceptedadinnerinvitationfrom"BigearedDu"(aShanghai
gangster)andwasstrangledafterhearrived.Zhouhimselfwasnearlykilledinasimilartrap,whenhewasarrestedafterarrivingatadinner
heldattheheadquartersofSiLie,aNationalistcommanderofChiang'sTwentysixthArmy.DespiterumorsthatChianghadputahighprice
onZhou'shead,hewasquicklyreleasedbyBaiChongxi'sforces.ThereasonsforZhou'ssuddenreleasemayhavebeenthatZhouwasthenthe
mostseniorCommunistinShanghai,thatChiang'seffortstoexterminatetheShanghaiCommunistswerehighlysecretiveatthetime,andthat
hisexecutionwouldhavebeennoticedasaviolationofthecooperationagreementbetweentheCCPandtheKMT(whichwastechnicallystill
ineffect).ZhouwasfinallyonlyreleasedaftertheinterventionofarepresentativeoftheTwentysixthArmy,ZhaoShu,whowasableto
convincehiscommandersthatthearrestofZhouhadbeenamistake.[78]
FlightfromShanghai
FleeingShanghai,ZhoumadehiswaytoHankou(nowpartofWuhan),andwasaparticipantattheCCP's5thNationalCongresstherefrom
27Aprilto9May.AttheendoftheCongress,ZhouwaselectedtotheParty'sCentralCommittee,againheadingthemilitarydepartment.[79]
AfterChiangKaishek'ssuppressionoftheCommunists,theNationalistPartysplitintwo,withtheNationalistParty's"leftwing"(ledby
WangJingwei)controllingthegovernmentinHankou,andChiangandtheparty"rightwing"(ledbyChiangKaishek)establishingarival
governmentinNanjing.StillfollowingCominterninstructions,theCommunistsremainedasa"blocinside"theNationalistParty,hopingto
continueexpandingtheirinfluencethroughtheNationalists.[80]AfterbeingattackedbyawarlordfriendlytoChiang,Wang'sleftist
governmentdisintegratedlaterinMay1927,andChiang'stroopsbegananorganizedpurgeofCommunistsinterritoriesformerlycontrolled
byWang.[81]InmidJulyZhouwasforcedtogounderground.[80]
PressuredbytheirCominternadvisors,andthemselvesconvincedthatthe"revolutionaryhightide"hadarrived,theCommunistsdecidedto
launchaseriesofmilitaryrevolts.[82]ThefirstofthesewastheNanchangRevolt.Zhouwassenttooverseetheevent,butthemovingfigures
seemtohavebeenTanPingshanandLiLisan,whilethemainmilitaryfigureswereYeTingandHeLong.Inmilitaryterms,therevoltwasa
disaster,withtheCommunists'forcesdecimatedandscattered.[83]
Zhouhimselfcontractedmalariaduringthecampaign,andwassecretlysenttoHongKongformedicaltreatmentbyNieRongzhenandYe
Ting.AfterreachingHongKong,Zhouwasdisguisedasabusinessmannamed"Li",andentrustedtothecareoflocalCommunists.Ina
subsequentmeetingoftheCCPCentralCommittee,ZhouwasblamedforthefailureoftheNanchangcampaignandtemporarilydemotedto
beinganalternatememberofthePolitburo.[84]
ActivitiesduringtheChineseCivilWar
TheSixthPartyCongress
AfterthefailureoftheNanchangUprising,ZhouleftChinafortheSovietUniontoattendtheChineseCommunistParty's(CCP)Sixth
NationalPartyCongressinMoscow,inJuneJuly1928.[85]TheSixthCongresshadtobeheldinMoscowbecauseconditionsinChinawere
considereddangerous.KMTcontrolwassotightthatmanyChinesedelegatesattendingtheSixthCongresswereforcedtotravelindisguise:
Zhouhimselfwasdisguisedasanantiquarian.[86]
AttheSixthCongress,ZhoudeliveredalongspeechinsistingthatconditionsinChinawerenotfavorableforimmediaterevolution,andthat
themaintaskoftheCCPshouldbetodeveloprevolutionarymomentumbywinningoverthesupportofthemassesinthecountrysideand
establishingaSovietregimeinsouthernChina,similartotheonethatMaoZedongandZhuDewerealreadyestablishingaroundJiangxi.The
CongressgenerallyacceptedZhou'sassessmentasaccurate.XiangZhongfawasmadesecretarygeneraloftheParty,butwassoonfound
incapableoffulfillinghisrole,soZhouemergedasthedefactoleaderoftheCCP.Zhouwasonlythirtyyearsold.[86]
DuringtheSixthCongress,ZhouwaselectedDirectoroftheCentralCommitteeOrganizationDepartment.Hisally,LiLisan,tookover
propagandawork.ZhoufinallyreturnedtoChina,aftermorethanayearabroad,in1929.AttheSixthCongressinMoscow,Zhouhadgiven
figuresindicatingthat,by1928,fewerthan32,000unionmembersremainedwhowereloyaltotheCommunists,andthatonlytenpercentof
Partymemberswereproletarians.By1929,onlythreepercentofthePartywereproletarians.[87]
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Inearly1930,ZhoubegantodisagreewiththetimingofLiLisan'sstrategyoffavoringrichpeasantsandconcentratingmilitaryforcesfor
attacksonurbancenters.Zhoudidnotopenlybreakwiththesemoreorthodoxnotions,andeventriedtoimplementthemlater,in1931,in
Jiangxi.[88]WhentheSovietagentPavelMifarrivedinShanghaitoleadtheCominterninChinainDecember1930,MifcriticizedLi'sstrategy
as"leftadventurism",andcriticizedZhouforcompromisingwithLi.Zhou"acknowledged"hismistakesincompromisingwithLiinJanuary
1931andofferedtoresignfromthePolitburo,butwasretainedwhileotherseniorCCPleaders,includingLiLisanandQuQiubai,were
removed.LikeMaolaterrecognized,MifunderstoodthatZhou'sservicesasPartyleaderwereindispensable,andthatZhouwouldwillingly
cooperatewithwhoeverwasholdingpower.[89]
Undergroundwork:establishment
AfterarrivingbackinShanghaiin1929,Zhoubegantoworkunderground,establishingandoverseeinga
networkofindependentCommunistcells.Zhou'sgreatestdangerinhisundergroundworkwasthethreatof
beingdiscoveredbytheKMTsecretpolice,whichhadbeenestablishedin1928withthespecificmissionof
identifyingandeliminatingCommunists.Inordertoavoiddetection,Zhouandhiswifechangedresidences
atleastonceamonth,andusedavarietyofaliases.Zhouoftendisguisedhimselfasabusinessman,
sometimeswearingabeard.Zhouwascarefulthatonlytwoorthreepeopleeverknewhiswhereabouts.Zhou
disguisedallurbanPartyoffices,madesurethatCCPofficesneversharedthesamebuildingswheninthe
samecity,andrequiredallPartymemberstousepasswordstoidentifyoneanother.Zhourestrictedallofhis
meetingstoeitherbefore7AMorafter7PM.Zhouneverusedpublictransportation,andavoidedbeingseen
inpublicplaces.[90]
InNovember1928,theCCPalsoestablisheditsownintelligenceagency(the"SpecialServicesectionofthe
CentralCommittee",or"ZhongyangTeke"(Chinese:),oftenabbreviatedas"Teke"),whichZhou
subsequentlycametocontrol.Zhou'schieflieutenantswereGuShunzhang,whohadstrongtiestoChinese
secretsocietiesandbecameanalternatememberofthePolitburo,andXiangZhongfa.Tekehadfour
operationalsections:onefortheprotectionandsafetyofPartymembersoneforintelligencegatheringone
forfacilitatinginternalcommunicationsand,onetoconductassassinations,ateamthatbecameknownasthe
"RedSquad".[91]
GuShunzhang,thenumber
twomanoftheChinese
communistespionagenetwork,
whosedefectiondealtaserious
blowtothecommunist
movement.
Zhou'smainconcerninrunningTekewastoestablishaneffectiveantiespionagenetworkwithintheKMT
secretpolice.WithinashortamountoftimetheheadofTeke'sintelligencesection,ChenGeng,succeededin
plantingalargenetworkofmolesinsidetheInvestigationSectionoftheCentralOperationsDepartmentin
Nanjing,whichwasthecenterofKMTintelligence.ThethreemostsuccessfulagentsusedbyZhouto
infiltratetheKMTsecretpolicewereQianZhuangfei,LiKenong,andHuDi,whoZhoureferredtoas"thethreemostdistinguished
intelligenceworkersoftheParty"inthe1930s.AgentsplantedwithinvariousKMTofficeswerelatercriticalinthesurvivaloftheCCP,
helpingthePartyescapeChiang'sEncirclementCampaigns.[92]
KMTresponsetoZhou'sintelligencework
InlateApril1931Zhou'schiefaideinsecurityaffairs,GuShunzhang,wasarrestedbytheKMTinWuhan.Guwasaformerlabourorganizer
withstrongmafiaconnectionsandweakcommitmentstotheCCP.Underthreatofheavytorture,GugavetheKMTsecretpolicedetailed
accountsofundergroundCCPorganizationsinWuhan,leadingtothearrestandexecutionsofovertenseniorCCPleadersinthecity.Gu
offeredtoprovidetheKMTwithdetailsofCCPactivitiesinShanghai,butonlyifhecouldgivetheinformationdirectlytoChiangKai
shek.[93]
OneofZhou'sagentsworkinginNanjing,QianZhuangfei,interceptedatelegramrequestingfurtherinstructionsfromNanjingonhowto
proceed,andabandonedhiscovertopersonallywarnZhouoftheimpendingcrackdown.ThetwodaysbeforeGuarrivedinNanjingtomeet
withChianggaveZhoutimetoevacuatePartymembersandtochangethecommunicationcodesusedbyTeke,allofwhichwereknownto
Gu.AftermeetingbrieflywithChianginNanjing,GuarrivedinShanghaiandassistedtheKMTsecretpoliceinraidingCCPofficesand
residences,capturingmemberswhocouldnotbeevacuatedintime.ThesummaryexecutionsofthosesuspectedofCommunistsympathies
resultedinthelargestdeathtollsincetheShanghaimassacreof1927.[94]
Zhou'sreactiontoGu'sbetrayalwasextreme.MorethanfifteenmembersofGu'sfamily,someofwhomworkedforTeke,weremurderedby
theRedSquadandburiedinquietresidentialareasofShanghai.TheRedSquadthenassassinatedWangBing,aleadingmemberoftheKMT
secretpolicewhowasknownformovingaroundShanghaiinrickshaws,withouttheprotectionofbodyguards.MostsurvivingCCPmembers
wererelocatedtotheCommunistbaseinJiangxi.BecausemostseniorstaffhadbecomeexposedbyGu,mostofitsbestagentswerealso
relocated.Zhou'smostsenioraidenotyetundersuspicion,PanHannian,becameTeke'sdirector.[95]
ThenightbeforehewasscheduledtoleaveShanghaiinJune1931,XiangZhongfa,whowasoneofZhou'smostsenioragents,decidedto
spendthenightinahotelwithhismistress,ignoringZhou'swarningsaboutthedanger.Inthemorning,aKMTinformantwhohadbeen
trailingXiangspottedhimashewasleavingthehotel.XiangwasimmediatelyarrestedandimprisonedwithintheFrenchConcession.Zhou
attemptedtopreventXiang'sexpectedextraditiontoKMTcontrolledChinabyhavinghisagentsbribethechiefofpoliceintheFrench
Concession,buttheKMTauthoritiesappealeddirectlytotheauthoritiesoftheFrenchConcession,ensuringthatthechiefofpolicecouldnot
intervene.Zhou'shopesthatXiangwouldbetransferredtoNanjing,givinghimanopportunitytokidnapXiang,alsocametonaught.The
FrenchagreedtotransferXiangtotheShanghaiGarrisonHeadquarters,underthecommandofGeneralXiongShihui,whosubjectedXiangto
relentlesstortureandinterrogation.OncehebecameconvincedthatXianghadgivenhistorturersalltheinformationthattheyrequested,
ChiangKaishekorderedXiangtobeexecuted.[96]
ZhouEnlailatersucceededinsecretlypurchasingacopyofXiang'sinterrogationrecords.TherecordsshowedthatXianghaddisclosed
everythingtotheKMTauthoritiesbeforehisexecution,includingthelocationofZhou'sresidence.Anotherroundofarrestsandexecutions
followedXiang'scapture,butZhouandhiswifewereabletoescapecapturebecausetheyhadabandonedtheirapartmentonthemorningof
Xiang'sarrest.AfterestablishinganewPolitburoStandingCommitteeinShanghai,ZhouandhiswiferelocatedtotheCommunistbasein
Jiangxineartheendof1931.[96]BythetimeZhouleftShanghai,hewasoneofthemostwantedmeninChina.[97]
TheJiangxiSoviet
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Mainarticle:JiangxiFujianSoviet
FollowingthefailedNanchangandAutumnHarvestUprisingsof1927,theCommunistsbegantofocusonestablishingaseriesofruralbases
ofoperationinsouthernChina.EvenbeforemovingtoJiangxi,Zhouhadbecomeinvolvedinthepoliticsofthesebases.Mao,claimingthe
needtoeliminatecounterrevolutionariesandAntiBolsheviksoperatingwithintheCCP,begananideologicalpurgeofthepopulaceinsidethe
JiangxiSoviet.Zhou,perhapsduetohisownsuccessplantingmoleswithinvariouslevelsoftheKMT,agreedthatanorganizedcampaignto
uncoversubversionwasjustified,andsupportedthecampaignasdefactoleaderoftheCCP.[98]
Mao'seffortssoondevelopedintoaruthlesscampaigndrivenbyparanoiaandaimednotonlyatKMTspies,butatanyonewithanideological
outlookdifferentfromMao's.Suspectswerecommonlytortureduntiltheyconfessedtotheircrimesandaccusedothersofcrimes,andwives
andrelativeswhoinquiredofthosebeingtorturedwerethemselvesarrestedandtorturedevenmoreseverely.Mao'sattemptstopurgetheRed
ArmyofthosewhomightpotentiallyopposehimledMaotoaccuseChenYi,thecommanderandpoliticalcommissaroftheJiangxiMilitary
Region,asacounterrevolutionary,provokingaviolentreactionagainstMao'spersecutionsthatbecameknownasthe"FutianIncident"in
January1931.MaowaseventuallysuccessfulinsubduingtheRedArmy,reducingitsnumbersfromfortythousandtolessthantenthousand.
