PHYSIOLOGY OF PHONATION

I. NONSPEECH LARYNGEAL FUNCTION

COUGHING = a response by the tissues of the respiratory passageway to an
irritant or foreign object
= includes deep inhalation through widely abducted vocal folds
= tensing and tight adduction of the vocal folds and elevation of
the larynx
= directed somewhat downward, providing more force in opposition to
expiration
NEGATIVE SIDE OF COUGHING
= Chronic irritation of the respiratory system leads to vocal abuse in the
form of repeated coughing
THROAT CLEARING = near cousin coughing
= permits you to clear your respiratory passageway of mucus
= stressful (will discuss further about this)
ABDOMINAL FIXATION = process of impounding air in the thorax to stabilize
the torso
= the preparatory steps for thorax/ abdomen fixation is
similar to coughing
WHY WE GRUNT WHEN LIFTING HEAVY OBJECTS
=we are using force that would cause expiration, while our vocal folds are
adducted, with sufficient efforts, some air escapes through the adducted vocal
folds
During normal, quite respiration, the vocal folds are abducted to provide a width
of about 8mm in the adult. During forced respiration, the need for air causes you
to dilate or open the respiratory tract as widely as possible, doubling the width
II. LARYNGEAL FUNCTION FOR SPEECH
A. The Bernoulli Effect is the primary physical principle supporting
phonation.
o Daniel Bernoulli - recognized the effects of constricting a tube during
fluid flow.
o States that: given a constant volume flow of air or fluid, at a
point of constriction there will be a decrease in pressure
perpendicular to the flow and an increase in velocity of the
flow.
o Basically: If you put a constriction in a tube, air flows faster as it flows
through the constriction, and the pressure on the wall at the point of
constriction will be lower than that of the surrounding area.

Two main things that happen during Bernoulli Effect

is Airflow Increase and Air Pressure Drop
Airflow Increase- ex. If you have placed your thumb over a garden
hose, you know that the rate of water flow increases as a result of
that constriction.
Air Pressure Drop ex. The flow of molecules in air in a tube.

One cycle of vocal fold vibration:

(A) Air pressure beneath the vocal folds arises from respiratory flow.
(B) Air pressure causes the vocal folds to separate in the inferior.
(C) The superior aspect of the vocal folds begins to open.
(D) The vocal folds are blown open, the flow between the folds

increases, and pressure at the folds decreases.

(E) Decreased pressure and the elastic quality of vocal folds causes
folds to move back toward midline.
(F) The vocal folds make contact inferiorly.
(G) The cycle of vibration is completed.
o

Additional information:
The minimum subglottal pressure needed to blow the folds apart is
3-5cm H2O but subglottal speech for phonation requires larger. (not
specified)
Voicing is the product of the repeated opening and closing of the
vocal folds.
Sound is the result of the motion of the tissue and the resultant
airflow disturbs the molecules of air.
Adduction is the act of bringing the vocal folds together for
phonation
Abduction is the process of drawing the vocal folds apart to
terminate phonation
Adduction and Abduction are achieved using specific muscles.
Actual vocal fold vibration is the product of airflow interacting with
the tissue in the absence of repetitive muscular contraction.
The interaction of subglottal pressure, tissue elasticity, and
constriction within the airflow caused by the vocal folds produces
sustained phonation as long as pressure, flow, and vocal fold
approximation are maintained.

B. ATTACK
Attack
process of bringing vocal folds together
- To begin phonation
- Requires muscular action
3 basic Laryngeal Adjustments
Adduct vocal folds

Vocal attack - Moving vocal folds into the airstream

Hold the vocal folds in a fixed position in the airstream as the
aerodynamics of phonation control the actual vibration associated with
sustained phonation
Abduct vocal folds to terminate

When not phonating the vocal folds abduct

- to prohibit air turbulence in the airway from starting audible vibration of
vocal folds.
Initiate voicing
- vocal folds are close enough that the forces of turbulence can cause vocal
fold vibration

3 basic types of Attack:

Simultaneous vocal attack
- Coordinate adduction and onset of respiration
- Occur simultaneously
Breathy vocal attack
- Starting significant airflow before adduction
- Keep air flowing throughout the production of long strings of words
Glottal attack
- Adduction of vocal folds prior to airflow
C.

