Congestion Management USING FACTS DEVICES

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THE
UNIVERSITY
OF
WARWICK
Congestion management
FACTS
controllers
using
Beatrice Chong
A Thesis submitted for partial fulfilment of the requirements

for the degreeof Doctor or Philosophy
University of Warwick, School of Engineering

September2008
Abstract
Abstract
The researchwork describedin this thesisconcentrateson the applicationand feasibilityof
FACTS controllers as a solution to the problem of congestionmanagement.Effective
congestion management has become increasingly important since wholesale electricity
markets became privatised and competition was encouraged between generation and load
(supply) companies. In addition, growth in load demand, planning permission and the need
to integrate renewable generation sources will push transmission systems to work closer to
their operating limits. Therefore, ensuring future systems are able to sustain these new
is
conditions a considerablechallenge.
The first part of the work focuseson the integrationof the bilateralmarketand steadystate
FACTS controller modelsinto the interior point optimal power flow (lP OPF) algorithm.
The objective is to mininlise changesto scheduledbilateral market contractsto provide
for
the transmissionsystemoperator(TSO)within congestedsystems.The
savings
economic
is
level
technique
to
the
reduce
able
opdmisadon
of congestion.Early resultsidentify that
dominant
is
the
proportion of the systemcostsincurredwlle systemlossesare
congestion
of similarlevelswith and without controllerinstallation.A functionalprocedureis proposed
for fair and easycomparisonand a generaltwo-stepmethodis introducedwhich aimsto find
location
installed
the
rating
and
of
controllerby applyingthe IP OPF algorithm.
optimal
In the latter part, the generaltwo-step method is utilised to assessthe performanceof
FACTS controllersin terms of financialbenefitsover an averageyear,and considersdaily
in
demand.
In practice,transmissionsystemscontain thousandsof
changes
and seasonal
busesthereforea sensitivity-based
three-stepmethod is developedto reducethe numberof
required simulationsto find the optimal location and rating of FACIS controllers.The
method has been successfiMydemonstratedon IEEE standardtest systemsand has the
potential to act as a first-stepscreeningtechniquefor practicalsystems.The last sectionof
this work is concernedwith assessingthe economicfeasibilityof FACTS controllersas a
congestionmanagementsolutionby introducingan economicmeasure-a return index.1"Ids
measureis used to assessthe viability of different locationsas it comparesthe relativecost
savingsof the TSO to the equipmentcost of the controller. In conclusion,the resultsshow
that with appropriatelocation choice,installationof specifiedFACTS controllers areableto
providea solution to the congestionmanagement
problemwith realisticPaybackperiods.
Tableof contents
Table of contents
i.
I
iii.
iv.
V.
Acknowledgments
Declaration
Ust of figures
Ust of tables
List of acronymsand abbreviations
Chapter 1:
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
Page
i
ii
Ei
v
vii
Introduction
Backgroundintroduction
The congestionproblem
Physicalconstraints
1.2.1
Policy constraints
1.2.2
Operationalconstraints
1.2.3
Contingencycases
1.2.4
Trading electricity
Electricitytradingproblems
1.3.1
Electricitymarketmodels
Pool model
1.4.1
Spot or centralisedmarkets
1.4.2
Bilateralmodel
1.4.3
Forwardand futurescontractsandmarkets
1.4.4
Hybrid model
1.4.5
Summaryof marketmodels
1.4.6
Electricitymarketsof GreatBritain
Gateclosure
1.5.1
Bilateralmarkets
1.5.2
Balancingmechanism
1.5.3
Imbalancesand settlements
1.5.4
Possiblesolutionsto congestionmanagement
FACIS controllers
1.6.1
Optimal power flow (OPF)
Interior point programmingmethodoverview
1.7.1
Principlesof the interior point method
Fiacco-McCormickbarriermethod
1.8.1
1.8.2
Lagrangeminimisationwith equalityconstraints
Newton's methodfor solvingunconstrainedminimisation
1.8.3
1.8.4
Summaryof interior point method
Work presentedin this thesis
1.9.1
Bilateral market model implementation using interior point
OPF methodwith FACTScontrollermodels
Generalisedtwo-stepmethod for finding optimal location and
1.9.2
rating of FACTScontroller
1.9.3
Sensitivityanalysisfor optimalFACTScontrollerlocation
1.9.4
Economicanalysisof FACTS controllerinvestmentcosts
1.9.5
Major contributionsof this work
Structureof thesis
1
3
4
4
5
5
5
6
8
8
9
9
10
10
11
11
12
13
13
13
14
15
18
19
21
21
22
23
25
26
26
27
27
27
28
30
Table of contents
Chapter 2:
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
Introduction
Bilateralmarket
Mathematicalmodel
2.3.1
Incrementalactivepowergeneratorchangesat individualbus i
2.3.2
Systemactivepowergenerationchanges
2.3.3
Objectivefunction characteristics
andassumptions
Application of bilateralmarketmodelinto the interior-point OPF method
2.4.1
Elimination of inequalityconstraints
2.4.2
Lagrangefunction for optimisationwith equalities
2.4.3
First orderKKT conditions
Newton's methodfor solvingnonlinearequations
2.4.4
Operationalconstraints
2.4.5
Formulatingthe reducedNewton equation
2.4.6
Implementation
Initialisationof solutionroutine
2.5.1
Updatesolution
2.5.2
Solutionroutine for non-linearinterior point OPF
2.5.3
Numericalresults
Systemcongestion
2.6.1
4 bus systems
2.6.2
IEEE 14bus systems
2.6.3
Conclusions
Chapter 3:
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
Bilateral electricity market model and the

intetior point OPF method
Page
32
32
33
33
34
36
37
38
39
39
40
43
44
48
48
49
50
52
52
52
54
56
FACTS controllers and the interior point