Thecampaigncontinuedthroughout1930and1931.HistoriansestimatethetotalnumberwhodiedduetoMao'spersecutioninallbaseareas
tobeapproximatelyonehundredthousand.[99]
TheentirecampaignoccurredwhileZhouwasstillinShanghai.Althoughhehadsupportedtheeliminationofcounterrevolutionaries,Zhou
activelysuppressedthecampaignwhenhearrivedinJiangxiinDecember1931,criticizingthe"excess,thepanic,andtheoversimplification"
practicedbylocalofficials.AfterinvestigatingthoseaccusedofAntiBolshevism,andthosepersecutingthem,Zhousubmittedareport
criticizingthecampaignforfocusingonthenarrowpersecutionofantiMaoistsasantiBolshevists,exaggeratingthethreattotheParty,and
condemningtheuseoftortureasaninvestigativetechnique.Zhou'sresolutionwaspassedandadoptedon7January1932,andthecampaign
graduallysubsided.[100]
ZhoumovedtotheJiangxibaseareaandshookupthepropagandaorientedapproachtorevolutionbydemandingthatthearmedforcesunder
Communistcontrolactuallybeusedtoexpandthebase,ratherthanjusttocontrolanddefendit.InDecember1931,ZhoureplacedMao
ZedongasSecretaryoftheFirstFrontArmywithXiangYing,andmadehimselfpoliticalcommissaroftheRedArmy,inplaceofMao.Liu
Bocheng,LinBiaoandPengDehuaiallcriticizedMao'stacticsattheOctober1932NingduConference.[101][102]
AftermovingtoJiangxi,ZhoumetMaoforthefirsttimesince1927,andbeganhislongrelationshipwithMaoasMao'ssuperior.Inthe
Ningduconference,MaowasdemotedtobeingafigureheadintheSovietgovernment.Zhou,whohadcometoappreciateMao'sstrategies
aftertheseriesofmilitaryfailureswagedbyotherPartyleaderssince1927,defendedMao,butwasunsuccessful.Afterachievingpower,Mao
laterpurgedordemotedthosewhohadopposedhimin1932,butrememberedZhou'sdefenseofhispolicies.[103]
Chiang'sEncirclementCampaigns
Mainarticle:EncirclementCampaigns
Inearly1933,BoGuarrivedwiththeGermanCominternadviserOttoBraun(LiDe)andtookcontrolofpartyaffairs.Zhouatthistime,
apparentlywithstrongsupportfromPartyandmilitarycolleagues,reorganizedandstandardizedtheRedArmy.UnderZhou,Bo,andBraun,
theRedArmydefeatedfourattacksbyChiangKaishek'sNationalisttroops.[104]ThemilitarystructurethatledtheCommuniststovictory
was:
Leaders
LinBiao,NieRongzhen
UnitDesignation
1stCorps
PengDehuai,YangShangkun 3rdCorps
XiaoJinguang
7thCorps
XiaoKe
8thCorps
LuoBinghui
9thCorps
FangZhimin
10thCorps
Chiang'sfifthcampaign,launchedinSeptember1933,wasmuchmoredifficulttocontain.Chiang'snewuseof"blockhousetactics"andlarger
numbersoftroopsallowedhisarmytoadvancesteadilyintoCommunistterritory,andtheysucceededinseizingseveralmajorCommunist
strongholds.BoGuandOttoBraun(LiDe)adoptedorthodoxtacticstorespondtoChiang,andZhou,althoughpersonallyopposedtothem,
directedthese.Followingtheirsubsequentdefeat,heandothermilitaryleaderswereblamed.[105]
AlthoughZhou'ssubsequentlycautiousmilitaryapproachwasdistrustedbyhardliners,hewasagainappointedtothepositionofvicechairman
oftheMilitaryCommission.Zhouwasacceptedasleaderlargelybecauseofhisorganizationaltalentanddevotiontowork,andbecausehe
hadnevershownanyovertambitiontopursuesupremepowerwithintheParty.Withinmonths,thecontinuingorthodoxtacticsofBoand
BraunledtoaseriousdefeatfortheRedArmy,andforcedtheleadersoftheCCPtoseriouslyconsiderabandoningtheirbasesinJiangxi.[106]
TheLongMarch
Mainarticle:LongMarch
AfterthedecisiontoabandonJiangxiwasannounced,ZhouwasplacedinchargeoforganizingandsupervisingthelogisticsoftheCommunist
withdrawal.Makinghisplansinabsolutesecrecyandwaitingtillthelastmomenttoinformevenseniorleadersofthegroup'smovements,
Zhou'sobjectivewastobreakthroughtheenemyencirclementwithasfewcasualtiesaspossible,andbeforeChiang'sforceswereableto
completelyoccupyallCommunistbases.Itisnotknownwhatcriteriawereusedtodeterminewhowouldstayandwhowouldgo,but16,000
troopsandsomeoftheCommunists'mostnotablecommandersatthetime(includingXiangYing,ChenYi,TanZhenlin,andQuQiubai)were
lefttoformarearguardtodivertthemainforceofNationalisttroopsfromnoticingtheCommunists'generalwithdrawal.[107]
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Thewithdrawalof84,000soldiersandciviliansbeganinearlyOctober,1934.Zhou'sintelligenceagentsweresuccessfulinidentifyingalarge
sectionofChiang'sblockhouselinesthatweremannedbytroopsunderGeneralChenJitang,aGuangdongwarlordwhoZhouidentifiedas
beinglikelytopreferpreservingthestrengthofhistroopsoverfighting.ZhousentPanHanniantonegotiateforsafepassagewithGeneral
Chen,whosubsequentlyallowedtheRedArmytopassthroughtheterritorythathecontrolledwithoutfighting.[108]
AfterpassingthroughthreeofthefourblockhousefortificationsneededtoescapeChiang'sencirclement,theRedArmywasfinallyintercepted
byregularNationalisttroops,andsufferedheavycasualties.Ofthe86,000CommunistswhoattemptedtobreakoutofJiangxi,only36,000
successfullyescaped.ThislossdemoralizedsomeCommunistleaders(particularlyBoGuandOttoBraun),butZhouremainedcalmand
retainedhiscommand.[108]
DuringtheCommunists'subsequentLongMarch,therewerenumeroushighleveldisputesoverthedirectionthattheCommunistsshouldtake,
andonthecausesoftheRedArmy'sdefeats.Duringthepowerstrugglesthatensued,ZhouconsistentlybackedMaoZedongagainstthe
interestsofBoGuandOttoBraun.BoandBraunwerelaterblamedfortheRedArmy'sdefeats,andwereeventuallyremovedfromtheir
positionsofleadership.[109]TheCommunistseventuallysucceededinreestablishingabaseinnorthernShaanxion20October1935,arriving
withonly8,0009,000remainingmembers.[110]
Zhou'spositionwithintheCCPchangednumeroustimesthroughouttheLongMarch.Bytheearly1930s,Zhouwasrecognizedasthedefacto
leaderoftheCCP,andexercisedsuperiorinfluenceoverothermembersoftheCCPevenwhensharingpowerwithBoandBraun.[111]Inthe
monthsfollowingtheJanuary1935ZunyiConference,inwhichBoandBraunwereremovedfromseniorpositions,Zhoumostlyretainedhis
positionbecausehedisplayedawillingnesstodisplayresponsibility,becausehistacticsindefeatingChiang'sFourthEncirclementCampaign
wererecognizedasbeingsuccessful,andbecausehesupportedMaoZedong,whowasgaininginfluenceinsidetheParty:aftertheZunyi
Conference,MaobecameZhou'sassistant.[112]AftertheCommunistsreachedShaanxiandcompletedtheLongMarch,Maoofficiallytook
overZhouEnlai'sleadingpositionintheCCP,whileZhoutookasecondarypositionasviceChairman.MaoandZhouwouldretaintheir
positionswithintheCCPuntiltheirdeathsin1976.[113]
TheXi'anIncident
Mainarticle:Xi'anIncident
DuringtheseventhcongressoftheComintern,heldinAugust1936,WangMingissuedananti
Fascistmanifesto,indicatingthattheCCP'spreviouspolicyof"opposingChiangKaishekand
resistingJapan"wastobereplacedbyapolicyof"unitingwithChiangKaishektoresistJapan".
Zhouwasinstrumentalincarryingoutthispolicy.Zhoumadecontactwithoneofthemostsenior
KMTcommandersinthenorthwest,ZhangXueliang.By1935,Zhangwaswellknownforhis
antiJapanesesentimentsandhisdoubtsaboutChiang'swillingnesstoopposetheJapanese.
Zhang'sdispositionmadehimeasilyinfluencedbyZhou'sindicationsthattheCCPwould
cooperatetofightagainsttheJapanese.[114]
Zhouestablisheda"northeastworkingcommittee"forthepurposeofpromotingcooperationwith
Zhang.ThecommitteeworkedtopersuadeZhang'sNortheastArmytounitewiththeRedArmyto
fightJapanandretakeManchuria.Thecommitteealsocreatednewpatrioticslogans,including
"ChinesemustnotfightChinese",topromoteZhou'sgoals.Usinghisnetworkofsecretcontacts,
ZhouarrangedameetingwithZhanginYan'an,thencontrolledbyZhang's"NortheastArmy".[115]
ThefirstmeetingbetweenZhouandZhangoccurredinsideachurchon7April1936.Zhang
showedagreatinterestinendingthecivilwar,unitingthecountry,andfightingtheJapanese,but
warnedthatChiangwasfirmlyincontrolofthenationalgovernment,andthatthesegoalswould
ZhouEnlai(middle)andhiswifeDeng
bedifficulttopursuewithoutChiang'scooperation.Bothpartiesendedtheirmeetingwithan
YingchaowithAmericanjournalistEdgar
agreementtofindawaytosecretlyworktogether.AtthesametimethatZhouwasestablishing
Snow,approx.1938.
secretcontactswithZhang,ChiangwasgrowingsuspiciousofZhang,andbecameincreasingly
dissatisfiedwithZhang'sinactionagainsttheCommunists.InordertodeceiveChiang,Zhouand
ZhangdeployedmockmilitaryunitsinordertogivetheimpressionthattheNortheastArmyandtheRedArmywereengagedinbattle.[115]
InDecember1936,ChangKaishekflewtotheNationalistheadquartersinXi'aninordertotesttheloyaltyoflocalKMTmilitaryforcesunder
MarshalZhangXueliang,andtopersonallyleadtheseforcesinafinalattackonCommunistbasesinShaanxi,whichZhanghadbeenordered
todestroy.DeterminedtoforceChiangtodirectChina'sforcesagainsttheJapanese(whohadtakenZhang'sterritoryofManchuriaandwere
preparingabroaderinvasion),on12DecemberZhangandhisfollowersstormedChiang'sheadquarters,killedmostofhisbodyguards,and
seizedtheGeneralissimoinwhatbecameknownastheXi'anIncident.[116]
ReactionstoChiang'skidnappinginYan'anweremixed.Some,includingMaoZedongandZhuDe,vieweditasanopportunitytohave
Chiangkilled.Others,includingZhouEnlaiandZhangWentian,sawitasanopportunitytoachieveaunitedfrontpolicyagainsttheJapanese,
whichwouldstrengthentheoverallpositionoftheCCP.[117]DebatewithinYan'anendedwhenalongtelegramfromJosephStalinarrived,
urgingtheCCPtoworktowardsChiang'srelease,explainingthataunitedfrontwasthebestpositionfromwhichtoresisttheJapanese,and
thatonlyChianghadtheprestigeandauthoritytocarryoutsuchaplan.[118]
AfterinitialcommunicationswithZhangonthefateofChiang,ZhouEnlaireachedXi'anon16December,onaplanespecificallysentforhim
byZhangXueliang,asthechiefCommunistnegotiator.FromthenuntilChristmasDayof1936,ZhouattemptedtonegotiatewithChiangand
Zhang,proposinganationalunitedfrontgovernmentwithChiangasleader,ademarcationlinebetweenKMTandCPPterritories,anational
conferenceincludingaCCPdelegation,andaseriesoffuturenegotiationsinNanjing.[119]Throughdaysofintensenegotiation,exercising
extremecautionandcourtesy,Zhouwaslargelysuccessfulinreconcilingtheirpositions.[117]
On20December,T.V.SoongarrivedinXi'an,andSoongMaylingarrivedtwodayslater,inordertonegotiateChiang'srelease.Atfirst,
ChiangwasopposedtonegotiatingwithaCCPdelegate,butwithdrewhisoppositionwhenitbecameclearthathislifeandfreedomwere
largelydependentonCommunistgoodwilltowardshim.On24December,ChiangreceivedZhouforameeting,thefirsttimethatthetwohad
seeneachothersinceZhouhadleftWhampoaovertenyearsearlier.Zhoubegantheconversationbysaying:"Inthetenyearssincewehave
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met,youseemtohaveagedverylittle."Chiangnoddedandsaid:"Enlai,youweremysubordinate.YoushoulddowhatIsay."Zhoureplied
that,ifChiangwouldhaltthecivilwarandresisttheJapaneseinstead,theRedArmywouldwillinglyacceptChiang'scommand.Bytheendof
thismeeting,Chiangpromisedtoendthecivilwar,toresisttheJapanesetogether,andtoinviteZhoutoNanjingforfurthertalks.[117]
On25December1936,ZhangreleasedChiangandaccompaniedhimtoNanjing.Subsequently,Zhangwascourtmartialedandsentencedto
housearrest,andmostoftheofficerswhoparticipatedintheXi'anIncidentwereexecuted.AlthoughtheKMTformallyrejectedcollaboration
withtheCCP,ChiangendedactivemilitaryactivityagainstCommunistbasesinYan'nan,implyingthathehadimplicitlygivenhiswordto
changethedirectionofhispolicies.FollowingtheendofKMTattacks,theCCPwasabletoconsolidateitsterritoriesandtopreparetoresist
theJapanese.[119]
AfternewsarrivedthatZhanghadbeenbetrayedandarrestedbyChiang,Zhang'soldofficercorpsbecameveryagitated,andsomeofthem
murderedaNationalistgeneral,WangYizhe,whowasseenaslargelyresponsibleforthemilitary'slackofresponse.WhileZhouwasstillin
Xi'an,hehimselfwassurroundedinhisofficebyanumberofZhang'sofficers,whoaccusedtheCommunistsofinstigatingtheXi'anIncident
andofbetrayingZhangbyconvincingthegeneraltotraveltoNanjing.Atgunpoint,theythreatenedtokillZhou.Zhoumaintainedhis
composureandeloquentlydefendedhisposition.Intheend,Zhousucceededincalmingtheofficers,andtheydeparted,leavinghim
unharmed.InaseriesofnegotiationswiththeKMTthatlasteduntilJune1937(whentheMarcoPoloBridgeIncidentoccurred),Zhou
attemptedtogainZhang'srelease,butfailed.[120]
ActivitiesduringWorldWarII
PropagandaandintelligenceinWuhan
WhenthecapitalofNanjingfelltotheJapaneseon13December1937,ZhouaccompaniedtheNationalistgovernmenttoitstemporarycapital
ofWuhan.AsthechiefrepresentativeoftheCCPinthenominalKMTCCPcooperationagreement,Zhouestablishedandheadedtheofficial
KMTCCPliaisonoffice.Whilerunningtheliaisonoffice,ZhouestablishedtheYangtzeBureauoftheCentralCommittee.Undercoverofits
associationwiththeEighthRouteArmy,ZhouusedtheYangtzeBureautoconductclandestineoperationswithinsouthernChina,secretly
recruitingCommunistoperativesandestablishingPartystructuresthroughoutKMTcontrolledareas.[121]
InAugust1937,theCCPsecretlyissuedorderstoZhouthathisunitedfrontworkwastofocusonCommunistinfiltrationandorganizationat
alllevelsofthegovernmentandsociety.Zhouagreedtotheseorders,andappliedhisconsiderableorganizationaltalentstocompletingthem.
