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1. Resistor
2. Capacitor
3. Inductor
4. Voltage source
5. Current source
1. Resistor: it opposes the flow of current through it. Resistance is called the physical
property of a resistor by the virtue of which it gives an opposition to the current flow.
4. Voltage source: this serves as a source to create potential difference between two
points. It has two types of sources:
1. Dc voltage source
2. Ac voltage source
5.Current source:a current source is a source that supplies the current directly.
Now that we are introduced to the above elements , a combination of the elements
is called a CIRCUIT.
1. Node :a point in a circuit from which two or more circuit elements diverge.
Two points between which there is no circuit element cannot be a node.
2. Path : the distance traversed between two nodes is called a path
3. Loop :a closed path is called a loop.
4. Branch : a path between two nodes is called the branch of the network.
We have two laws describing the current and voltage across any particular branch.
Consider a four way junction. The sum of vehicles entering the signal and leaving the signal
is zero.Because whatever is the number of vehicals entering the signal,all those vehicals will
defnitely leave the junction stapvatingthere.Hence the no.ofvehicals entering is equal to the
number of vehicals leaving.
Simillarly in the network, 𝐼𝑎 and 𝐼𝑏 are the currents entering, 𝐼𝑐 and 𝐼𝑑 are leaving
currents.
∴ 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑏 = 𝐼𝑐 + 𝐼𝑑
𝑁
𝑖𝑛 = 0
𝑛=1
let a charge of I𝐶𝑜𝑛 be cariied from A to B.there are two different paths from A to B.One is
done from A through element 1 from A to B.The work done is 𝑉1 volts.
If other path i.e A 𝑉𝑖𝑛 element to B is followed,there the work done will
be is 𝑉2 - 𝑉3 volts.
The workdone is however independent of the path
𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3
While applying kvl, simple way of writing down the equation is,while moving
mentally in clockwise direction,write the voltage of each element whose (+1) is
entered and write the (-ve) o every voltage first met at the –ve sign.
is − 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 − 𝑉3 = 0
𝑉1 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉3
The waveform of the most common supply in one domestic use is alternating current and its
shape is sinisoidal.
WT=2π
𝑊
= 2πf
𝐹
LAGGING AND LEADING WAVEFORMS:
In some cases the actual waveforms either falls back the original waveform or same times
leads the original waveform by some angle,say “θ”.
RMS VALUE:
We usually say that the supply available at one domestic level is 230V and
50Hz.what is this 230V? It is not the instantaneous value,since the voltage is not constant.It is
also not the average value,because when the waveform is observed on an oscilloscope,the
average value is also found to be more than 230V.
CALCULATION:The effective values of any periodic current is equal to the value of direct
current flowing through an R-ohm resistor,devices same averge power to the resistor as does
the periodic current.
1 𝑇 2
P=𝑇 0
𝐼 R.dt
𝑅 𝑇
=𝑇 0
𝐼 2 dt
1 𝑇 2
𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝐼 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0
2𝜋 1 1
=𝐼𝑚 0
+ 2 cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 2∅ 𝑑𝑡
2
1
=𝐼𝑚 [𝑡]20
4𝜋
𝐼
= 𝑚2
1 2𝜋 1−cos 2 𝑤𝑡
= 𝑉𝑚2 . 𝑑𝑡
2𝜋 0 2
2
1 𝑉𝑚
= . . [𝑡]2𝜋
0
2𝜋 2
2
1 𝑉𝑚
= . . 2𝜋
2𝜋 2
𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑒𝑓𝑓 =
2
1 𝜋
=2𝜋 0
𝑉𝑚 sin wt
𝑉
=2𝜋𝑚 [− cos 𝑤]02𝜋
𝑉
= 𝑚 [-cos 2π-cos 0]
2𝜋
𝑉𝑚
= [1-1] = 0
2𝜋
∴ The average value of any periodic waveform is always zero for both
current as well as voltage waveforms.
We have seen the basic elements along with two fundamental sources. Now we will see
how to construct simple circuits using these five elements i.e R,L,C, current source and
voltage source. we also simultaneously drive the equivalent impedance, current and
voltage for the given circuit.