OPF method
Introduction
VoltagesourcedconverterbasedFACTScontrollermodels
Steadystatemodellingassumptionsand FACTScontrollermodels
STATCOM model
3.3.1
SSSCmodel
3.3.2
UPFC model
3.3.3
Control modesof FACTScontrollermodels
3.3.4
Integrationof FACTS controllermodelsinto interior point OPF method
Lagrangefunction for optimisationwith equalities
3.4.1
First order KKr conditions
3.4.2
Newton's methodfor solvingnonlinearequations
3.4.3
3.4.4
ReducedNewton equation
3.4.5
Initialisation.of FACTScontrollervariables
Setupof scheduledactivepowergenerationfor systeminitial conditions
3.5.1
System1
3.5.2
System11
3.5.3
System111
Influenceof FACTS controllerson the bilateralelectricitymarketmodel
Solution procedure:Generaltwo-stepmethod for finding optimal location
and rating of a FACTS controllerin a bilateralmarket
58
58
58
59
61
62
64
64
66
66
67
70
73
75
75
75
76
77
78
Tableof contents
3.8
3.9
Numericalresults:Initial test systemswith FACIS controllers

3.8.1
STATCOM on 4 bus system
3.8.2
IEEE 14 bus systemwith dailydemandfluctuations
3.8.3
STATCOM on IEEE 14bus system
3.8.4
UPFC on IEEE 14bus system
Conclusions
Chapter 4:
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
Daily demand and annual cost savings using

FACTS controllers
Introduction
Daily demandprofile of Britain
Generalmethod for assessing
the behaviourof FAM controllers
IEEE 14 bus systemdailydemandbasecase
IEEE 30 bus systemdailydemandbasecase
Casestudy 1-.Daily demandprofilesand locatingthe STATCOM to manage
congestion
STATCOM locationandposition
4.6.1
IEEE 14 bus systemcasewith STATCOM
4.6.2
IEEE 14bus system:Analysisof STATCOM results
4.6.3
IEEE 30 bus systemcaseswith STATCOM
4.6.4
IEEE 30 bus system:Analysisof STATCOM results
4.6.5
Summaryof casestudy1 results
4.6.6
Case study 2: Daily demand profiles and locating the UPFC to manage
congestion
UPFC orientation
4.7.1
IEEE 14bus systemcasewith UPFC
4.7.2
IEEE 30 bus systemcasewith UPFC
4.7.3
Summaryof casestudy2 results
4.7.4
Conclusions
Chapter 5:
Page
79
77
82
82
84
85
87
87
88
91
92
93
94
94
97
101
105
107
108
108
ill
116
116
121
Sensitivity based three-step method for locating

FACTS controHers
Introduction
Overviewof literature
indicatormethods
5.2.1
Sensitivity-based
5.2.2
Methodsusedto find optimalFACTS controllerlocations
5.2.3
FACTS controllertypesapplied
Aims
Theory and sensitivityderivations
5.4.1
Shuntbus sensitivity
5.4.2
Seriesbranchsensitivity
Sensitivitybasedthree-stepmethod
Numericalresults
Scenario1: Sensitivityfor identifying individual busesor lines for FACTS
controlleroptimal location
5.7.1
Shuntbus sensitivityfor STATCOM
5.7.2
Seriesline sensitivityfor UPFC
122
122
123
124
125
125
126
127
127
129
129
130
130
132
fable ot contents
5.8
5.9
Page
134
135
137
140
Scenario2: Averagedareasensitivityanalysis
5.8.1
Area division
5.8.2
Shuntbus areasensitivityfor STATCOM
5.8.3
Seriesbus areasensitivityfor UPFC
145
Conclusions
Chapter 6:
Economic
FACTS
analysis of
controller
investment
costs for congestion management

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
Introduction
Investment cost estimates
6.2.1
IEEE PES report cost estimates
6.2.2
SiemensAG Databaseinfrastructure cost estimates
6.2,3
California Energy Commission infrastructure cost estimates
6.2.4
Relative size of equipment costs compared to infrastructure
costs
Applied equipment cost estimation
6.2.5
Odier FACrS controller benefits
6.2.6
Generation cost coefficients
Evaluation of optimal location with congestion cost consideration
6.4.1
Return Index (RI)
Results
IEEE 14 bus system casewith STATCOM
6.5.1
IEEE 30 bus systemcasewith STATCOM
6.5.2
6.5.3
IEEE 14 bus system casewith UPFC
6.5.4
IEEE 30 bus system casewith UPFC
Results summary
6.5.5
Conclusions
7.2
151
151
153
153
153
154
154
155
156
157
158
159
Conclusions
Chapter 7:
7.1
147
147
148
149
149
150
Concludingremarks
Evaluationof results
7.1.1
Main contributionsof tl-swork
7.1.2
Furdier work
161
161
163
164
166
References
Appendices
Appendix I
Appendix 11
Appendix III
Formulation of interior point OPF in hybrid coordinate