ShortlyafterZhou'sarrivalinWuhan,heconvincedtheNationalistgovernmenttoapproveandfundaCommunistnewspaper,Xinhuaribao
("NewChinaDaily"),justifyingitasatooltospreadantiJapanesepropaganda.ThisnewspaperbecameamajortoolforspreadingCommunist
propaganda,andtheNationalistslatervieweditsapprovalandfundingasoneoftheir"biggestmistakes".[122]
ZhouwassuccessfulinorganizinglargenumbersofChineseintellectualsandartiststopromoteresistanceagainsttheJapanese.Thelargest
propagandaeventthatZhoustagedwasaweeklongcelebrationin1938,followingthesuccessfuldefenseofTaierzhuang.Inthisevent,
between400,000500,000peopletookpartinparades,andachorusofover10,000peoplesungsongsofresistance.Fundraisingeffortsduring
theweekraisedoveramillionyuan.Zhouhimselfdonated240yuan,hismonthlysalaryasdeputydirectorofthePoliticalDepartment.[122]
WhilehewasworkinginWuhan,ZhouwastheCCP'smaincontactpersonwiththeoutsideworld,andworkedhardtoreversethepublic
perceptionoftheCommunistsasa"banditorganization".Zhouestablishedandmaintainedcontactswithoverfortyforeignjournalistsand
writers,includingEdgarSnow,AgnesSmedley,AnnaLouiseStrongandRewiAlley,manyofwhombecamesympathetictotheCommunist
causeandwroteabouttheirsympathiesinforeignpublications.InsympathywithhiseffortstopromotetheCCPtotheoutsideworld,Zhou
arrangedforaCanadianmedicalteam,headedbyNormanBethune,totraveltoYan'an,andassistedtheDutchfilmdirectorJorisIvensin
producingadocumentary,400MillionPeople.[123]
ZhouwasunsuccessfulinavertingthepublicdefectionofZhangGuotao,oneofthefoundersoftheCCP,totheKMT.Zhangwaspreparedto
defectduetoadisagreementwithMaoZedongovertheimplementationoftheunitedfrontpolicy,andbecauseheresentedMao'sauthoritarian
leadershipstyle.Zhou,withtheaidofWangMing,BoGuandLiKenong,interceptedZhangafterhearrivedinWuhan,andengagedin
extensivenegotiationsthroughApril1938,inordertoconvinceZhangnottodefect,butthesenegotiationswereunsuccessful.Intheend,
ZhangrefusedtocompromiseandplacedhimselfundertheprotectionofKMTsecretpolice.On18April,theCCPCentralCommittee
expelledZhangfromtheParty,andZhanghimselfissuedastatementaccusingtheCCPofsabotagingeffortstoresisttheJapanese.Theentire
episodewasaserioussetbackforZhou'sattemptstoimprovetheprestigeoftheParty.[124]
MilitarystrategyinWuhan
InJanuary1938,theNationalistgovernmentappointedZhouasthedeputydirectortothePoliticalDepartmentoftheMilitaryCommittee,
workingdirectlyunderGeneralChengCheng.AsaseniorCommuniststatesmanholdingtherankoflieutenantgeneral,Zhouwastheonly
CommunisttoholdahighlevelpositionwithintheNationalistgovernment.ZhouusedhisinfluencewithintheMilitaryCommitteetopromote
Nationalistgeneralsthathebelievedwerecapable,andtopromotecooperationwiththeRedArmy.[121]
IntheTai'erzhuangcampaign,ZhouusedhisinfluencetoensurethatthemostcapableNationalistgeneralavailable,LiZongrenbeappointed
overallcommander,despiteChiang'sreservationsaboutLi'sloyalty.WhenChiangwashesitanttocommittroopstothedefenseof
Tai'erzhuang,ZhouconvincedChiangtodosobypromisingthattheCommunistEighthRouteArmywouldsimultaneouslyattackthe
Japanesefromthenorth,andthattheNewFourthArmywouldsabotagetheTianjinPukourailroad,cuttingoffJapanesesupplies.Intheend,
thedefenseofTai'erzhuangwasamajorvictoryfortheNationalists,killing20,000Japanesesoldiersandcapturingalargeamountofsupplies
andequipment.[121]
Adoptionoforphans
WhileservingastheCCPambassadortotheKMT,thechildlessZhoumetandbefriendednumerousorphans.WhileinWuhanZhouadopteda
younggirl,SunWeishi,in1937.Sun'smotherhadtakenhertoWuhanafterSun'sfatherwasexecutedbytheKMTin1927,duringtheWhite
Terror.ZhoucameuponthesixteenyearoldSuncryingoutsideoftheEighthRouteArmyLiaisonOfficebecauseshehadbeenrefused
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permissiontotraveltoYan'an,duetoheryouthandlackofpoliticalconnections.AfterZhoubefriendedandadoptedherashisdaughter,Sun
wasabletotraveltoYan'an.Shepursuedacareerinactinganddirection,andlaterbecamethefirstfemaledirectorofspokendrama(huaju)in
thePRC.[125]
ZhoualsoadoptedSun'sbrother,SunYang.[126]AfteraccompanyingZhoutoYan'an,SunYangbecameZhou'spersonalassistant.Afterthe
foundingofthePeople'sRepublicofChina,SunYangbecamethepresidentofRenminUniversity.[125]
In1938Zhoumetandbefriendedanotherorphan,LiPeng.Liwasonlythreewhen,in1931,hisfatherwasalsokilledbytheKuomintang.
ZhousubsequentlylookedafterhiminYan'an.Afterthewar,ZhousystematicallygroomedLiforleadershipandsenthimtobeeducatedin
energyrelatedengineeringinMoscow.Zhou'splacementofLiwithinthepowerfulenergybureaucracyshieldedLifromRedGuardsduring
theCulturalRevolution,andLi'seventualrisetothelevelofPremiersurprisednoone.[127]
FlighttoChongqing
WhentheJapanesearmyapproachedWuhaninthefallof1938,theNationalistArmyengagedtheJapaneseinthesurroundingregionsfor
overfourmonths,allowingtheKMTtowithdrawfartherinland,toChongqing,bringingwiththemimportantsupplies,assets,andmany
refugees.WhilehewasenroutetoChongqing,Zhouwasnearlykilledinthe"fireofChangsha",whichlastedforthreedays,destroyedtwo
thirdsofthecity,killedtwentythousandcivilians,andlefthundredsofthousandsofpeoplehomeless.Thisfirewasdeliberatelycausedbythe
retreatingNationalistarmyinordertopreventthecityfromfallingtotheJapanese.Duetoanorganizationalerror(itwasclaimed),thefire
wasbegunwithoutanywarningtotheresidentsofthecity.[128]
AfterescapingfromChangsha,ZhoutookrefugeinaBuddhisttempleinanearbyvillageandorganizedtheevacuationofthecity.Zhou
demandedthatthecausesofthefirebethoroughlyinvestigatedbyauthorities,thatthoseresponsiblebypunished,thatreparationsbegivento
thevictims,thatthecitybethoroughlycleanedup,andthataccommodationsbeprovidedforthehomeless.Intheend,theNationalistsblamed
threelocalcommandersforthefireandexecutedthem.NewspapersacrossChinablamedthefireon(nonKMT)arsonists,buttheblaze
contributedtoanationwidelossofsupportfortheKMT.[129]
EarlyactivitiesinChongqing
ZhouEnlaireachedChongqinginDecember1938,andresumedtheofficialandunofficialoperationsthathehadbeenconductinginWuhanin
January1938.Zhou'sactivitiesincludedthoserequiredbyhisformalpositionswithintheNationalistgovernment,hisrunningoftwopro
Communistnewspapers,andhiscoverteffortstoformreliableintelligencenetworksandincreasethepopularityandorganizationofCCP
organizationsinsouthernChina.Atitspeak,thestaffworkingunderhiminbothofficialandcovertrolestotaledseveralhundredpeople.[130]
Afterfindingthathisfather,ZhouShaogang,wasunabletosupporthimself,ZhoulookedafterhisfatherinChongqinguntilhisfather'sdeath
in1942.[131]
SoonafterarrivinginChongqing,ZhousuccessfullylobbiedtheNationalistgovernmenttoreleaseCommunistpoliticalprisoners.Aftertheir
release,ZhouoftenassignedtheseformerprisonersasagentstoorganizeandleadPartyorganizationsthroughoutsouthernChina.Theefforts
ofZhou'scovertactivitieswereextremelysuccessful,increasingCCPmembershipacrosssouthernChinatenfoldwithinmonths.Chiangwas
somewhatawareoftheseactivitiesandintroducedeffortstosuppressthem,butwasgenerallyunsuccessful.[132]
InJuly1939,whileinYan'antoattendaseriesofPolitburomeetings,Zhouhadanaccidenthorseback
ridinginwhichhefellandfracturedhisrightelbow.Becausetherewaslittlemedicalcareavailablein
Yan'an,ZhoutraveledtoMoscowformedicaltreatment,usingtheoccasiontobrieftheCominternon
thestatusoftheunitedfront.ZhouarrivedinMoscowtoolatetomendthefracture,andhisrightarm
remainedbentfortherestofhislife.JosephStalinwassodispleasedwiththeCCP'srefusaltowork
morecloselywiththeNationaliststhatherefusedtoseeZhouduringhisstay.[133]Zhou'sadopted
daughter,SunWeishi,accompaniedZhoutoMoscow.SheremainedinMoscowafterZhouleftinorder
tostudyforacareerintheatre.[125]
IntelligenceworkinChongqing
ZhouEnlaiandSunWeishiin
Moscow,1939.
On4May1939,thePolitburoacceptedZhou'sassessmentthatZhoushouldfocushiseffortson
creatinganetworkofsecretCCPagentsworkingcovertlyandforlongperiods.Communistswere
directedtojointheKMT,ifdoingsowouldincreasetheabilityofagentstoinfiltratetheKMTadministrative,educational,economic,and
militaryestablishments.UnderthecoveroftheOfficeoftheEighthRouteArmy(movedtoastatelybuildingontheoutskirtsofChongqing),
ZhouadoptedaseriesofmeasurestoexpandtheCCPintelligencenetwork.[134]
BythetimethatZhoureturnedtoChongqinginMay1940,aseriousrifthadformedbetweentheKMTandtheCCP.Overthecourseofthe
nextyear,therelationshipbetweenthetwopartiesdegeneratedintoarrestsandexecutionsofPartymembers,covertattemptsbyagentsofboth
sidestoeliminateeachother,propagandaeffortsattackingeachother,andmajormilitaryclashes.Theunitedfrontwasofficiallyabolished
aftertheAnhuiIncidentinJanuary1941,when9,000CommunistsoldiersoftheNewFourthArmywereambushed,andtheircommanders
eitherkilledorimprisonedbygovernmenttroops.[135]
ZhourespondedtotheriftbetweentheKMTandCCPbydirectingPartyleaderstoconducttheiroperationsmoresecretly.Hemaintained
propagandaeffortsviathenewspapersthathedirectedandkeptinclosecontactwithforeignjournalistsandambassadors.Zhouincreasedand
improvedCCPintelligenceeffortswithintheKMT,WangJingwei'sNanjinggovernment,andtheEmpireofJapan,recruiting,training,and
organizingalargenetworkofCommunistspies.YanBaohang,asecretPartymemberactiveinChongqingdiplomaticcircles,informedZhou
thatHitlerwasplanningtoattacktheSovietUnionon22June1941.UnderZhou'ssignature,thisinformationreachedStalinon20June,two
daysbeforeHitlerattacked.[136]
Economicanddiplomaticactivities
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DespiteworseningrelationswithChiangKaishek,ZhouoperatedopenlyinChongqing,befriendingChineseandforeignvisitorsandstaging
publicculturalactivities,especiallyChinesetheater.ZhoucultivatedaclosepersonalfriendshipwithGeneralFengYuxiang,makingit
possibleforZhoutocirculatefreelyamongtheofficersoftheNationalistArmy.ZhoubefriendedtheGeneralHeJifeng,andconvincedHeto
secretlybecomeamemberoftheCCPduringanofficialvisittoYan'an.Zhou'sintelligenceagentspenetratedtheSichuanesearmyofGeneral
DengXihou,resultinginDeng'ssecretagreementtosupplyammunitiontotheCommunistNewFourthArmy.Zhouconvincedanother
Sichuanesegeneral,LiWenhui,tocovertlyinstallaradiotransmitterthatfacilitatedsecretcommunicationbetweenYan'anandChongqing.