1.SERIES RL CIRCUIT:
Let the resistance be represented by „R‟ and inductance by „L‟. The series
RL circuit is supplied by a current source of magnitude „i‟.
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝑤𝐿
𝐼𝑚 = = 2 2 <−𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( 𝑅 )
𝑍 𝑅 +(𝑤𝐿 )
2.SERIES RC CIRCUIT:
1 1
=I. 𝑅 2 + ( )2<−𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑤𝑐 𝑤𝑟𝑐
𝑉 𝑉 1
I=𝑍 = 1
<𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 (𝑤𝑟𝑐 )
𝑅2 +( ) 2
𝑤𝑐
1
Z = R + J (wL- )
𝑤𝑐
1
1 𝑤𝐿 −( )
Z= 𝑅 2 + (𝑤𝐿 − 𝑤𝑐 )2 <𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 ( 𝑤𝑐
)
𝑅
1
𝑉 𝑤𝐿 −( )
−1 𝑤𝑐
I= <−𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( )
1 2 𝑅
𝑅2 +(𝑤𝐿 − )
𝑤𝑐
4.PARALLEL RL CIRCUIT:
1 1 1 1
Y= 𝑅 + 𝐽𝑊𝐿 = 𝑅 - J 𝑤𝐿
𝑤𝑐 −𝑅
θ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( 1 ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 (𝑤𝐿 ) V sin wt
𝑟
1 1
i= (𝑅 )2 + (𝑤𝐿 )2 𝑉𝑚 cos(wt-θ)
5.PARALLEL RC CIRCUIT:
𝑤𝑐
θ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( 1 ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 (wrc)
𝑟
1
i= ( )2 + (𝑤𝑐)2 𝑉𝑚 sin(wt + θ)
𝑅
6.RLC IN PARALLEL:
1
𝑤𝑐 −
−1
θ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( 1
𝑤𝐿
)
𝑟
1 1
Y= (𝑅 )2 − (𝑤𝑐 − 𝑤𝐿 )2
𝑉𝑚 sinwt
I= = Y.𝑉𝑚 .sin wt
𝑍
1 1 1
= 𝑉𝑚 (𝑅 )2 − (𝑤𝑐 − 𝑤𝐿 )2 .sin(wt+𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 (wc- 𝑤𝐿 ))
𝟏
Why have we considered 𝑿𝑳 = 2πfL and 𝑿𝑪 =
𝒘𝒄
= L.i.w.sinwt
𝑉𝐿 𝑖(cos 𝑤𝑡 ) (𝑤𝑙 )
= .
𝑉 𝐼 𝑅
Comparing the above equation with ohms law, we see that resistance offered
by an inductance is R = WL = 𝑋𝐿
Similarly the voltage across capacitor is given by
1
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝑐
1
𝑉𝑐 = . (𝑖 cos 𝑤𝑡)
𝑤𝑐
𝑉 = 𝑖. R
1
𝑅= = 𝑋𝑐
𝑤𝑐
POWER FACTOR:
Power factor is defined as the ratio of real power to apparent power. let us first define the
real power and apparent power.
Let the voltage equation is given by
V = 𝑉𝑚 cos (wt + θ)
And current be given by
I = 𝐼𝑚 cos (wt+θ)
What is the cos component in the above equations? It is called the power factor.
∴ p = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 × 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 + ∅
2 2
1
P = 2 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜃 − ∅)
In the above expression p is the real power and 𝑉𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 is called the apparent power.
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
∴ 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
DC – MACHINES
Machines have become a part and parcel of our life. Machines consists of both generators
and motors. So basically we can classify machines in to two types based on the supply:
DC GENERATORS:
In general, a generator is the one that consumes mechanical input and gives out a
electrical output.