representation using power mismatch equations, as
presentedin Chapter2
Derivation of power rnismatchequationsas presentedin
Chapter2 andAppendixI
Fon-nulationfor FACIS controllersfor the interior point
OPF usinghybrid coordinaterepresentationusingpower
mismatchequations,aspresentedin Chapter3
VIII
XVII
Tableof contents
iv.
Appendix IV
V.
Appendix V
vi.
Appendix VI
vii.
Appendix VII
viii.
Appendix VIII
Derivation of power mismatch equations, constraint

equationsand controller ratings for FACIS controller
steady state equivalentcircuit models, as presentedin
Chapter3 andAppendixIII
Ust of first and secondorder derivativesfor the interior
point OPF problem presented in Chapter 2 and
AppendixI
Ust of UPFC FAM controller power flow equations
derivatives
for
first
interior point
and
second
order
and
OPF problem, as presentedin Chapter3 and Appendix
IV
Formulation for shunt bus sensitivityand seriesbranch
sensitivity compared with midpoint STATCOM
installationresults,aspresentedin Chapter5
Input systemdata,4 bus system,IEEE 14 and 30 bus
systems
Page
XKVI
XM
NLVI
LXVI
Acknowledgments
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my primary acadernicsupervisor Dr. Xiao-Ping Zhang for his guidance
depth
in
learn
has
during
PhD
He
to
the
great
my
given me
chance
and supervision
studies.
about an ever-changing and interesting subject. He has provided the required foundation to
the work presented by the support he has given. I am grateful for the time and opportunity
to study and work under his supervision.
I would also like to expressmy appreciationto my co-supervisorProfessorKeith Godfrey

duringboth my postgraduateand undergraduate
for his adviceand encouragement
studiesat
the Universityof Warwick.
I am grateful for the support given by AREVA T&D to complete my PhD project. In
Masoud
Bazargan
industrial
liangzhong
Yao
Mr.
indebted
Dr.
I
to
and
experts,
particular am
(AREVA T&D) for their invaluablesuggestionsand the opportunity to have numerous
discussions
throughoutmy time asa PhD researchstudent.
Primaryfinancialsupportwassuppliedby Universityof Warwick from fundsprovidedby the
Engineeringand PhysicalScienceResearchCouncil (EPSRC)Doctoral Training Account,
AREVA
living
financial
fees
T&D.
provided
my
and
expenses.
which maintained academic
supportallowingme to attendinternationalconferencesandworkshops.
Finally I would like to show appreciationto my parents,my boyffiend Darren and all my
ftiends for their constantsupportandpatiencefor the entiredurationof my PhD studies.
Declaration
Declaration
Parts of the work containedin this Thesis have been published and or presentedin the
proceedingsof conferencesandreportsfor AREVA T&D:
1. Chong, B., Zhang, X. P., Godfrey, K- R., Yao, L. and Bazargan,M., (2008),"Planning
for efficient electricity transmission: Optimal location of Unified Power Flow
Controller (UPFC) for congestion management", to be presented at GGRE 2008
Senion,Paris, France, 24-29 August.
2. Zhang, X. P., Chong, B., Godfrey, K R., Yao, L., Bazargan, M. and Schmitt, L.,
(2007), "Management of congestion costs utilizing FACTS controllers in a bilateral
electricity market environmene,, in Pmeee&n
gs of IEEE
,
Confermce,
Lausanne,Switzerland, 1-5 July.
IntemationalPower Tecb
3. Chong, B., Zhang, X. P., Yao, L., Godfrey, K. R. and Bazargan, M., (2007),
"Congestion management of electricity markets using FACTS controllers", in
IEEE
Power
Pmeeedings
Engineering
Society
(PES) GeneralMeeting,Tampa, Florida,
of
USA, 24-28 June.
4. Chong, B., Zhang, X. P. and Godfrey, K R., (2007), "Modelling and methodology
developments for solutions of network congestion", report for AREVA T&D,
Stafford,April.
5. Chong, B., Zhang, X. P. and Godfrey, K- R., (2006),"A review on congestion
managementof electricitynetworkswith embeddedwind fatrns", report for AREVA
T&D, Stafford, Match.
6. Chong, B., Zhang, X. P. and Godfrey, K- R., (2006), "Grid code reviev.?, report for
AREVA T&D, Stafford,February.

7. Zhang, Y, P., Yao, L., Chong, B., Sasse,C, and Godfrey, V, R., (2005), "FACTS and
HVDC technologiesfor the developmentof Future Power Systems",in Pmcee&ngs

of
Confermce
Amsterdam,Netherlands,14-16
the P International
onFutumPowerSystems,
November.
8. Chong, B., (2005), "Ibe itnpact of wind power on the operation of electricity
Eqineeriq & TecbnoloV)Jor
transtnissiongrids", poster presentedat SET (Sdence,
Btitain,Btitain'sYounger
Engineers
London, UK, 6 December.
at theHouseofCommons,
ii
List of figures
List of figures
1.1
1.2:
1.3:
2.1:
2.2:
2.3:
3.1:
3.2:
3.3:
3.4:
3.5:
4.1:
4.2:
4.3:
4.4:
4.5:
4.6:
4.7:
4.8:
4.9:
4.10:
4.11:
4.12:
4.13:
4.14:
4.15:
Predictionof future electricitysystems