ZhoubefriendedZhangChongandNongYun,commandersintheYunnanarmedforces,whobecamesecretCCPmembers,agreedto
cooperatewiththeCCPagainstChiangKaishek,andestablishedaclandestineradiostationthatbroadcastCommunistpropagandafromthe
provincialgovernmentbuildinginKunming.[137]
ZhouremainedtheprimaryCCPrepresentativetotheoutsideworldduringhistimeinChongqing.Zhouenjoyedreceivingforeignvisitorsand
reportedlymadeafavorableimpressionamongAmerican,British,Canadian,Russian,andotherforeigndiplomats,despiteChiang'sattempts
toisolatehimfromtheinternationalcommunity.Zhouwasvariouslydescribedbyvisitorsasbeingcharming,urbane,hardworking,and
livingaverysimplelifestyle.In1941,ZhoureceivedavisitfromErnestHemingwayandhiswife,Martha.Marthalaterwrotethatsheand
ErnestwereextremelyimpressedwithZhou(andextremelyunimpressedwithChiang),andtheybecameconvincedthattheCommunists
wouldtakeoverChinaaftermeetinghim.[138]
BecauseYan'anwasincapableoffundingZhou'sactivities,Zhouattemptedtofundhimselfthroughvariousmeans.Zhoupartiallyfundedhis
effortsthoughdonationsfromsympatheticforeigners,overseasChinese,andtheChinaDefenseLeague(supportedbySunYatsen'swidow,
SongQingling).BecauseZhouwasnotabletofundhisoperationssolelythroughdonations,Zhoualsoundertookeffortstostartandruna
numberofbusinessesthroughoutKMTandJapanesecontrolledChina.Zhou'sbusinessesgrewtoincludeseveraltradingcompanies
operatinginavarietyofChinesecities(primarilyChongqingandHongKong),asilkandsatinstoreinChongqing,anoilrefinery,and
numerousfactoriesforproducingindustrialmaterials,variouscloths,Westernmedicines,andothercommodities.[139]
UnderZhou,Communistbusinessmenmadegreatprofitsengagingincurrencytradingandcommodityspeculation,especiallyinthe
internationalmarketsforAmericandollarsandgold.Zhou'smostlucrativebusinesswasgeneratedbyseveralopiumplantationsthatZhou
establishedinremoteareas.AlthoughtheCCPhadbeenengagedintheeradicationofopiumsmokingsinceitsestablishment,Zhoujustified
opiumproductionanddistributioninKMTcontrolledareasbythehugeprofitsgeneratedfortheCCP,andbythedebilitatingeffectsthat
opiumaddictionmighthaveonKMTsoldiersandgovernmentofficials.[139]
RelationshipwithMaoZedong
In1943,Zhou'srelationshipwithChiangKaishekdeteriorated,andhereturnedpermanentlytoYan'an.Bythen,MaoZedonghademergedas
theChairmanoftheCommunistPartyofChina,andwasattemptingtohavehispoliticaltheories(literally"MaoZedongThought")accepted
astheParty'sdogma.Followinghisascenttopower,MaoorganizedacampaigntoindoctrinatethemembersoftheCCP.Thiscampaign
becamethefoundationoftheMaoistpersonalitycultthatlaterdominatedChinesepoliticsuntiltheendoftheCulturalRevolution.[140]
AfterreturningtoYan'an,ZhouEnlaiwasstronglyandexcessivelycriticizedinthiscampaign.Zhouwaslabelled,alongwiththegenerals
PengDehuai,LiuBocheng,YeJianying,andNieRongzhen,asan"empiricist"becausehehadahistoryofcooperatingwiththeComintern
andwithMao'senemy,WangMing.MaopubliclyattackedZhouas"acollaboratorandassistantofdogmatism...whobelittledthestudyof
MarxismLeninism".MaoandhisalliesthenclaimedthattheCCPorganizationsthatZhouhadestablishedinsouthernChinawereinfactled
byKMTsecretagents,achargewhichZhoufirmlydenied,andwhichwasonlywithdrawnafterMaobecameconvincedofZhou's
subservienceinthelatestperiodofthecampaign.[140]
Zhoudefendedhimselfbyengaginginalongseriesofpublicreflectionsandselfcriticisms,andhegaveanumberofspeechespraisingMao
andMaoZedongThoughtandgivinghisunconditionalacceptanceofMao'sleadership.HealsojoinedMao'salliesinattackingPengShuzhi,
ChenDuxiu,andWangMing,whoMaoviewedasenemies.ThepersecutionofZhouEnlaidistressedMoscow,andGeorgiDimitrovwrotea
personallettertoMaoindicatingthat"ZhouEnlai...mustnotbeseveredfromtheParty."Intheend,Zhou'senthusiasticacknowledgementof
hisownfaults,hispraiseforMao'sleadership,andhisattacksonMao'senemieseventuallyconvincedMaothatZhou'sconversiontoMaoism
wasgenuine,apreconditionforZhou'spoliticalsurvival.BytheseventhcongressoftheCCPin1945,Maowasacknowledgedastheoverall
leaderoftheCCP,andthedogmaofMaoZedongThoughtwasfirmlyentrenchedamongtheParty'sleadership.[140]
DiplomaticeffortswiththeUnitedStates
TheDixiemission
Mainarticle:DixieMission
AftertheUnitedStatesjoinedthewaragainstJapanin1941,Americanpoliticiansandmilitaryadvisorsbecameincreasinglyinterestedin
makingcontactwiththeCommunistsinordertocoordinateattacksontheJapanese.InJune1944,ChiangKaishekagreedtoallowan
Americanmilitaryobservationgroup,knownasthe"Dixiemission",totraveltoYan'an.MaoandZhouwelcomedthismissionandheld
numeroustalksintheinterestofgainingaccesstoAmericanaid.TheypledgedsupportforanyfutureAmericanmilitaryactionsonChinese
soil,andattemptedtoconvincetheAmericansthattheCCPwascommittedtoaunitedKMTCCPgovernment.Inagestureofgoodwill,
People'sLiberationArmy(PLA)guerrillaunitswereinstructedtorescueAlliedsoldiers(whoweremostlyAmericanairmen)heldprisonerin
China.BythetimethattheAmericansleftYan'an,manyhadbecomeconvincedthattheCCPwas"apartyseekingorderlydemocraticgrowth
towardssocialism",andthemissionformallysuggestedgreatercooperationbetweentheCCPandtheAmericanmilitary.[141]
19441945
In1944,ZhouwrotetoGeneralJosephStillwell,theAmericancommanderoftheChinaBurmaIndiawartheater,attemptingtoconvince
StillwelloftheneedfortheAmericanstosupplytheCommunists,andoftheCommunist'sdesireforaunitedChinesegovernmentafterthe
war.Stillwell'sopendisenchantmentwiththeNationalistgovernmentingeneral,andwithChiangKaishekspecifically,motivatedPresident
FranklinD.Roosevelttoremovehimthatsameyear,beforeZhou'sdiplomacycouldbeeffective.Stillwell'sreplacement,PatrickJ.Hurley,
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wasreceptivetoZhou'sappeals,butultimatelyrefusedtoaligntheAmericanmilitarywiththeCCPunlessthePartymadeconcessionstothe
KMT,whichMaoandZhoufoundunacceptable.SoonafterJapansurrenderedin1945,ChianginvitedMaoandZhoutoChongqingtotake
partinanAmericanendorsedpeaceconference.[142]
TheChongqingnegotiations
TherewaswidespreadapprehensioninYan'anthattheinvitationfromChiangwasatrap,andthattheNationalistswereplanningtoassassinate
orimprisonthetwoinstead.ZhoutookcontroloverMao'ssecuritydetail,andhissubsequentinspectionsoftheirplaneandlodgingsfound
nothing.ThroughoutthetriptoChongqing,MaorefusedtoenterhisaccommodationsuntiltheyhadbeenpersonallyinspectedbyZhou.Mao
andZhoutraveledtogethertoreceptions,banquets,andotherpublicgatherings,andZhouintroducedhimtonumerouslocalcelebritiesand
statesmenthathehadbefriendedduringhisearlierstayinChongqing.[143]
Duringthefortythreedaysofnegotiations,MaoandChiangmeteleventimestodiscusstheconditionsofpostwarChina,whileZhouworked
onconfirmingthedetailsofthenegotiations.Intheend,thenegotiationsresolvednothing.Zhou'soffertowithdrawtheRedArmyfrom
southernChinawasignored,andP.J.Hurley'sultimatumtoincorporatetheCCPintotheKMTinsultedMao.AfterMaoreturnedtoYan'anon
10October1945,Zhoustayedbehindtosortoutthedetailsoftheconference'sresolution.ZhoureturnedtoYan'anon27November1945,
whenmajorskirmishesbetweentheCommunistsandNationalistsmadefuturenegotiationspointless.Hurleyhimselfsubsequentlyannounced
hisresignation,accusingmembersoftheUSembassyofundermininghimandfavoringtheCommunists.[144]
TheMarshallnegotiations
Mainarticle:MarshallMission
AfterHarryS.TrumanbecamePresidentoftheUnitedStates,henominatedGeneralGeorgeC.MarshallashisspecialenvoytoChinaon15
December1945.MarshallwaschargedwithbrokeringaceasefirebetweentheCCPandKMT,andtoinfluencebothMaoandChiangtoabide
bytheChongqingagreement,whichbothhadsigned.ThetopleadershipwithintheCCP,includingZhou,viewedMarshall'snominationasa
positivedevelopment,andhopedthatMarshallwouldbeamoreflexiblenegotiatorthanHurleyhadbeen.ZhouarrivedinChongqingto
negotiatewithMarshallon22December.[145]
Thefirstphaseoftalkswentsmoothly.ZhourepresentedtheCommunists,MarshallrepresentedtheAmericans,andZhangQun(laterreplaced
byZhangZhizhong)representedtheKMT.InJanuary1946bothsidesagreedtoceasehostilities,andtoreorganizetheirarmiesonthe
principleofseparatingthearmyfrompoliticalparties.Zhousignedtheseagreementsintheknowledgethatneithersidewouldbeableto
implementthesechanges.Chiangdeliveredaspeechpromisingpoliticalfreedom,localautonomy,freeelections,andthereleaseofpolitical
prisoners.ZhouwelcomedChiang'sstatementsandexpressedhisoppositiontocivilwar.[146]
TheleadershipoftheCCPviewedtheseagreementsoptimistically.On27January1946theCCPSecretariatappointedZhouasoneofeight
leaderstoparticipateinafuturecoalitiongovernment(otherleadersincludedMao,LiuShaoqi,andZhuDe).ItwassuggestedthatZhoube
nominatedasChina'svicepresident.MaoexpressedadesiretovisittheUnitedStates,andZhoureceivedorderstomanipulateMarshallin
ordertoadvancethepeaceprocess.[147]
Marshall'snegotiationssoondeteriorated,asneithertheKMTnortheCCPwerewillingtosacrificeanyoftheadvantagesthattheyhad
gained,todepoliticizetheirarmies,ortosacrificeanydegreeofautonomyinareastheirsidecontrolled.MilitaryclashesinManchuria
becameincreasinglyfrequentinthespringandsummerof1946,eventuallyforcingCommunistforcestoretreatafterafewmajorbattles.