TERMINATION
Termination
- Abduction of vocal folds
- - pull the vocal folds out of the airstream for enough to reduce the
turbulence
53/1000 of a second = the total adduction, phonation and abduction time
Arytenoid cartilages capable of moving dimensions
Rotating
Rocking
Gliding
Inward rocking primary arytenoid movement for adduction

D.

SUSTAINED PHONATION

Sustained Phonation
adduction
speech
abduction
Maintenance of laryngeal posture through tonic contraction of musculature
Vocal folds are held in place
Vibration of Vocal Folds
Placing and holding the vocal folds in the airstream

Muscle Spindles

Thyrovocalis
Thyromuscularis

Holding sustained
posture

Phonation actually begins a few milliseconds prior to vocal fold approximation

E. VOCAL REGISTER

Vocal Register
Mode of Vibration the pattern activity that the vocal fold undergo during a cycle of
vibration
One cycle of vibration = Moving from one point in the vibratory pattern to the same
point again
There are three known registers:
(A) Modal Register
(B) Glottal Fry
(C) Falsetto
(A) Modal Register
Daily conversation
Two Modes
Vertical Mode VF both open and close from bottom to top
Anterior-Posterior Dimension Zemlin (1998): VF tend to open from
posterior to anterior, but that closure at the end of a cycle is made by
contact of the medial edge of the vocal fold, with the posterior closing last.

Variations
Pressed phonation
(damage to VF)
Breathy phonation
(air wastage)

Titze (1994):
phase difference = result of mass elasticity of the VF
Support continuous
oscillation by the vocal folds
VF have one primary frequency of vibration called
Vocal Fundamental Frequency
Minimum driving pressure ~ 3-5 cm H2O subglottal pressure
A client who cannot generate this and sustain it for 5 secs. will not be
able
to
use
the
vocal
folds
for
speech
(B) Glottal Fry / Pulse Register / Strohbass
Crackly, pop corn quality of voice
Extremely low in pitch and rough
Im sick voice
Frequency
30 Hz 80 Hz or 90 Hz

Requires low subglottal pressure to sustain it (on the order of 2 cm H2O)

Lateral proportion of VF = tensed
VF
secondary,
syncopated
mode of vibration
Secondary beat per cycle of the fundamental frequency
Vocalis Tension
Subglottal Pressure
Lost of Glottal Fry

(C) Falsetto
VF lengthen & become extremely thin and reed like
Tensed, bowed margins
VF make contact only briefly
Amplitude of excursion = reduced
Extremely thin, high-pitched vocal production
Posterior portion of the VF tends to be damped
Length of the vibrating surface is decreased to a narrow opening

F.

Whispering = no voicing happens

= has laryngeal
adjustments
= do not produce
vibration in the VF

FREQUENCY, PITCH & PITCH CHANGE

Pitch
-

The psychological (perceptual) correlate of frequency

Frequency number of cycles of vibrations per second
As FREQUENCY
= PITCH

Optimal Pitch
-

The perceptual characteristic representing the ideal or most efficient frequency of

vibration of the vocal folds
Optimal Fundamental Frequency
female;
male
Mean Fundamental Frequency
spontaneous speech;
with each decade of life
The difference in fundamental frequency between males and females is because of the
tissue mass and length of the vocal folds

During puberty, males undergo a significant growth of muscles and cartilages which
results to greater muscle mass compared to females
o Laryngeal product of the growth: Adams apple
o Increased mass of the folds = drop in fundamental frequency
Children fundamental frequency on the vicinity of 300 Hz

Habitual Pitch
-

The frequency of vibration of vocal folds that is habitually used during speech
When the vocal folds are forced into the extremes of their range of ability, greater
effort is required to sustain phonation which results to vocal and physical fatigue.