Overviewof BETTA marketstructure[NationalGrid p1c.(2007)].
3 bus system.
Interior point OPF solutionroutineoverview.
4 bus system(a)no congestion.
2"
by 60%.
(b) singlecongestedline by reductionof Si2
(a)IEEE 14 bus system.
(b) IEEE 14 bus system:highlightingthe congestedlines and showingthe order in
is
increased.
become
%
Load
Rise
lines
three
the
as
congested
which
(a)Functionalmodel of a STATCOM [Zhanget al. (2004)].
(b) STATCOM equivalentcircuit
(a)Functionalmodelof a SSSC[Zhang,(2003a)].
(b) SSSCequivalentcircuit.
(a)Functionalmodelof UPFC.
(b) UPFC equivalentcircuit [ZhangandHandschin(2001a)and Zhang,(2003a)].
Overview of general two-step method to find optimal location and rating of
FACTS controller.
System1114bus systemwith STATCOM connectedat (a)bus 2,
(b) bus 4.
National Grid record of Britain's summerand winter daily demandprofiles for
2004/5 [NationalGrid p1c.(2006a)].
AverageMW eight section approximationof National Grid record of Britain's
for
daily
demand
2004/5.
profiles
and
winter
summer
% WFOIRange approximation of Britain's Winter Maximum and Typical
Summerfrom dailydemandprofiles2004/5.
IEEE 14 bus systemschematicwith congestedlineshighlighted.
IEEE 30 bus systemschematicwith congestedlineshighlighted.
Two positionsfor STATCOM at eachend of the line
(a)STATCOM connectedat busi, Lij,
(b) STATCOM connectedat busj, J:ij.
STATCOM installedat midpoint of transmissionline M-ij.
IEEE 14 bus systemTypical Summersystemcost profile with STATCOM located
5-6.
lines,
J:
1:
J:
2-4,
2-5
transmission
and
at endsof
IEEE 14 bus systemWinter Maximum system cost profile with STATCOM
locatedat endsof transmissionlines,J:2-4,J:2-5 and1:5-6.
lines,
M:
2-5.
M:
1-2,
M:
24
transmission
and
at midpoint of
locatedat midpoint of transmissionlines,M:1-2,M:2-4 andM:2-5.
lines,
J:2-4 andj 2-6.
transmission
at endsof
locatedat endsof transmissionlines,J:24 andJ:2-6.
lines,
M:
2-4.
M:
1-2
transmission
midpoint
of
and
at
30 bus systemWinter Maximum systemcost profile with STATCOM locatedat
midpoint of transmissionlines,M:1-2 andM:2-4.
iii
Page
1
12
23
51
53
53
54
55
60
60
61
61
63
63
79
80
80
88
89
90
91
92
94
94
94
96
96
97
98
103
103
104
104
Ilst of figures
4.16:
4.17:
4.18:
4.19:
4.20:
5.1:
5.2:
5.3:
5A
5.5:
5A
5.7:
5.8:
Four UPFC Orientations:(a)Orientation1 (01),

(b) Orientation 2 (02),
(c) Orientation 3 (03),
(d) Orientation 4 (04).
IEEE 14 bus system UPFC Orientation 1, Typical Summer system cost profile at:
(a) locations 1-2,1-5,2-3 and 2-4,
(b) locations 2-5,3-4 and 4-5.
IEEE 14 bus system UPFC Orientation 1, Winter Maximum system cost profile at:
(a) locations 1-2,1-5 and 2-3,
(b) locations 2-4,2-5,3-4 and 4-5.
IEEE 30 bus system UPFC Orientation 1, Typical Summer system cost profile at:
(a) locations 1-2,1-3,24 and 3-4,
(b) locations 2-6,4-6 and 6-7.
IEEE 30 bus system UPFC Orientation 1, Winter Maximum system cost profile at:
(a) locations 1-2,1-3,2-4 and 34,
(b) locations 3-4,2-6,4-6 and 6-7.
Transmission line 7c-equivalentcircuit model.
Overview of general sensitivity basedthree-step method.
IEEE 14 bus system with medium and high congestion, % RSC at 55% and 94%
FullRange
Mwi
at all locations using UPFC Orientation 1.
IEEE 30 bus system with medium and high congestion, % RSC at 55% and 94%
Fulfflange
Mwi
at all locations using UPFC Orientation 1, lines numbers 1 to 20 only.
IEEE 14 bus system divided into four areas.
IEEE 30 bus system divided into five areas.
14 bus system
installed
at ends of transmission
14 bus system average
IEEE
5.10:
5.11:
14 bus system
113
113
117
117
118
118
128
129
134
135
136
138
lines, I: ij and J: ij, simulated at A feasible locations.

area % RSC with UPFC (all orientations)
at 16%
141
average
area % RSC with
UPFC
(all orientations)
at 55%
141
average
area % RSC with
UPFC
(all orientations)
at 941/6
142
FullRange
14 bus system
IEEE
Mwi
112
112
FullRange
IEEE
Mwi
110
110
110
139
FullRange for STATCOM