GovernmentarmiesincreasedtheirattacksinotherpartsofChina.[148]
On3May1946,ZhouandhiswifeleftChongqingforNanjing,wheretheNationalistcapitalreturned.Negotiationsdeteriorated,andon9
OctoberZhouinformedMarshallthathenolongerhadtheconfidenceoftheCCP.On11OctoberNationalisttroopsseizedtheCommunist
cityofZhangjiakouinnorthernChina.Chiang,confidentinhisabilitytodefeattheCommunists,calledtheNationalAssemblyintosession
withouttheparticipationoftheCCPandorderedittodraftaconstitutionon15November.On16NovemberZhouheldapressconference,in
whichhecondemnedtheKMTfor"tearinguptheagreementsfromthepoliticalconsultativeconference".On19NovemberZhouandthe
entireCCPdelegationleftNanjingforYan'an.[149]
ResumptionofCivilWar
Militarystrategistandintelligencechief
Followingthefailureofnegotiations,theChineseCivilWarresumedinearnest.Zhouturnedhisfocusfromdiplomatictomilitaryaffairs,
whileretainingaseniorinterestinintelligencework.ZhouworkeddirectlyunderMaoashischiefaide,asthevicechairmanoftheMilitary
CommissionoftheCentralCommittee,andasthegeneralchiefofstaff.AstheheadoftheUrbanWorkCommitteeoftheCentralCommittee,
anagencyestablishedtocoordinateworkinsideKMTcontrolledareas,Zhoucontinuedtodirectundergroundactivities.[150]
AsuperiorforceofNationalisttroopscapturedYan'aninMarch1947,butZhou'sintelligenceagents(primarilyXiongXianghui)wereableto
provideYan'an'scommandinggeneral,PengDehuai,withdetailsoftheKMTarmy'stroopstrength,distribution,positions,aircover,anddates
ofdeployment.ThisintelligenceallowedCommunistforcestoavoidmajorbattlesandtoengageNationalistforcesinaprotractedcampaignof
guerrillawarfarethateventuallyledtoPengachievingaseriesofmajorvictories.ByFebruary1948overhalftheKMTtroopsinthenorthwest
wereeitherdefeatedorexhausted.On4May1948Pengcaptured40,000armyuniformsandoveramillionpiecesofartillery.ByJanuary
1949CommunistforcesseizedBeijingandTianjin,andwerefirmlyincontrolofnorthChina.[151]
Diplomacy
On21January1949ChiangsteppeddownaspresidentoftheNationalistgovernmentandwassucceededbyGeneralLiZongren.On1April
1949LibeganaseriesofpeacenegotiationswithasixmemberCCPdelegation.TheCCPdelegateswereledbyZhouEnlai,andtheKMT
delegateswereledbyZhangZhizhong.[152]
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Zhoubeganthenegotiationsbyasking:"WhydidyougotoXikou(whereChianghadretired)toseeChiangKaishekbeforeleaving
Nanjing?"ZhangrespondedthatChiangstillhadpower,eventhoughhehadtechnicallyretired,andthathisconsentwouldbeneededto
finalizeanyagreement.ZhourespondedthattheCCPwouldnotacceptaboguspeacedictatedbyChiang,andaskedwhetherZhanghadcome
withthenecessarycredentialstoimplementthetermsdesiredbytheCCP.Negotiationscontinueduntil15April,whenZhouproduceda"final
version"ofa"draftagreementforinternalpeace",whichwasessentiallyanultimatumtoacceptCCPdemands.TheKMTgovernmentdidnot
respondafterfivedays,signalingthatitwasnotpreparedtoacceptZhou'sdemands.[153]
On21AprilMaoandZhouissuedan"ordertothearmyforcountrywideadvance".PLAtroopscapturedNanjingon23April,andcaptured
Li'sstrongholdofGuangdonginOctober,forcingLitogointoexileinAmerica.InDecember1949PLAtroopscapturedChengdu,thelast
KMTcontrolledcityonmainlandChina,forcingChiangtoevacuatetoTaiwan.[153]
PRCdiplomatandstatesman
DiplomaticsituationofthePRCin1949
Bytheearly1950s,China'sinternationalinfluencewasextremelylow.BytheendoftheQingDynastyin1911,China'spretentionsof
universalismhadbeenshatteredbyastringofmilitarydefeatsandincursionsbyEuropeansandJapanese.BytheendofYuanShikai'sreign
andthesubsequentWarlordEra,China'sinternationalprestigehaddeclinedto"almostnothing".InWorldWarII,China'seffectiverolewas
sometimesquestionedbyotherAlliedleaders.The19501953KoreanWargreatlyexacerbatedChina'sinternationalpositionbyfixingthe
UnitedStatesinapositionofanimosity,ensuringthatTaiwanwouldremainoutsideofPRCcontrolandthatthePRCwouldremainoutsideof
theUnitedNationsfortheforeseeablefuture.[154]
FollowingtheestablishmentofthePeople'sRepublicofChinain1October1949,ZhouwasappointedbothPremieroftheGovernment
AdministrationCouncil(laterreplacedbytheStateCouncil)andMinisterofForeignAffairs.Throughthecoordinationofthesetwooffices
andhispositionasamemberofthefivemanstandingcommitteeofthePolitburo,ZhoubecamethearchitectofearlyPRCforeignpolicy,
presentingChinaasanew,yetresponsiblememberoftheinternationalcommunity.Bytheearly1950s,Zhouwasanexperiencednegotiator
andwasrespectedasaseniorrevolutionarywithinChina.[154]
Zhou'searliesteffortstoimprovetheprestigeofthePRCinvolvedrecruitingprominentChinesepoliticians,capitalists,intellectuals,and
militaryleaderswhowerenottechnicallyaffiliatedwiththeCCP.ZhouwasabletoconvinceZhangZhizhongtoacceptapositioninsidethe
PRCin1949,afterZhou'sundergroundnetworksuccessfullyescortedZhang'sfamilytoBeijing.AlloftheothermembersoftheKMT
delegationthatZhouhadnegotiatedwithin1949acceptedsimilarterms.[155]
SunYatsen'swidow,SongQingling,whowasestrangedfromherfamilyandwhohadopposedtheKMTformanyyears,readilyjoinedthe
PRCin1949.HuangYuanpei,aprominentindustrialistwhohadrefusedoffersofagovernmentpostformanyyears,waspersuadedtoaccept
apositionasvicepremierinthenewgovernment.FuZuoyi,theKMTcommanderwhohadsurrenderedtheBeijinggarrisonin1948,was
persuadedtojointhePLA,andtoacceptapositionastheministerofwaterconservation.[156]
DiplomacywithIndia
Zhou'sfirstdiplomaticsuccessescameastheresultofsuccessfullypursuingawarmrelationship,basedonmutualrespect,withIndia'sfirst
postindependenceprimeminister,JawaharlalNehru.Throughhisdiplomacy,ZhoumanagedtopersuadeIndiatoacceptChina'soccupationof
Tibetin1950and1951.IndiawaslaterpersuadedtoactasaneutralmediatorbetweenChinaandtheUnitedStatesduringthemanydifficult
phasesofthenegotiationssettlingtheKoreanWar.[157]
TheKoreanWar
WhentheKoreanWarbrokeouton25June1950,ZhouwasintheprocessofdemobilizinghalfofthePLA's5.6millionsoldiers,underthe
directionoftheCentralCommittee.ZhouandMaodiscussedthepossibilityofAmericaninterventionwithKimIlsunginMay,andurged
KimtobecautiousifhewastoinvadeandconquerSouthKorea,butKimrefusedtotakethesewarningsseriously.On28June1950,afterthe
UnitedStatespushedthroughaUNresolutioncondemningNorthKoreanaggressionandsenttheSeventhFleetto"neutralize"theTaiwan
Strait,ZhoucriticizedboththeUNandUSinitiativesas"armedaggressiononChineseterritory."[158]
AlthoughKim'searlysuccessledhimtopredictthathewouldwinthewarbyAugust,Chineseleadersweremorepessimistic.Zhoudidnot
shareKim'sconfidencethatthewarwouldendquickly,andbecameincreasinglyapprehensivethattheUnitedStateswouldintervene.To
counterthepossibilityofanAmericaninvasionintoNorthKoreaorChina,ZhousecuredaSovietcommitmenttohavetheUSSRsupport
Chineseforceswithaircover,anddeployed260,000ChinesesoldiersalongtheNorthKoreanborder,underthecommandofGaoGang,but
theywerestrictlyorderednottomoveintoNorthKoreaorengageUNorUSAforcesunlesstheyengagedthemselves.ZhoucommandedChai
ChengwentoconductatopographicalsurveyofKorea,anddirectedLeiYingfu,Zhou'smilitaryadvisorinNorthKorea,toanalyzethe
militarysituationthere.LeiconcludedthatMacArthurwouldmostlikelyattemptalandingatIncheon.[159]
On15September1950MacArthurlandedatIncheon,metlittleresistance,andcapturedSeoulon25September.Bombingraidsdestroyed
mostNorthKoreantanksandmuchofitsartillery.NorthKoreantroops,insteadofwithdrawingnorth,rapidlydisintegrated.On30September,
ZhouwarnedtheUnitedStatesthat"theChinesepeoplewillnottolerateforeignaggression,norwilltheysupinelytolerateseeingtheir
neighborsbeingsavagelyinvadedbyimperialists."[160]
On1October,onthefirstanniversaryofthePRC,SouthKoreantroopscrossedtheThirtyEighthParallelintoNorthKorea.Stalinrefusedto
becomedirectlyinvolvedinthewar,andKimsentafranticappealtoMaotoreinforcehisarmy.On2October,theChineseleadership
continuedanemergencymeetingatZhongnanhaitodiscusswhetherChinashouldsendmilitaryaid,andthesetalkscontinueduntil6October.
Atthemeeting,ZhouwasoneofthefewfirmsupportersofMao'spositionthatChinashouldsendmilitaryaid,regardlessofthestrengthof
Americanforces.WiththeendorsementofPengDehuai,themeetingconcludedwitharesolutiontosendmilitaryforcestoKorea.[161]
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InordertoenlistStalin'ssupport,ZhoutraveledtoStalin'ssummerresortontheBlackSeaon10October.Stalininitiallyagreedtosend
militaryequipmentandammunition,butwarnedZhouthattheUSSR'sairforcewouldneedtwoorthreemonthstoprepareanyoperationsand
nogroundtroopsweretobesent.Inasubsequentmeeting,StalintoldZhouthathewouldonlyprovideChinawithequipmentonacredit
basis,andthattheSovietairforcewouldonlyoperateoverChineseairspaceafteranundisclosedperiodoftime.Stalindidnotagreetosend
eithermilitaryequipmentorairsupportuntilMarch1951.[162]
ImmediatelyonhisreturntoBeijingon18October1950,ZhoumetwithMaoZedong,PengDehuai,andGaoGang,andthegrouporderedthe
200,000ChinesetroopsalongthebordertoenterNorthKorea,whichtheydidon25October.AfterconsultingwithStalin,on13November,
MaoappointedZhoutheoverallcommanderofthePeople'sVolunteerArmy,aspecialunitofthePeople'sLiberationArmy,China'sarmed
forcesthatwouldinterveneintheKoreanconflictandcoordinatorofthewareffort,withPengasfieldcommanderofthePVA.Ordersgiven
byZhoutothePVAweredeliveredinthenameoftheCentralMilitaryCommission.[163]
ByJune1951,thewarhadreachedastalematearoundtheThirtyeighthParallel,andthetwosidesagreedtonegotiateanarmistice.Zhou
directedthetrucetalks,whichbeganon10July.ZhouchoseLiKenongandQiaoGuanhuatoheadtheChinesenegotiatingteam.The
negotiationsproceededfortwoyearsbeforereachingaceasefireagreementonJuly1953,formallysignedatPanmunjom.[164]
TheKoreanWarwasZhou'slastmilitaryassignment.In1952,PengDehuaisucceededZhouinmanagingtheCentralMilitaryCommission
(whichZhouhadheadedsince1947).In1956,aftertheeighthPartyCongress,ZhouformallyrelinquishedhispostintheMilitary
CommissionandfocusedonhisworkintheStandingCommittee,theStateCouncil,andonforeignaffairs.[165]
DiplomacywithChina'scommunistneighbors
AfterStalindiedonMarch5,1953,ZhouleftforMoscowandattendedStalin'sfuneral
fourdayslater.Mao,curiously,decidednottotraveltoMoscow,possiblybecauseno
seniorSovietpoliticianhadyettravelledtoBeijing,orbecauseStalinhadrejectedanoffer
tomeetwithMaoin1948(nevertheless,ahugememorialserviceinhonorofStalinwas
heldinBeijing'sTiananmenSquarewithMaoandhundredsofthousandsmorein
attendance).WhileinMoscow,Zhouwasnotablyreceivedwithconsiderablerespectby
Sovietofficials,beingpermittedtostandwiththeUSSR'snewleadersVyacheslav
Molotov,NikitaKhrushchev,GeorgiMalenkov,andLavrentiyBeriainsteadofwiththe
other"foreign"dignitarieswhoattended.Withthesefourleaders,Zhouwalkeddirectly
behindtheguncarriagebearingStalin'scoffin.Zhou'sdiplomaticeffortsonhistravelto
Moscowwererewardedshortlyafterwhen,in1954,KhrushchevhimselfvisitedBeijingto
takepartinthefifthanniversaryofthefoundingofthePeople'sRepublic.[152][166]
ForeignleadersattendingGheorgheGheorghiu
Throughoutthe1950s,Zhouworkedtotighteneconomicandpoliticalrelationsbetween
Dej'sfuneral(March1965).ZhouEnlaiand
ChinaandotherCommuniststates,coordinatingChina'sforeignpolicywithSoviet
AnastasMikoyanareamongthem
policiespromotingsolidarityamongpoliticalallies.In1952,Zhousignedaneconomicand
culturalagreementwiththeMongolianPeople'sRepublic,givingdefactorecognitionof
theindependenceofwhathadbeenknownas"OuterMongolia"inQingtimes.ZhoualsoworkedtoconcludeanagreementwithKimIlsung
inordertohelpthepostwarreconstructionofNorthKorea'seconomy.PursuingthegoalsofpeacefuldiplomacywithChina'sneighbors,Zhou
heldamicabletalkswithBurma'sprimeminister,UNu,andpromotedChina'seffortstosendsuppliestoHoChiMinh'sVietnameserebels
knownastheVietminh.[154]
TheGenevaConference
Mainarticle:GenevaConference(1954)
InApril1954,ZhouattendedtheGenevaConference,convenedtosettlethe
ongoingFrancoVietnameseWar.Hispatienceandshrewdnesswerecreditedwith
assistingthemajorpowersinvolved(theSoviets,French,Americans,andNorth
Vietnamese)toironouttheagreementendingtheconflict.Accordingtothe
negotiatedpeace,FrenchIndochinawastobepartitionedintoLaos,Cambodia,
NorthVietnam,andSouthVietnam.Electionswereagreedtobecalledwithintwo
yearstocreateacoalitiongovernmentinaunitedVietnam,andtheVietminh
agreedtoendtheirguerillaactivitiesinSouthVietnam,Laos,andCambodia[167]
DuringoneearlymeetinginGeneva,Zhoufoundhimselfinthesameroomwith
thestaunchlyantiCommunistAmericansecretaryofstate,JohnFosterDulles.