A basic principle or law behind the operation of any machine is FARA DA Y’S LAW
OF ELECTRO MAGNETIC INDUCTION . It states like this:
“whenever a conductor is placed in the magnetic field and there is a relative motion between
the conductor and the magnetic field, then an E.M.F. is induced across the conductor.Thus, in
order to induce an E.M.F. across the generator we need three basic things:
In the DC generators , we create a magnetic field which remains stationery and the
conductors are made to rotate inside the field. The force driving the conductors is mechanical
force and thus a relative motion is created between the magnetic field and the set of
conductors. And as per faradays law of electromagnetic induction , an E.M.F. is induced
across the set of conductors.
Thus a generator is said to convert mechanical input in to electrical output. The E.M.F. is
called Dynamically induced E.M.F.
Theoritical construction:
Let us now analyse the principle of operation of a DC generator from the simple theoretical
construction as shown in the figure.
In the above figure the required magnetic field is obtained by employing magnets and the
field is always directed from North pole to South pole. A set of conductors is made to cut
the field with the help of prime mover.
When the conductor AB is under North pole and CD is under South pole, the direction of
current is as shown in the figure. This direction of current is obtained by flemings r ight hand
rule. Now the direction of current, through the load is from „L‟ to „M‟.
When the armature is rotated in the clock wise direction conductor CD comes under north
pole and AB comes under south pole. But the current direction through the conductor under
north pole and south pole doesn‟t change. Hence the current through the load remains
unchanged. The current direction is clearly shown in the figure.
One Important point is to be noted here. The E.M.F. induced across the
conductors varies alternatively but the final current through the load remains unchanged. That
is the E.M.F. induced is always A.C., but with the help of commutator is converted to D.C.
This is illustrated in the graph shown below.
Whatever the simple construction which we have seen theoretically, practically its not that
simple. Let us now see the constructional details.
CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS:
Both pole core and pole shoes are made with cast steel or silicon steel. No laminations
are required. But for large machines they are laminated to reduce the eddy current losses.
Functions of pole core:
1. it accommodates field windings, and behaves as a magnetic pole when the field is
excited with a D.C.
Functions of pole shoe:
1. gives the mechanical support for field winding.
2. Reduces the magnetic reluctance. Hence we can get more flux for a given field
current.
3. It also helps in distributing the flux uniformly in the airgap.
3.ARMATURE CORE:
Armature core is preferred with silicon steel, laminated to reduce the eddy current losses.
Functioning of armature loss:
1. they accommodate armature winding.
2. It offers low reluctance for the magnetic flux.
3. 3. In d.c machines armature slots are sleewed in order to reduce vibrations.
4.ARMATURE WINDING:
Depending upon the application we employ two types of windings:
(i) lap winding
(ii) wave winding
Lap winding is employed for the applications that require less voltage and large current. It
is as shown below.
The finishing end of one coil is connected to the beginning of the other coil under the
same pole.
WAVE WINDING:
the finishing end of one coil is connected to the beginning end of the other coil under the
adjacent similar pole.
This type of winding is employed for low current and large voltage applications.
5.COMMUTATOR:
Commutator drawn with hard drawn copper to reduce the wear and tear
Function:
The major function of the brushers is to collect the armature current or give the armature
current through the commutator segments to the conductors
- the brushes are usually made with copper or Carbon for small machines.
they are made up of electro graphite for normal ratings and large machines.
they are made up of copper graphite for large currents and low voltage machines.
for small machines carbon brushes are preferred because it has more resistance , therefore
improve the commutation.
Carbon has more thermal stability and hence it can even withstand high temperatures.
Carbon is self lubricating in property. Hence less friction between commutator and
bushes; thus reducing the brush.
pNumber of poles.
Parallel path: If the number of conductors available in one path / under one pole carry
current in series, so with respect to the conductors under same pole they are said to be in
series and with respect to the conductors under other poles they are said to be in parallel.
Now with all this basic information we will try to derive an expression for the E.M.F. of a
generator.
The E.M.F. induced across the armature conductors is always directly proportional to the
rate of change of flux.
𝑑∅
⇒𝐸 ∝ 𝑑𝑡
But it is given that the armature is going to be rotated at a speed of N revolutions per
minute. Hence the number of revolutions made per second = N/60 r.p.s.