%
RSC
55
%
Mwi
average area
at
IEEE
Mwi
5.9:
Page
109
FullRange
30 bus system average area % RSC with
IEEE
UPFC
installed
(all orientations)
at
143
UPFC
installed
(all orientations)
at
144
UPFC
installed
(all orientations)
at
144
FultRange
16% MWj
5.12:
55%
5.13:
IEEE
Mwi
IEEE
FullRange
94 0/40M WiFullRange
6.1:
FACTS
6.2:
IEEE
6.3:
IEEE
controller
capacity-equipment
cost relationship
applied.
14 bus system case study with UPFC: return index.
30 bus system case study with UPFC: return index.
iv
152
157
158
list of tables
List of tables
Page
1-1:
2-1:
2-2:
2-3:
2-4:
2-5:
3-1:
3-2:
3-3:
3-4:
3-5:
3-6:
3-7:
3-8:
3-9:
3-10:
4-1:
4-2:
Overviewof con-unoncompensationmethodsand FACTS controllers[Zhanget al.

(2006)].
Systemactivepowergenerationand systemcostrelationship.
4 bus system:Systemcomparisonwith andwithout congestion.
16
35
53
4 bus systemwith congestion:Changesat eachgenerator.

IEEE 14 bus system:Systemcomparisonwith no congestionand `/o Load Rise"
of 30%, 50% and 70%.
IEEE 14bus system:Changesat eachgeneratorat 50% Load Rise.
Overviewof voltagesourcedconverterbasedFACTS control functions.
53
Summaryof additionalelementsmodelledon systemwhen FAM controllersare

included.
Summaryof resulttypesfrom SystemIII, with a FACls controllerinstalled.
Summaryof bilateralmarketbehaviourwith PEXCESSand a FACTS controller.
65
56
56
59
77
78
4 bus,SystemI, II andIII comparisonwith STATCOM at buses2 and4.

IEEE 14 bus systemat 70% Load Rise, SystemsI, II and III comparisonwith
STATCOM and UPFC.
IEEE 14 bus systemwith STATCOM installedat buses4,5 and 7.
IEEE 14bus systemat 30%Load Risewith UPFC installedat congestedline 7-8.
81
IEEE 14 bus systemat 50% Load Risewith UPFC installedat congestedlines7-8

1-2.
and
IEEE 14 bus systemat 70% Load Risewith UPFC installedat congestedlines7-8,
1-2 and 6-13.
AverageMW eight section approximationof National Grid record of Britain's
for
daily
demand
2004/5.
profiles
summerandwinter
FuIlRange
Winter
Typical
Britain's
Maximum
%M Wi
of
and
approximation
85
83
84
84
85
89
90
4-6:
Summerdailydemandprofiles2004/5.
IEEE 14 bus system,identificationof congestedlinesduringWinter Maximum and
TypicalSummerperiods.
IEEE 30 bus systems,identification of congestedlines during Winter Maximum
andTypicalSummerperiods. IEEE 14 bus system,all STATCOM locationsandpositionsLij, J:ij andM:ij.
IEEE 14 bus system,summaryof STATCOM resultsinstalledat I: ij and J:ij
4-7:
IEEE 14 bus system,summaryof STATCOM resultsinstalledat M:ij.
100
4-8:
IEEE 30 bus system,all STATCOM locationsandpositionsLij, J:ij andU-ij.
102
4-9:
IEEE 30 bus system,summaryof STATCOM resultsat Lij and J:ij.
105
4-10:
IEEE 30 bus system,summaryof STATCOM resultsinstalledat M:ij.
107
4-11:
IEEE 14 bus systemlisting all UPFClocationsand four orientations.
ill
4-12:
IEEE 14 bus system,summaryof UPFC Orientation1 results.
115
4-13:
IEEE 30 bus system,all UPFC orientationsandcorresponding% RSC-
116
4-3:
4-4:
4-5:
91
92
95
99
Ust of tables
Page
4-14:
IEEE 30 bus system,summary of UPFC Orientation 1 results.
120
5-1:
131
5-5:
IEEE 14 bus system, top three shunt sensitivity and % RSC when STATCOM
installed at Nj and J:ij.
IEEE 30 bus system, top three shunt sensitivity and % RSC when STATCOM
installed at I: ij and J:ij.
IEEE 14 bus system, top three series sensitivity and % RSC using UPFC for
Scenario 1.
IEEE 30 bus system, top three series sensitivity and % RSC using UPFC for
Scenario 1.
IEEE 14 bus system transmission lines and transformers wid-iin the four areas.
5-6:
IEEE 30 bus system transmission lines and transformerswithin the five areas.
137
5-2:
5-3:
5-4:
131
132
132
135
5-7:
IEEE 14 bus system,shunt sensitivity at different % Mwi
FuIlRange
138
5-8:
FuIlRange
IEEE 30 bus system,shunt sensitivity at different %M Wi
139
5-9:
FuIlRange
IEEE 14 bus system,seriessensitivity at different %M Wi
140
5-10:
FuIlRange
IEEE 30 bus system,seriessensitivity at different %M Wi
143
6-1:
149
6-2:
Estimation of STATCOM and UPFC equipment and infrastructure cost from

SiemensAG Database.
Estimation of equipment, infrastructure and installation cost from CEC report.
6-3:
Estimation of $/MVA from CEC report (1999).
150
6-4:
Comparison of % equipment and % infrastructure cost proportions from two

estimates.
Summary of averagedequipment cost estimates.
151
Summary of possible benefits from installing VSC based FACTS controllers