AfterZhouofferedtoshakehishand,Dullesrudelyturnedhisbackandwalkedout
oftheroom,saying"Icannot".Zhouwasinterpretedbyonlookersasturningthis
ZhouEnlai(middle)atGeneva,1954
momentofpossiblehumiliationintoasmallvictorybygivingonlyasmall,
"Gallicstyle"shrugtothisbehaviour.Zhouwasequallyeffectiveincountering
Dulles'insistencethatChinanotbegivenaseatatthesessions.FurtheringtheimpressionofChineseurbanityandcivility,hehadlunchwith
BritishactorCharlieChaplin,whohadbeenlivinginSwitzerlandsincebeingblacklistedintheUnitedStatesforhisradicalpolitics.[167]
TheAsianAfricanConference
In1955,ZhouwasaprominentparticipantintheAsianAfricanConferenceheldinIndonesia.TheconferenceinBandungwasameetingof
twentynineAfricanandAsianstates,organizedbyIndonesia,Burma(Myanmar),Pakistan,Ceylon(SriLanka),andIndia,andwascalled
largelytopromoteAfroAsianeconomicandculturalcooperationandtoopposecolonialismorneocolonialismbyeithertheUnitedStatesor
theSovietUnionintheColdWar.Attheconference,ZhouskillfullygavetheconferenceaneutralstancethatmadetheUnitedStatesappear
asaseriousthreattothepeaceandstabilityoftheregion.Zhoucomplainedthat,whileChinawasworkingtowards"worldpeaceandthe
progressofmankind","aggressivecircles"withintheUnitedStateswereactivelyaidingtheNationalistsinTaiwanandplanningtorearmthe
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Japanese.Hewaswidelyquotedforhisremarkthat"thepopulationofAsiawillneverforgetthatthefirstatombombwasexplodedonAsian
soil."Withthesupportofitsmostprestigiousparticipants,theconferenceproducedastrongdeclarationinfavourofpeace,theabolitionof
nucleararms,generalarmsreduction,andtheprincipleofuniversalrepresentationattheUnitedNations.[168]
OnhiswaytotheBandungconference,anassassinationattemptwasmadeagainstZhouwhenabombwasplantedontheAirIndiaplane
KashmirPrincess,charteredforZhou'stripfromHongKongtoJakarta.Zhouavoidedtheattemptwhenhechangedplanesatthelastminute,
butall11oftheflight'sotherpassengerswerekilled,withonlythreecrewmemberssurvivingthecrash.Arecentstudyhasblamedtheattempt
on"oneoftheintelligenceagenciesoftheKMT."[169]JournalistJosephTrentohasalsoallegedthattherewasasecondattemptonZhou'slife
attheBandungconferenceinvolving"abowlofricepoisonedwithaslowactingtoxin."[170]
Accordingtooneaccountbasedonrecentresearch,ZhoufoundoutaboutthebombontheKashmirPrincessafterbeingwarnedoftheplotby
hisownintelligenceofficersanddidnotattempttostopitbecauseheviewedthosethatdiedasdisposable:lowlevelcadresandinternational
journalists.Afterthecrash,ZhouusedtheincidenttowarntheBritishabouttheKMTintelligenceoperativesactiveinHongKongand
pressuredGreatBritaintodisabletheNationalistintelligencenetworkoperatingthere(withhimselfplayingasupportrole).Hehopedthatthe
incidentwouldimproveBritain'srelationshipwiththePRC,anddamageBritain'srelationshipwiththeROC.[171]Theofficialexplanationfor
Zhou'sabsenceontheflight,however,remainsthatZhouwasforcedtochangehisscheduleduetohavinghadsurgeryforappendicitis.[172]
AftertheBandungconference,China'sinternationalpoliticalsituationbegantograduallyimprove.Withthehelpofmanyofthenonaligned
powerswhohadtakenpartintheconference,theUSbackedpositioneconomicallyandpoliticallyboycottingthePRCbegantoerode,despite
continuingAmericanpressuretofollowitsdirection.In1971,theUnitedStatesfinallygaveupitsopposition,andthePRCgainedChina'sseat
withintheUnitedNations.[173]
PositiononTaiwan
Seealso:OneChinapolicy
WhenthePRCwasfoundedon1October1949,Zhounotifiedallgovernmentsthatanycountrieswishingtohavediplomaticcontactwiththe
PRCmustendtheirrelationshipwiththeleadersoftheformerregimeonTaiwan,andsupportthePRC'sclaimtoChina'sseatintheUnited
Nations.Thiswasthefirstforeignpolicydocumentissuedbythenewgovernment.By1950thePRCwasabletogaindiplomaticrelationships
withothercommunistcountriesandwiththirteennoncommunistcountries,buttalkswithmostWesterngovernmentswereunsuccessful.[174]
ZhouemergedfromtheBandungconferencewithareputationasaflexibleandopenmindednegotiator.RecognizingthattheUnitedStates
wouldbackthedefactoindependenceofROCcontrolledTaiwanwithmilitaryforce,Zhoupersuadedhisgovernmenttoendtheshellingof
QuemoyandMatsu,andtosearchforadiplomaticalternativetotheconfrontationinstead.InaformalannouncementinMay1955,Zhou
declaredthatthePRCwould"strivefortheliberationofTaiwanbypeacefulmeanssofarasitispossible."[175]Wheneverthequestionof
Taiwanwasraisedwithforeignstatesmen,ZhouarguedthatTaiwanwaspartofChina,andthattheresolutionoftheconflictwiththeTaiwan
authoritieswasaninternalmatter.[176]
In1958thepostofMinisterofForeignAffairswaspassedtoChenYi,ageneralwithlittlepriordiplomaticexperience.AfterZhouresigned
hisofficeinForeignAffairs,thePRCdiplomaticcorpswasreduceddramatically.Someweretransferredtovariousculturalandeducational
departmentstoreplaceleadingcadreswhohadbeenlabelled"rightists"andsenttoworkinlabourcamps.[177]
TheShanghaicommunique
Mainarticle:1972NixonvisittoChina
Bytheearly1970s,SinoAmericanrelationshadbeguntoimprove.Mao'sworkersinthe
petroleumindustry,oneofChina'sfewgrowingeconomicsectorsatthetime,advisedthe
Chairmanthat,inordertoconsidergrowthatlevelsdesiredbytheParty'sleadership,largeimports
ofAmericantechnologyandtechnicalexpertisewereessential.InJanuary1970,theChinese
invitedtheAmericanpingpongteamtotourChina,initiatinganeraof"pingpong
diplomacy".[178]
In1971,ZhouEnlaimetsecretlywithPresidentNixon'ssecurityadvisor,HenryKissinger,who
hadflowntoChinatoprepareforameetingbetweenRichardNixonandMaoZedong.Duringthe
courseofthesemeetings,theUnitedStatesagreedtoallowthetransferofAmericanmoneyto
China(presumablyfromrelativesintheUnitedStates),toallowAmericanownedshipstoconduct
tradewithChina(underforeignflags),andtoallowChineseexportsintotheUnitedStatesforthe
firsttimesincetheKoreanWar.Atthetime,thesenegotiationswereconsideredsosensitivethat
theywereconcealedfromtheAmericanpublic,theStateDepartment,theAmericansecretaryof
state,andallforeigngovernments.[178]
Zhou,shownherewithHenryKissinger
andMaoZedong.
Onthemorningof21February1972,RichardNixonarrivedinBeijing,wherehewasgreetedby
Zhou,andlatermetwithMaoZedong.ThediplomaticsubstanceofNixon'svisitwasresolvedon
28February,intheShanghaiCommunique,whichsummarizedbothsides'positionswithout
attemptingtoresolvethem.The"USside"reaffirmedtheAmericanpositionthatAmerica's
involvementintheongoingVietnamWardidnotconstitute"outsideintervention"inVietnam's
affairs,andrestateditscommitmentto"individualfreedom",andpledgedcontinuedsupportfor
SouthKorea.The"ChineseSide"statedthat"whereverthereisoppression,thereisresistance",
ZhoushakeshandswithPresidentRichard
that"allforeigntroopsshouldbewithdrawntotheirowncountries",andthatKoreashouldbe
NixonuponNixon'sarrivalinChinain
unifiedaccordingtothedemandsofNorthKorea.Bothsidesagreedtodisagreeonthestatusof
February1972.
Taiwan.TheclosingsectionsoftheShanghaiCommuniqueencouragedfurtherdiplomatic,
cultural,economic,journalistic,andscientificexchanges,andendorsedbothsides'intentionsto
worktowards"therelaxationoftensionsinAsiaandtheworld."TheresolutionsoftheShanghaiCommuniquerepresentedamajorpolicyshift
forboththeUnitedStatesandChina.[179]
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TheGreatLeapForward
Mainarticle:GreatLeapForward
In1958,MaoZedongbegantheGreatLeapForward,aimedatincreasingChina'sproductionlevelsinindustryandagriculturewithunrealistic
targets.Asapopularandpracticaladministrator,ZhoumaintainedhispositionthroughtheLeap.Zhouhasbeendescribedbyatleastone
historianasthe"midwife"oftheGreatLeapForward,[180]turningMao'stheoryintorealityandintheprocesscausinga"minimumof45
million"deaths.[181]
Bytheearly1960s,Mao'sprestigewasnotashighasithadoncebeen.Mao'seconomicpoliciesinthe1950shadfailed,andhehaddeveloped
alifestylethatwasincreasinglyoutoftouchwithmanyofhisoldestcolleagues.Amongtheactivitiesthatseemedcontrarytohispopular
imageweretheswimsinhisprivatepoolinZhongnanhai,hismanyvillasaroundChinathathewouldtraveltoonaprivatetrain,hisprivate,
booklinedstudy,andthecompanionshipofaneverchangingsuccessionofenthusiasticyoungwomenwhomhemeteitheronweeklydances
inZhongnanhaioronhisjourneysbytrain.Thecombinationofhispersonaleccentricitiesandpublicpolicyfailuresproducedcriticismfrom
suchveteranrevolutionariesasLiuShaoqi,DengXiaoping,ChenYun,andZhouEnlai,whoseemedlessandlesstoshareanenthusiasmfor
hispresenceorhisvisionofcontinuousrevolutionarystruggle.[182]
TheCulturalRevolution
Mainarticle:CulturalRevolution
InitialeffortsofMaoandLin
Toimprovehisimageandpower,Mao,withthehelpofLinBiao,undertookanumberofpublicpropagandaefforts.AmongtheeffortsofMao
andLintoimproveMao'simageintheearly1960swereLin'spublicationoftheforgedDiaryofLeiFengandhiscompilationofQuotations
fromChairmanMao.[183]ThelastandmostsuccessfuloftheseeffortswastheCulturalRevolution.
Whateveritsothercauses,theCulturalRevolution,declaredin1966,wasovertlyproMaoist,andgaveMaothepowerandinfluencetopurge
thePartyofhispoliticalenemiesatthehighestlevelsofgovernment.AlongwithclosingChina'sschoolsanduniversities,itsexhortationsof
youngChinesetodestroyoldbuildings,temples,andart,andtoattacktheir"revisionist"teachers,schooladministrators,partyleaders,and
parents.[184]AftertheCulturalRevolutionwasannounced,manyofthemostseniormembersoftheCCPwhohadsharedZhou'shesitationin
followingMao'sdirection,includingLiuShaoqiandDengXiaoping,wereremovedfromtheirpostsalmostimmediatelyand,withtheir
families,subjectedtomasscriticismandhumiliation.[184]
Politicalsurvival
Soonaftertheyhadbeenremoved,ZhouarguedthatLiuShaoqiandDengXiaoping"shouldbeallowedtocomebacktowork",butthiswas
opposedbyMao,LinBiao,KangShengandChenBoda.ChenBodaevensuggestedthatZhouhimselfmightbe"consideredcounter
revolutionary",ifhedidnottoetheMaoistline.[185]Followingthethreatsthathewouldshareinthefateofhiscomradesifhedidnotsupport
Mao,ZhouceasedhiscriticismsandbegantoworkmorecloselywiththeChairmanandhisclique.
ZhougavehisbackingtotheestablishmentofradicalRedGuardorganizationsinOctober,1966,andjoinedChenBodaandJiangQing
againstwhattheyconsidered"leftist"and"rightist"RedGuardfactions.ThisopenedthewayforattacksonLiuShaoqi,DengXiaoping,and
TaoZhuinDecember1966January1967.[186]BySeptember1968,ZhoucandidlydescribedhisstrategyforpoliticalsurvivaltoJapanese
LDPparliamentariansvisitingBeijing:"onespersonalopinionsshouldadvanceorbeataretreataccordingtothedirectionofthe
majority."[187]WhenhewasaccusedofbeinglessthanenthusiasticinfollowingMao'sleadership,heaccusedhimselfof"poorunderstanding"
ofMao'stheories,givingtheappearanceofcompromisingwithforcesthathesecretlyloathedandreferredtoinprivateashis"inferno".[188]
Followingthelogicofpoliticalsurvival,ZhouworkedtoaidMao,andrestrictedhiscriticismstoprivateconversations.
AlthoughZhouescapedbeingdirectlypersecuted,hewasnotabletosavemanyofthoseclosesttohimfromhavingtheirlivesdestroyedby
theCulturalRevolution.SunWeishi,Zhou'sadopteddaughter,diedin1968aftersevenmonthsoftortureandimprisonmentbyMaoistRed
Guards.AftertheendoftheCulturalRevolution,Sun'splayswererestagedasawayofcriticizingtheGangofFour,whommanythought
wereresponsibleforherdeath.[189]
Throughoutthenextdecade,MaolargelydevelopedpolicieswhileZhoucarriedthemout,attemptingtomoderatesomeoftheexcessesofthe
CulturalRevolution(suchaspreventingBeijingfrombeingrenamed"EastIsRedCity"andtheChineseguardianlionsinfrontofTian'anmen
SquarefrombeingreplacedwithstatuesofMao[190]).Despitehisbestefforts,theinabilitytopreventmanyoftheeventsoftheCultural
RevolutionwereagreatblowtoZhou.Overthelastdecadeofhislife,Zhou'sabilitytoimplementMao'spoliciesandkeepthenationafloat
duringperiodsofadversitywassogreatthathispracticalimportancealonewassufficienttosavehim(withMao'sassistance)wheneverZhou
becamepoliticallythreatened.[191]AtthelateststagesoftheCulturalRevolution,in1975,Zhoupushedforthe"FourModernizations"inorder
toundothedamagecausedbytheMao'spolicies.