Average Fundamental Frequency

-

The average fundamental frequency of vibration of the vocal folds during phonation
may reflect the frequency of vibration of sustained phonation
Reflects habitual pitch over a longer averaging period

Pitch Range
-

The range of fundamental frequency for an individual

Calculated as the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies
The vocal mechanism is capable of approximately two octaves of change in
fundamental frequency from the lowest possible frequency to the highest

Pitch-Changing Movements
-

Fundamental frequency increase comes from stretching and tensing the vocal folds
using the cricothyroid and thyrovocalis muscles

Laryngeal Development
-

Vocal Folds
o At birth approximately 4 mm long
o Adult length between 12 and 15 mm
o Between 11 and 16 yrs vocal folds increase in length in both males and
females
o Males become much longer
Maturity of respiratory function = increase in sustained phonation
At 3 yrs old child can sustain a vowel for about 7 sec
This ability climbs at about 1.4 sec per year
By 17 yrs old adolescent should be able to sustain a vowel for 26 sec

Tension, Length, and Mass

The changeable elements of the vocal folds

We cant change the mass of the vocal folds but we can change the mass per unit
length by spreading the muscle, mucosa, and ligament

We can change the tension of the vocal folds by stretching them tighter or relaxing
them

When the tension on the vocal folds is increased, the natural frequency of vibration
will increase.

Natural frequency of vibration the frequency at which a body vibrates given

the mass, tension, and elastic properties of the body

As the mass of a vibrating body decreases, frequency of vibration will increase.

The mass of the vocal folds is constant and is rearranged by lengthening

When the vocal folds are stretched by contraction of the tensers, the mass of
the folds will be distributed over a greater distance, thus reducing mass per
unit length.

As mass per unit length increases and tension decreases, fundamental frequency will
decrease.

When the thyromuscularis contracts, the vocal folds are relaxed and shortened
so that they become more massive and less tense.

Subglottal Pressure and Fundamental Frequency

-

Increasing pitch requires increasing the tension of the system, thereby increasing the
glottal resistance to airflow.

Summary:
Pitch is the psychological correlate of frequency of vibration, although the term has come
into common usage when referring to phenomena associated with the physical vibration of
the vocal folds.
Optimal pitch refers to the frequency of vibration that is most efficient for a given pair of
vocal folds, and habitual pitch is the frequency of vibration habitually used by an individual.
The pitch range of an individual will span approximately two octaves, although it will be
reduced by pathology and may be increased through vocal training.

 Changes in vocal fundamental frequency are governed by the tension of the vocal folds and
their mass per unit length.
Increasing the length of the vocal folds will increase vocal fold tension as well as decrease
the mass per unit area. This will increase the fundamental frequency.
The respiratory system will respond to increased vocal fold tension with increased
subglottal pressure, so that pitch and subglottal pressure tend to covary.
Increased subglottal pressure is a response to increased vocal fold tension
G. INTENSITY & INTENSITY CHANGE
INTENSITY = physical measure of power or pressure ratios
LOUDNESS= Psychological correlate of intensity
= how we perceive power or pressure differences
In sustained phonation, the vocal folds move only as a result of the air pressure
and flow provide the energy for this vocal engine, so to increase the intensity or
strength of the phonotory product we will have to increase the energy that drives
it.

Subglottal pressure

vocal intensity

CYCLE OF VIBRATION STAGES

1. OPENNING = vocal folds are opening up
2. CLOSING
= vocal folds are returning to the point of approximation
3. CLOSED
= there is no air escaping between the vocal folds
Conversational intensities it has been found that the opening phase 37% of the
time in the closing phase, and 13% of the cycle completely closed. When the
Vocal Folds are tightly adducted for increased vocal intensity, they tend to return
to the closed position more quickly and to stay close for a longer period of time.
The opening phase reduces approximately 33% while the closed phase increases
to more than 30%, depending on the intensity increase
To increase vocal intensity, the vocal folds are tightly compressed.
The harder the eruption of the vocal folds, is the greater the amplitude of the
cycle of vibration.
Intensity and frequency are controlled independently, and you can increase
intensity without increasing frquency