[Acharya et al. (2005) and Zhang et al. (2005)].
IEEE 14 bus STATCOM Summary of system costs, annual savings, equipment
index.
return
costs and
IEEE 30 bus system STATCOM: Summary of system costs, annual savings,
index.
return
costs
and
equipment
IEEE 14 bus system UPFC: Summary of system costs, annual savings and
equipment costs.
IEEE 30 bus system UPFC: Summary of system costs, annual savings and
equipment costs.
Summary of optimal FACTS controller locations for all casestudies.
152
6-5:
6-6:
6-7:
6-8:
6-9:
6-10:
6-11:
vi
150
151
155
156
156
157
159
Ilst of acronymsandabbreviations
List of acronyms and abbreviations

a.c.
BETTA
CSC
d.c.
DNO
FACTS
FSC
GA
GB
GTO
HVDC
IGBT
IGCT
III
KKT
NETA
OPF
PC
PE
PI
PWM
QC
III
RSC
so
Spec
SSR
SSSC
STATCOM
Svc
TCPAR
TCSC
TSO
UK
UPFC
VSC
AlternatingCurrent
British ElectricityTransmissionandTradingArrangements
ConverterStaticCompensator
Direct Current
Distribution Network Operators
FlexibleAlternatingCurrentTransmissionSystem
FixedSeriesCapacitor
GeneticAlgorithm
GreatBritain
GateTurn-Off
High VoltageDirect Current
InsulatedGateBipolarTransistor
InsulateGateCommutatedThyristor
Interior Point
Karush-Kuhn-Tucker
New ElectricityTradingArrangements
Optimal Power Flow
Active power flow control
PowerExchange
PerformanceIndex
PulseWidth Modulation
Reactivepower flow control
Return Index
Reductionin SystemCost
SystemOperator
Specifiedvalue
Subsynchronous
Resonance
StaticSynchronousSeriesCompensator
StaticSynchronousCompensator
StaticVar Compensators
Thyristor-ControlledPhaseAngle Regulator
Thyristor ControlledSeriesCompensator
TransmissionSystemOperator
United Kingdom
Unified PowerFlow Controller
VoltageSourceConverter
Companies and Organisations
CIGRE
CEC
DTI
EPRI
GBSO
GE
IEEE
OFGEM
PES
SAGD
SP
S&SE
TEN-E
InternationalCouncilon LargeElectric Systems

CaliforniaEnergyConunission
Departmentof TradeandIndustry
ElectricPowerResearchInstitute
GreatBritain SystemOperator
GeneralElectric
Institute of ElectricalandElectronicEngineers
Office of Gasand Electricity Markets
PowerEngineeringSociety
SiemensAG Database
ScottishPower
Scottishand SouthernElectric
Trans-EuropeanEnergyNetwork
vu
Chapter 1: 1.1 Background introduction
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Background introduction
Growth in load demand, a widening generation mix and an increasein the number of market
transactions will put strain on electricity transmission systems.The push to increasethe mix
of generation to include more renewable energy sources within a competitive market
framework will lead to transmission systemsfunctioning closer to their operational limits and
increasethe probability of systembottlenecks. Therefore, ensuring the transnuissionsystemis
flexible enough to meet new and less predictable power supply and demand conditions is an
inevitable challenge. Figure 1.1 shows a prediction of the future electricity systems,Where
distributed
(2006)].
[Sasse
generators
share
system
operation
central and
will
A turbims
Figure 1.1: Prediction of future electricity systems[Sasse(2006)].
Congestion management has become an increasingly important subject for transtniission

system operators (-fSOs) since the start of pnVatisation, which in Britain was In the 1990s.At
present, as well as adjusting to the deregulated market environment, there is pressure for
generation sourcesto become "greener" to achieve low carbon generation targets and reduce
emissions.In the United Kingdom (UK) the aim is to supply 20% of electricity by renewable
sourcesby 2020 PTI, (2003)] and reduce carbon dioxide etniissionsby 20% by 2010 [White
(2004)] and by 60% Pe
Guardian (2006)] compared to the 1990 baseline by 2050.