DuringthelaterstagesoftheCulturalRevolution,ZhoubecameatargetofpoliticalcampaignsorchestratedbyChairmanMaoandtheGang
ofFour.The"CriticizeLin,CriticizeConfucius"campaignof1973and1974wasdirectedatPremierZhoubecausehewasviewedasoneof
theGang'sprimarypoliticalopponents.In1975,Zhou'senemiesinitiatedacampaignnamed"CriticizingSongJiang,EvaluatingtheWater
Margin",whichencouragedtheuseofZhouasanexampleofapoliticalloser.[192]
Deathandreactions
Illnessanddeath
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AccordingtotherecentbiographyofZhoubyGaoWenqian,Zhouwasfirstdiagnosedwithbladdercancerin1972.[193]Zhou'smedicalteam
reportedthatwithtreatmenthehadan8090percentchanceofrecovery,butmedicaltreatmentforthehighestrankingpartymembershadto
beapprovedbyMao.MaoorderedthatZhouandhiswifeshouldnotbetoldofthediagnosis,nosurgeryshouldbeperformed,andnofurther
examinationsshouldbegiven.[194]By1974,Zhouwasexperiencingsignificantbleedinginhisurine.Afterpressurebyotherleaderswhohad
learnedofZhou'scondition,anoperationwasfinallyperformedinJune1974,butthebleedingreturnedafewmonthslater,indicating
metastasisofthecancerintootherorgans.Aseriesofoperationsoverthenextyearandahalffailedtochecktheprogressofthecancer.[195]
Zhoucontinuedtoconductworkduringhisstaysinthehospital,withDengXiaoping,astheFirstDeputyPremier,handlingmostofthe
importantStateCouncilmatters.Hislastmajorappearancewasatthefirstmeetingofthe4thNationalPeople'sCongresson13January1975,
wherehepresentedthegovernment'sworkreport.[196]ZhouEnlaidiedat09:57on8January1976,aged77.
Mao'sresponse
AfterZhou'sdeath,MaoissuednostatementsacknowledgingZhou'sachievementsorcontributionsandsentnocondolencestoZhou'swidow,
herselfaseniorPartyleader.[197]Maoforbadehisstafffromwearingblackmourningarmbands.[198]WhetherornotMaowouldhaveattended
Zhou'sfuneral,whichwasheldintheGreatHallofthePeople,Maowastoosicktodosoinanyevent.[198]Maodidhoweversendawreathto
thefuneral.[198]
Instead,MaoattackedaproposaltohaveZhoupubliclydeclaredagreatMarxist,andrejectedarequestthathemakeabriefappearanceat
Zhou'sfuneral,instructinghisnephew,MaoYuanxin,toexplainthathecouldnotattendbecausedoingsowouldbeseenasapublicadmission
thathewasbeingforcedto"rethinktheCulturalRevolution",asZhou'slateryearshadbeencloselyassociatedwithreversingandmoderating
itsexcesses.Maoworriedthatpublicexpressionsofmourningwouldlaterbedirectedagainsthimandhispolicies,andbackedthe"fivenos"
campaigntosuppresspublicexpressionsofmourningforZhouafterthelatePremier'sdeath.[199]
Memorial
WhateverMao'sopinionofZhoumayhavebeen,therewasgeneralmourningamongthepublic.ForeigncorrespondentsreportedthatBeijing,
shortlyafterZhou'sdeath,lookedlikeaghosttown.Therewasnoburialceremony,asZhouhadwilledhisashestobescatteredacrossthe
hillsandriversofhishometown,ratherthanstoredinaceremonialmausoleum.WithZhougone,itbecameclearhowtheChinesepeoplehad
reveredhim,andhowtheyhadviewedhimasasymbolofstabilityinanotherwisechaoticperiodofhistory.[200]Zhou'sdeathalsobrought
condolencesfromnationsaroundtheworld.
SpencereportsthatVicePremierDengXiaopinggavetheeulogyatZhou'sstatefuneralon15January1976.Althoughmuchofhisspeech
echoedthewordingofanofficialstatementbytheCentralCommitteeimmediatelyfollowingZhou'sdeathorconsistedofameticulous
descriptionofZhou'sremarkablepoliticalcareer,neartheendoftheeulogyheofferedapersonaltributetoZhou'scharacter,speakingfrom
theheartwhileobservingtherhetoricdemandedofceremonialstateoccasions.[201]ReferringtoZhou,Dengstatedthat:
Hewasopenandaboveboard,paidattentiontotheinterestsofthewhole,observedPartydiscipline,wasstrictin"dissecting"
himselfandgoodatunitingthemassofcadres,andupheldtheunityandsolidarityoftheParty.Hemaintainedbroadandclose
tieswiththemassesandshowedboundlesswarmheartednesstowardsallcomradesandthepeople....Weshouldlearnfromhis
finestylebeingmodestandprudent,unassumingandapproachable,settinganexamplebyhisconduct,andlivinginaplainand
hardworkingway.Weshouldfollowhisexampleofadheringtotheproletarianstyleandopposingthebourgeoisstyleoflife[201]
SpencesaysthisstatementwasinterpretedatthetimeasasubtlecriticismofMaoandtheotherleadersoftheCulturalRevolution,whocould
notpossiblybeviewedorpraisedasbeing"openandaboveboard","goodatunitingthemassofcadres",fordisplaying"warmheartedness",or
formodesty,prudence,orapproachability.RegardlessofDeng'sintentions,theGangofFour,andlaterHuaGuofeng,increasedthe
persecutionofDengshortlyafterhedeliveredthiseulogy.[201]
Suppressionofpublicmourning
AfterZhou'ssingleofficialmemorialceremonyon15January,Zhou'spoliticalenemieswithinthePartyofficiallyprohibitedanyfurther
displaysofpublicmourning.ThemostnotoriousregulationsprohibitingZhoufrombeinghonouredwerethepoorlyobservedandpoorly
enforced"fivenos":nowearingblackarmbands,nomourningwreaths,nomourninghalls,nomemorialactivities,andnohandingoutphotos
ofZhou.YearsofresentmentovertheCulturalRevolution,thepublicpersecutionofDengXiaoping(whowasstronglyassociatedwithZhou
inpublicperception),andtheprohibitionagainstpubliclymourningZhoubecameassociatedwitheachothershortlyafterZhou'sdeath,
leadingtopopulardiscontentagainstMaoandhisapparentsuccessors(notablyHuaGuofengandtheGangofFour).[202]
Officialattemptstoenforcethe"fivenos"includedremovingpublicmemorialsandtearingdownposterscommemoratinghisachievements.
On25March1976,aleadingShanghainewspaper,WenhuiBao,publishedanarticlestatingthatZhouwas"thecapitalistroaderinsidethe
Party[who]wantedtohelptheunrepentantcapitalistroader[Deng]regainhispower".ThisandotherpropagandaeffortstoattackZhou's
imageonlystrengthenedthepublic'sattachmenttoZhou'smemory.[203]BetweenMarchandApril1976,aforgeddocumentcirculatedin
NanjingthatclaimeditselftobeZhouEnlai'slastwill.ItattackedJiangQingandpraisedDengXiaoping,andwasmetwithincreased
propagandaeffortsbythegovernment.[204]
TheTiananmenincident
Mainarticle:TiananmenIncident
WithinseveralmonthsafterthedeathofZhou,oneofthemostextraordinaryspontaneouseventsinthehistoryofthePRCoccurred.On4
April1976,attheeveofChina'sannualQingmingFestival,inwhichChinesetraditionallypayhomagetotheirdeceasedancestors,thousands
ofpeoplegatheredaroundtheMonumenttothePeople'sHeroesinTiananmenSquaretocommemoratethelifeanddeathofZhouEnlai.On
thisoccasion,thepeopleofBeijinghonouredZhoubylayingwreaths,banners,poems,placards,andflowersatthefootoftheMonument.[205]
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ThemostobviouspurposeofthismemorialwastoeulogizeZhou,butJiangQing,ZhangChunqiao,andYaoWenyuanwerealsoattackedfor
theirallegedevilactionsagainstthePremier.AsmallnumberofslogansleftatTiananmenevenattackedMaohimself,andhisCultural
Revolution.[206]
UptotwomillionpeoplemayhavevisitedTiananmenSquareon4April.[206]FirsthandobservationsoftheeventsinTiananmenSquareon4
Aprilreportthatalllevelsofsociety,fromthepoorestpeasantstohighrankingPLAofficersandthechildrenofhighrankingcadres,were
representedintheactivities.ThosewhoparticipatedweremotivatedbyamixtureofangeroverthetreatmentofZhou,revoltagainstMaoand
hispolicies,apprehensionforChina'sfuture,anddefianceofthosewhowouldseektopunishthepublicforcommemoratingZhou'smemory.
Thereisnothingtosuggestthateventswerecoordinatedfromanypositionofleadership:itwasaspontaneousdemonstrationreflecting
widespreadpublicsentiment.DengXiaopingwasnotablyabsent,andheinstructedhischildrentoavoidbeingseenatthesquare.[207]
OnthemorningofApril5,crowdsgatheringaroundthememorialarrivedtodiscoverthatithadbeencompletelyremovedbythepoliceduring
thenight,angeringthem.Attemptstosuppressthemournersledtoaviolentriot,inwhichpolicecarsweresetonfireandacrowdofover
100,000peopleforceditswayintoseveralgovernmentbuildingssurroundingthesquare.[205]
By6:00pm,mostofthecrowdhaddispersed,butasmallgroupremaineduntil10:00pm,whenasecurityforceenteredTiananmenSquare
andarrestedthem.(Thereportedfigureofthosearrestedwas388people,butwasrumoredtobefarhigher.)Manyofthosearrestedwerelater
sentencedto"people'strial"atPekingUniversity,orweresentencedtoprisonworkcamps.Incidentssimilartothosewhichoccurredin
Beijingon4and5ApriloccurredinZhengzhou,Kunming,Taiyuan,Changchun,Shanghai,Wuhan,andGuangzhou.Possiblybecauseofhis
closeassociationwithZhou,DengXiaopingwasformallystrippedofallpositions"insideandoutsidetheParty"on7April,followingthis
"TiananmenIncident".[205]
AfteroustingHuaGuofengandassumingcontrolofChinain1980,DengXiaopingreleasedthosearrestedintheTiananmenIncidentaspart
ofabroaderefforttoreversetheeffectsoftheCulturalRevolution.
Legacy
Bytheendofhislifetime,ZhouwaswidelyviewedasrepresentingmoderationandjusticeinChinesepopularculture.[202]Sincehisdeath,
ZhouEnlaihasbeenregardedasaskillednegotiator,amasterofpolicyimplementation,adevotedrevolutionary,andapragmaticstatesman
withanunusualattentivenesstodetailandnuance.Hewasalsoknownforhistirelessanddedicatedworkethic,andhisunusualcharmand
poiseinpublic.HewasreputedlythelastMandarinbureaucratintheConfuciantradition.Zhou'spoliticalbehaviourshouldbeviewedinlight
ofhispoliticalphilosophyaswellashispersonality.Toalargeextent,ZhouepitomizedtheparadoxinherentinaCommunistpoliticianwith
traditionalChineseupbringing:atonceconservativeandradical,pragmaticandideological,possessedbyabeliefinorderandharmonyaswell
asafaith,whichhedevelopedverygraduallyovertime,intheprogressivepowerofrebellionandrevolution.
ThoughafirmbelieverintheCommunistidealonwhichthePeople'sRepublicwasfounded,Zhouiswidelybelievedtohavemoderatedthe
excessesofMao'sradicalpolicieswithinthelimitsofhispower.Ithasbeenassumedthatheprotectedimperialandreligioussitesofcultural
significance(suchasthePotalaPalaceinLhasa,Tibet)fromtheRedGuards,andshieldedmanytoplevelleaders,includingDengXiaoping,
aswellasmanyacademicsandartistsfrompurges.