∴ flux cut by the conductor per second = flux per revolution x No. of revolutions
= p x N/60
E= PN/60 volts
But the number of conductors available For one parallel path = Z/A
∅𝑧𝑁𝑝
E= 60𝐴
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
1. Calculate the voltage induced in the armature winding of a 4 –pole lap wound DC
machine having 728 active conductors and running at 1800 rpm. The flux per pole is
30mwb.
A: = 30mwb
Z=728
N=1800 r.p.m
P=4
= 655.2v
0.03×728 ×1800 4
E= ×2
60
=1310.4 volts
We have seen the division of machines based on the supply given. Now let us classify the
generators based on the type of excitation given.
Excitation is nothing but the way of generating the flux. In our machines we usually
employ electromagnets. So the windings given for generating field are called field windings
and current given to these windings to generate field is what is called as excitation.
𝐼𝑙 load current
𝑉𝑒 excitation voltage
𝐸𝑔 Generator E.M.F.
V Terminal voltage
Let 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑙 = 𝐼
V = 𝐸𝑔 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
∴ Power developed = 𝑃4 = 𝐸𝑔 .I
A DC generator whose field winding is excited by the current supplied by generator itself
is called a self excited DC generator.
Usually the voltage of the self excited generators does not start from origin. i.e., even at
zero field currents we have same amount of Voltage is due to residual magnetism. The
magnetism whatever is retained by the material from the previous excitations. It circulates
same current in the field winding during the next start. Hence this develops a slight E.M.F.
and this E.M.F. and this E.M.F. in turn increases the field current. Hence the E.M.F. in a self
excited generator is gradually developed.
There are three types of self excited generators.
If the field winding placed in series with the armature, then it is called a series wound
generator.
A series field winding must always carry fuel load current through it. Hence it must offer
very less resistance to the flow of current
thus we give only less number of turns in the series field winding.
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑠𝑒
V = 𝐸𝑔 − 𝐼 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒
𝑃𝑔 = 𝐸𝑔 𝐼
𝑃𝑙 = 𝑉𝐼
CHARACTERSTICS OF SERIES WOUND GENERATORS:
2. load characteristics
open circuit characteristics is a graph between the field current on x – axis and E.M.F.
generated on Y – axis
2. Load characteristics:
load characteristics is a graph between load current taken on X –axis and E.M.F. induced on
the terminals taken on y – axis
In series wound generators the field current and the load current both are same because
they are connected in series. Hence we will plot a graph on the same axis:
(a) Inte rnal characteristics: It is a graph between two parameters that are internal to the
machine.,i.e, Ia taken on x – axis and induced E.M.F. taken on Y- axis.
the deviation of internal characteristics from that of ideal characteristics is due to a drop
known as armature reaction drop.
(b) External characteristics: It is a graph between the parameters that are completely
external to the circuit. i.e., between load current (x- axis) and terminal voltage(v) on
Y – axis
The further deviation of these external characteristics from the ideal characteristics when
compared to internal characteristics is only due to a drop called as armature drop (or) 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
drop
From the above characteristics we calculate a very important factor called as “CRITICAL
LOAD RESISTANCE”. Def; it is the load resistance beyond which the generator will fail to
excite. i.e.., if load resistance > critical load resistance the generator will not produce any
e.m.f.
2.determine the shape that gives a value of resistance. That itself is critical load resistance
Hence care should be taken that the series generator load resistance s hould always be less
than critical load resistance.
In this type of generator the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature.
the effective power of the generator is proportional to current delivered to the external
load circuit. hence the field current must be less.
In order to have less field current, we increase the resistance of the field winding by
increasing the number of turns in it.
⇒ 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝑠
𝑉
𝐼𝑠 = 𝑅
𝑠
⇒ 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝑠
V = 𝐸𝑔 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
𝑃𝑔 = 𝐸𝑔 𝐼𝑎
𝑃𝐿 = 𝑉 𝐼𝐿
The procedure to calculate the value is same as that stated for series generator.