1
Chapter1: 1.1Backgroundintroduction
The consequences
of becomingmore reliant on renewablegenerationfor supply,the aging
network infrastructureand expectedgrowth in customerdemandgive TSOs an increasingly
complex control task. In the UK, renewablegenerationsourcesare onshoreand offshore
wind, waves,tidal, solar,hydro and biomass(includingwaste)PTI (2006)]which, compared
to conventional generation from coal, oil, gas and nuclear are consideredsmaU-scale
generation sources which are connected in a dispersed manner. Furthermore, the
governmentalpush for wind power meansthe TSOs haveto handleintermittentgeneration.
Original1y,many transmissionsystemswere designedto handle a unidirectionalflow of
electricity,transporting energyfrom large conventionalgeneratingstations to distribution
companiesand major industrial loads.With the oncoming advent of dispersedgeneration,
there wiU be a blurring of functions between electricity transmissionand distribution
functions. There wiU be an increasedneed for handling the flow of electricity at the
transmissionlevel (bulk power) as well as in a bidirectionalmanner at distribution level;
therefore,major updatesto control and communicationrequirementsare neededto achieve
balancingandrealtime priceinformation [NabuursandVaessen(2006)].
The work presentedin this thesisshowshow FlexibleAC TransmissionSystem(FACTS)
in
bilateral
transmission
reduce
system
congestion
market
a
controllers can viably
is
in
Analysis
interior
steady
state
utilising
non-linear
point
completed
a
environment.
flow
find
(OPF)
to
to
optimal
power
problems,represented
method
solutions
optimisation
in hybrid coordinateswith line flows basedon the power mismatchequations.In the initial
chaptersof the thesis,the bilateralmarketmodel and implementationwith the interior point
OPF method is presented;firstly without FACTS controllers and secondlywith FACTS
latter
The
chapterspresentresults,calculatesavingsand assessthe economic
controllers.
Average
installing
FACTS
controllers.
annual saving estimatesare made by
viability of
comparingthe levelsof congestionwith andwithout specificFACTS controllersover normal
daily and seasonaldemandlevels.In addition, a method to reducethe number of required
simulationsto find FACTS controller optimal locationsis implementedusing a sensitivitybasedmethod.
Chapter 1 provides a comprehensiveintroduction and literature review on the congestion
problem and multidisciplinaryissuesrelatingthe physicalrunning of electricitytransmission
In Chapter2, the
systems,the statutoryrequirementsand the financialtradingarrangements.
implementation of the bilateral market model into the interior point OPF method is
Chapter1: 1.2Ihe congestionproblem
presented.Chapter3 introducesthe FACTS controller modelsand describesthe additional

equationsrequiredfor the interior point OPF algorithm.In Chapter4 the methodpreviously
describedis put into practiceand averageannualcongestioncosts are calculatedat all of
FACTS controller locationsusing a variety of orientations.Chapter 5 presentsa decision
making process, a sensitivity-basedmethod to predict optimal location for FACTS
controllersthat reducesthe number of simulationsto find best locations.In Chapter6, the
economicviability of installing FACTS controllers is assessedagainstthe corresponding
savings.In Chapter7, conclusionsarepresentedand the work evaluated.
The remainder of Chapter 1 is arranged as follows, Section 1.2 describes the congestion
problem and details the different ways in which congestion can occur. Section 1.3 explains
characteristicsof electricity as a unique trading commodity and the problems market trading
systems have to overcome. Section 1.4 gives an overview of theoretical electricity market
models and some of their tools while Section 1.5 examines the predominant bilateral
in
investigates
Britain.
Section
1.6
presently
possible solutions to
market
operating
electricity
the congestion management problem and highlights FACTS controllers as the method
investigated. Section 1.7 looks at methods for finding solutions to OPF problems and
discussestypes of objective functions applied. Section 1.8 concentrates on the interior point
method and underlying principles. Section 1.9 presents proposed work described in this
thesis and Section 1.10 outlines the thesis structure.
1.2The congestion problem

Congestionoccurswhen transferlimits of transmissionsystemsare exceeded[Christieet al.
(2000)]. The change from fewer large generating stations to more dispersedsmaller
generation sites means the control of electricity flow on transmissionand distribution
networks may continue to become more complex. Moreover, the regular issuessuch as
balance,
power systemquality and power systemstability still need to
generation-demand
be regulated within an increasingly constrained system. Consequently, increase in
penetration of intermittent renewablepower will inevitability increasethe probability of
congestion on the transmissionnetwork. Bompard et al. (2003) give a comprehensive
definition, "congestionoccurswheneverthe systemstateof the grid is characterised
by one
or more violations of the physical,operational,or policy constraintsunder which the grid
operatesin the normal stateor under any one of the contingencycasesin a set of specified
Chapter1: 1.2The congestionproblem
contingencies.Congestionis associatedwith a specifiedpoint in time." Subsections1.2-11.2.4givesa descriptionof eachconstraint.

Prior to deregulation,congestionwas lesswell defined and consideredas part of steadystate securitywhere the objective was to ensurelimitations were not exceededat lowest
cost. However, as electricity obeys Kirchhoffs laws and not those specifiedby market
contracts,electricitymay flow into areasthat affectsthird party utilities, causingsecurityto
be tradedoff againstexpenditure[Christieet al. (2000)].In the presentderegulatedmarket
environments,rules are appliedto dealwith the occurrenceof congestionbetweenmarket
participants in a fair and structured manner.1he technique currently used in Britain is
presentedin Section1.5.
1.2.1 Physical constraints
Physicalconstraintsrefer to limitations on electricity power systemcomponentssuch as
interfaces,
transmission
units of equipmentthat ensurereliableoperation,and
substations,
include
lines
Components
devices.
transmission
primarily
and transformerswhere
control
the thermal or current capacities are their limiting factor [Scottish Hydro-Electric
Transmission Ltd. (2004)]. In addition, to ensure predicted or guaranteedlifespan,
designed
In
terms of transmission
their
rated
values.
must
work
within
components
interfaces,the stability andvoltagelimits of generatorsand FACTS controllersmust alsobe
(2002)].
is
In
Sytsma
[Hrehor
this
the
management
respect,
congestion
and
considered
limits
(2000)].
[Christie
to
transfer
the
transmission
obey
et
al.
system
control of
1.2.2 Policy constraints
Policy constraintsrefer to the bilateral contractsheld between the generatingcompardes

factors
such as meeting the needs of the
and
ate
concerned
with
consumers
and
distribution network operator (DNO) and industrial loads in terms of power deliveryand
falfil
bilateral
load
The
their
respective
must
contractsor
generator
companies
quality.
and
fines
in
implemented
the contracts.The transmissionsystemoperator
the
pre-agreed
pay
(TSO) will be aware of the quantity of power and time of delivery for each bilateral
contract, as their consultation is required for transmissioncapacity information and to
ensure that no violations of constraints occur [Bompard et al. (2003)].
Chapter1: 13 Tradingelectricity
1.2.3 Operational constraints