WhilemanyearlierChineseleaderstodayhavebeensubjectedtocriticisminsideChina,Zhou'simagehasremainedpositiveamong
contemporaryChinese.ManyChinesecontinuetovenerateZhouaspossiblythemosthumaneleaderofthe20thcentury,andtheCCPtoday
promotesZhouasadedicatedandselfsacrificingleaderwhoremainsasymboloftheCommunistParty.[208]EvenhistorianswholistMao's
faultsgenerallyattributetheoppositequalitiestoZhou:ZhouwasculturedwhereMaowascrudeconsistentwhereMaowasunstablestoic
whereMaowasparanoid.[209]
However,recentacademiccriticismofZhouhasfocusedonhislaterelationshipwithMao,andhispoliticalactivitiesduringtheCultural
Revolution,arguingthattherelationshipbetweenZhouandMaomayhavebeenmorecomplexthaniscommonlyportrayed.Zhouhasbeen
depictedasunconditionallysubmissiveandloyaltoMaoandhisallies,goingoutofhiswaytosupportorpermitthepersecutionoffriendsand
relativesinordertoavoidfacingpoliticalcondemnationhimself.AfterthefoundingofthePRC,Zhouwasunableorunwillingtoprotectthe
formerspiesthathehademployedintheChineseCivilWarandtheSecondWorldWar,whowerepersecutedfortheirwartimecontactswith
theenemiesoftheCCP.EarlyintheCulturalRevolution,hetoldJiangQing"Fromnowonyoumakeallthedecisions,andI'llmakesure
they'recarriedout,"andpubliclydeclaredthathisoldcolleague,LiuShaoqi,"deservedtodie"foropposingMao.Intheefforttoavoidbeing
persecutedforopposingMao,Zhoupassivelyacceptedthepoliticalpersecutionofmanyothers,includinghisownbrother.[209][210][211]
Zhou'sinvolvementintheCulturalRevolutionisdefendedonthegroundsthathehadnootherchoice,otherthanpoliticalmartyrdom.Zhou's
influenceandpoliticalabilitywassuchthat,withouthiscooperation,theentiregovernment,whichZhouhadspenthisentirelifebuilding,may
havecollapsed.GiventhepoliticalcircumstancesofthelastdecadeofZhou'slife,itisunlikelythathecouldhavesurvivedbeingpurged
withoutcultivatingthesupportofMaothroughactiveassistance.[191]
ApopularsayingwithinChinaoncecomparedZhoutoabudaoweng(atumbler),whichcanimplythathewasapoliticalopportunist.Some
observershavecriticizedhimasbeingtoodiplomatic:avoidingclearstandsincomplexpoliticalsituationsandinsteadbecomingideologically
elusive,ambiguous,andenigmatic.[208]
TheAmericanstatesmenwhometZhouin1971laterwrotethattheyweredeeplyaffectedbyhisqualities.In1979,HenryKissingerwrote
thathehadbeenextremelyimpressedwithZhou'sintelligenceandcharacter,describinghimas"equallyathomeinphilosophy,reminiscence,
historicalanalysis,tacticalprobes,humorousrepartee...[and]coulddisplayanextraordinarypersonalgraciousness."KissingercalledZhou
"oneofthetwoorthreemostimpressivemenIhaveevermet,"[212]statingthat"hiscommandsoffacts,inparticularhisknowledgeof
Americaneventsand,forthatmatter,ofmyownbackground,wasstunning",[213]despiteKissinger'sdislikeoftheCommunistideologythat
Zhourepresented.RichardNixon,inhisownmemoirs,statedthathewasimpressedwithZhou'sexceptional"brillianceanddynamism".[209]
Aftercomingtopower,DengXiaopingmayhaveoveremphasizedZhouEnlai'sachievementstodistancetheCommunistPartyfromMao's
GreatLeapForwardandCulturalRevolution,bothofwhichhadseriouslyweakenedtheParty'sprestige.DengobservedthatMao'sdisastrous
policiescouldnolongerrepresenttheParty'sfinesthour,butthatthelegacyandcharacterofZhouEnlaicould.Byactivelyassociatingitself
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withanalreadypopularZhouEnlai,Zhou'slegacymayhavebeenused(andpossibly
distorted)asapoliticaltoolofthePartyafterhisdeath.[191]
ZhouremainsawidelycommemoratedfigureinChinatoday.Afterthefoundingofthe
People'sRepublicofChina,ZhouorderedhishometownofHuai'annottotransformhishouse
intoamemorialandnottokeepuptheZhoufamilytombs.Theseorderswererespectedwithin
Zhou'slifetime,buttodayhisfamilyhomeandtraditionalfamilyschoolhavebeenrestored,
andarevisitedbyalargenumberoftouristseveryyear.In1998,Huai'an,inorderto
commemorateZhou'sonehundredthbirthday,openedavastcommemorativeparkwitha
museumdedicatedtohislife.TheparkincludesareproductionofXihuating,Zhou'slivingand
workingquartersinBeijing.[131]
"MaodominatedanygatheringZhousuffused
it.Mao'spassionstrovetooverwhelm
oppositionZhou'sintellectwouldseekto
persuadeoroutmaneuverit.Maowassardonic
Zhoupenetrating.Maothoughtofhimselfasa
philosopherZhousawhisroleasan
administratororanegotiator.Maowaseagerto
acceleratehistoryZhouwascontenttoexploit
itscurrents."
FormerU.S.SecretaryofStateHenry
Kissinger,OnChina(2011) [214]
ThecityofTianjinhasestablishedamuseumtoZhouandhiswife,andthecityofNanjinghas
erectedamemorialcommemoratingCommunistnegotiationsin1946withtheNationalistgovernmentwhichfeaturesabronzestatueof
Zhou.[215]StampscommemoratingthefirstanniversaryofZhou'sdeathwereissuedin1977,andin1998tocommemoratehis100thbirthday.
Seealso
HistoryofthePeople'sRepublicofChina
RepublicofChina
ChineseCivilWar
SecondSinoJapaneseWar
ChiangKaishek
Kuomintang
WhampoaMilitaryAcademy
ZhouEnlai:TheLastPerfectRevolutionarybyGaoWenqian
LongMarch
MaoZedong
XianIncident
BandungConference
GenevaConference
ShanghaiCommunique
GreatLeapForward
CulturalRevolution
TiananmenIncident
FormerResidenceofZhouEnlaiinHuai'an
FormerResidenceofZhouEnlaiinShanghai
KashmirPrincess
Footnotes
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36.
"".
"".
Lee7
Lee6
Lee(180n7)citesarecentstudythatclaimsZhouPanlongdidnotactuallyserveascountymagistrate.
DuringtheCulturalRevolution,when"red"(poor)familybackgroundbecameessentialforeverythingfromcollegeadmissiontogovernmentservice,
Zhouhadtogobacktohismother'smotherwhomheclaimedwasafarmer'sdaughter,tofindafamilymemberwhoqualifiedas"red"(Barnouinand
Yu11).
BarnouinandYu9
ThisisthereasonfortheadoptiongiveninGao(23).Lee(11)suggeststhatitwasduetothebeliefthathavingasoncouldcureafather'sillness.
Lee17,21
BarnouinandYu11
Lee1617
Zhou'sfathermayhavealsobeeninManchuriaatthistime,andZhoumayhavelivedwithhimforawhile.AfterwardsZhou'scontactswithhisfather
diminished.Hediedin1941.SeeLee1921foradiscussionofZhou'srelationshipwithhisfather.
Lee2526
BarnouinandYu1314
BarnouinandYu14
Boorman"ChangPoling"(101)callshim"oneofthefoundersofmoderneducationinChina".
Lee39,46
Lee43
Lee55and44
Lee77and152
BarnouinandYu16
Lee6466
Lee74
BarnouinandYu18
Lee86103
Lee89
BarnouinandYu2930
BarnouinandYu21
Boorman(332)makestheclaimthatZhouattendedKawakami'slectures
Lee104
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Lee118119
Lee125
Lee1278
Lee133.
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Lee137
Lee138
Lee139
Lee152
BarnouinandYu25
BarnouinandYu26
Thedateofthishasbeencontroversial.Mostwriters,suchasGao(41),nowacceptMarch1921.Severalofthesecellswereestablishedinlate1920and
early1921.ThecellswereorganizedbeforetheChineseCommunistPartywasestablishedinJuly1921,sothereissomecontroversyoverthe
membershipstatusofcellmembers.
Gao40,Levine150
Inadditiontonotingtheuncertainstatusofcellmembersversuspartymembers,Levine(151n47)questionswhetherZhouwasatthispointa"stalwart"
Communistinhisbeliefs.
Goebel,AntiImperialMetropolis(http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/twentiethcenturyeuropeanhistory/antiimperialmetropolis
interwarparisandseedsthirdworldnationalism?format=HB#contentsTabAnchor),pp.12.
Lee159
Levine169172
ThisdescriptionisbasedonLee161.Othersourcesgivevaryingdates,places,andnumbersofpeople.
BarnouinandYu27
BarnouinandYu28
BarnouinandYu31
LeecitesZhou'slastpublicactivityinEuropeasaNationalistpartyfarewelldinneron24July.
Lee165
TheconflictingevidenceonZhou'spositionsatWhampoaissummarizedinWilbur,Missionaries196n7.AnotherpointofconfusionisthatChouwas
laterheadofthePoliticalTrainingDepartment.ThiswastechnicallynotpartofWhampoa,butwasaunitofthecentralgovernment,responsibledirectly
totheNationalGovernmentMilitaryCouncil(Wilbur,Revolution33).
BarnouinandYu32
Wilbur,Nationalist1314
Wilbur,Missionaries238
"Secretaryofprovincialcommittee"isaccordingtoBarnouinandYu,32.Otherworksgivedifferentdatesandpositions.HisworkintheProvincial
MilitarySectionprobablycamealittlelater,seeBarnouinandYu35.
ForChenYi,seeBoorman,"ChenYi",255.Fortherest,seeWeidenbaum212213
BarnouinandYu35
Hsu4748
WilburNationalist20.AsWilburnotes,Russianadvisorsplayedimportantrolesintheseearlycampaigns.
Boorman"Ch'enChiungming"179
WilburMissionaries203n92
WilburMissionaries175
WilburMissionaries222
Weidenbaum233235
BarnouinandYu,3334
WilburMissionaries244hasadetaileddiscussionofthesection.
Hsu53
Hsu5556
Hsu56
Smith228
Smith226
Smith227
Spence335
BarnouinandYu37
Hsu58
Hsu6164
BarnounandYu38
Hsu64
Wilbur
BarnouinandYu4041
WhitsonandHuang3940
BarnouinandYu42
Spence386
WhitsonandHuang40
BarnouinandYu44
BarnouinandYu4445
BarnouinandYu45
BarnouinandYu4546
BarnouinandYu46
BarnouinandYu47
BarnouinandYu4748
BarnouinandYu48
BarnouinandYu52
BarnouinandYu49
BarnouinandYu4951
BarnouinandYu5152
WhitsonandHuang5758
LarryM.Wortzel,RobinD.S.Higham:DictionaryofcontemporaryChinesemilitaryhistory,ABCCLIO,1999,page190
(http://books.google.com/books?id=rfuhR8msh4C&pg=PA190)
BarnouinandYu5255
Wilson51
BarnouinandYu56
BarnouinandYu57
BarnouinandYu5758
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Spence402
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197.
BarnouinandYu6465)
BarnouinandYu65
Spence407
BarnouinandYu67
Spence408
Spence409
BarnouinandYu68
BarnouinandYu71
BarnouinandYu72
BarnouinandYu7273
BarnouinandYu7374
LeeandStephanowska497
Zhang3
Spence688
BarnouinandYu74
BarnouinandYu7475
BarnouinandYu7576
BarnouinandYu124124
BarnouinandYu7677
BarnouinandYu77
BarnouinandYu78
BarnouinandYu77,8283
BarnouinandYu8287
BarnouinandYu88
BarnouinandYu89
BarnouinandYu7980
BarnouinandYu9195
BarnouinandYu9597
BarnouinandYu97100
BarnouinandYu97101
BarnouinandYu101104
BarnouinandYu104105
BarnouinandYu105
BarnouinandYu106
BarnouinandYu106107
BarnouinandYu107108
BarnouinandYu108
BarnouinandYu110116
BarnouinandYu117
BarnouinandYu118
Spence524
BarnouinandYu128129
BarnouinandYu129
Spence,1999,p.552
BarnouinandYu140
BarnouinandYu141
BarnouinandYu143
BarnouinandYu144146
BarnouinandYu146,149
BarnouinandYu147148
BarnouinandYu149150
BarnouinandYu150151
Spence525
Spence525526
Spence527
Tsang766
Trento1011
BarnouinandYu156
"Chinamarksjournalistskilledinpremiermurderplot50yearsago"(http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/200504/11/content_2815170.htm),Xinhua
NewsAgency,20050411
Spence596
BarnouinandYu134
Spence528
BarnouinandYu158
BarnouinandYu127,
Spence597
Spence599600
Dikotter448
Kingston
Spence565
Spence566
Spence575
Dittmer130131
Dittmer142143
Dittmer144145
BarnouinandYu45
LiandHo500
Macfarquhar,RoderickSchoenhals,Michael(2008).Mao'sLastRevolution.HarvardUniversityPress.pp.118119.
BarnouinandYu5
Bonavia24
Gao235
Gao,235236
Gao260262,275276,296297
"GovernmentWorkReporttotheFourthNationalPeople'sCongress(inChinese)".People'sDaily.19750121.p.1.Retrieved20140117.
Spence610
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198.
199.
200.
201.
202.
203.
204.
205.
206.
207.
208.
209.
210.
211.
212.
213.
214.
PhilipShort,MaoALife,Hodder&Stoughton,1999p.620
TeiwesandSun217218
Spence610611
Spence611
TeiwesandSun213
TeiwesandSun214
TeiwesandSun222
Spence612
TeiwesandSun218
TeiwesandSun119220
BarnouinandYu4
Ritter
Sun143144
BarnounandYu87
Kissinger
"KissingerDescribesNixonYears".DailyCollegian
onlinech9(http://books.google.com/books?
id=4pFfYliTIMkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:on+intitle:china+inauthor:kissinger&hl=en&ei=NGrkTeOmMfPKiALd2sGZBg&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=suffused&f=false)
215. NanjingMeiyuanNewVillageMemorialHall
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Externallinks
ZhouEnlai(http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0159288/)attheInternetMovieDatabase
WorksbyoraboutZhouEnlai(http://worldcat.org/identities/lccnn5042000)inlibraries
(WorldCatcatalog)
ZhouEnlaiBiography(http://www.spartacuseducational.com/COLDenlai.htm)FromSpartacus
WikimediaCommonshas
mediarelatedtoZhou
Enlai.
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Educational
Wikiquotehasquotations
relatedto:ZhouEnlai
ZhouEnlai,StephanLandserger'sChinesePropagandaPages[1]
(http://www.iisg.nl/landsberger/zel.html)
TheMysteryofZhouEnlai(http://www.nybooks.com/articles/22698)byJonathanSpencefromTheNewYorkReviewofBooks
TheshortfilmInterviewwithZhouEnLai(1965)(https://archive.org/details/gov.archives.arc.655146)isavailableforfreedownloadat
theInternetArchive
Politicaloffices
Newtitle
Precededby
MaoZedong
PremierofthePeople'sRepublicofChina
19491976
Succeededby
HuaGuofeng
ForeignMinisterofthePeople'sRepublicofChina
19491958
Succeededby
ChenYi
ChairmanoftheNationalCommitteeoftheChinese
People'sPoliticalConsultativeConference
19541976
Succeededby
DengXiaoping
Vacantuntil1978
Partypoliticaloffices
Precededby
WangMing
HeadoftheCPCCentralUnitedFrontDepartment
19471948
Newtitle
ViceChairmanoftheCommunistPartyofChina
19561966
Servedalongside:ChenYun,LiuShaoqi,ZhuDe,LinBiao
Precededby
LinBiao
Vacantsince1971
ViceChairmanoftheCommunistPartyofChina
19731976
Servedalongside:KangSheng,LiDesheng,WangHongwen,Ye
Jianying,DengXiaoping
Succeededby
LiWeihan
Succeededby
LinBiao
Succeededby
HuaGuofeng
WangHongwen
YeJianying
DengXiaoping
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