Operational constraintsrefer to meeting the combination of all constraintsin the most
efficient mannermanagedby a centralpower exchangeor TSO. Any deregulatedelectricity
marketusesa centralpower exchangeor a TSO who is in chargeof coordinatingscheduled
power flows and transactions.The power exchangeor TSO will assessif all transactionsare
viable at leastcost and maximum systembenefit. Supposingall transactionsare carriedout
without physicalconstraintsbeing exceededthen a "feasibleoperatingstate"is saidto exist,
this is alsoknown asdispatch.If a feasibleoperatingstateis not found, then an operational
constraint has been exceededand the system operator will adjust the transactionsto
achieve another feasible operating state at least cost. The operational constraint
lberefore,
the central power exchangeor
physical
policy
constraints.
encompasses
and
TSO is responsible for determining the necessaryactions for re-dispatch at least cost
[Bompardet al. (2003)].
1.2.4 Contingency cases
The system operator must allow for reasonableunforeseen events, contingenciesor
contingency cases,for example, when a transmissionline, transformer or any other
component of the transmissionnetwork is out of order for a known or unknown reason
for
be
due
Contingencies
maintenance
purposes,
period.
can
scheduled
or
unscheduled
and
to an unforeseenincident, adverseweatherconditions or a fault. The two most common
"n-l"
"n-2"
the
generally
considered
are
and
cases,where n represents
cases
contingency
the total number of buses in the area of consideration;and the following digit is the
buses.
handle
frequent
Developed
to
systemsare able
number of unavailable
component
outagesby design,makingmore than two busesunavailableto the systema rare event.
1.3Trading electricity
Most physicallytraded resourcessharecommon characteristics,allowing commoditiesto
be modeUedin a similar financial manner.Energy,in the form of electricityhowever,is a
uniquetrading commoditywith specialfeatures[Christieet al. (2000)]:
" Electricity cannotbe efficiently storedin largeamounts;
" Large demandchangescan occur within short periods of time throughout the day and
dependson weatherand seasonaleffects;
Chapter1: 1.3Tradingelectricity
" Strict functional and control requirementsmust be adheredto maintain safeand reliable
operation. All transmissionsystemcomponentshave voltage and current Emits that
must accommodatenormal and unplannedoperationto ensurepower systemsecurity;
" Transportationof electricityfrom the suppliersto the consumersis definedby a central
this
is
In
is
bilateral
In
this
pool
markets
operator.
markets
usuallya power exchange.
usuallythe TSO;
" Any electrical failure has the potential to causewidespreadblackoutsinterrupting the
interconnected system and disrupt normal economic trade, industry, transport,
manufacturingand domesticlife.
Due to thesefeatures,one of the most important dilemmasthe power industryhasto solve
is the "transmissionmanagementproblem", simultaneouslymaking transactionsefficient
description
how
in
Christie
(2000)
In
the
et
al.
a
of
congestion
and avoiding congestion.
handled
integrated
previously
structurewas
and the problem of congestionare
vertically
is
from
It
transmission
the
market
management.
point of view of
economicsand
explained
integrates
high
that
transmission
to
principles,
management
economic
voltage
vital realise
power engineering,and Kirchhoff's Law. Electricity will always take the path of least
resistanceand cannot follow specificdiversionrouteslike road traffic.
1.3.1 Electricity trading problems
Problemsin electricitytrading can be broadly categorisedinto two groups,thosedue to the
defining laws of physics and those from society pressures, for example expected
continuousuninterrupted supply. Due to the nature of the problems, there is significant
overlap betweencategories.Examplesof problems due to the physicsof electricity flow
loop-flows, dominant-flow and counter-flowswhich havelead to the invention of financial
instruments called contract paths and the action of wheeling (or third party wheeling).
Problemsassociatedwith societyand statutorydemandsinclude power systemsecurityand
reliability of supply,and power quality.
A.
Loop-flows
Non-contracted flows of electricity are called loop-flows. Ihey are unscheduledflows of

electricitythat do not obey the systemoperatoror private contractsheld betweengenerator
andload [Hydro One (2004)].
Chapter1: 1.3Tradingelectricity
Contract paths
The contractheld betweengeneratorand load will often include a descriptionof the power
flow over specifiedpaths,known as the "contract path". However, at the time of delivery
the scheduledpower flow orderedin the contractmay only use small fraction of that path.
The remainingpower is deliveredto the load but via loop-flows that interfere with third
parties and who will incur costs [Hogan (1992)] due to transmissionloss costs (see
wheeling).
C. Dominant-flow and counter-flow
Transactions can causepower flow in the same direction as the net flow or in the opposite
direction to the net flow along any one line. Ihe flow in the same direction is "dominantflow" and the flow in the opposite direction is the "counter-flow" [Gross and Tao (2000)].
Counter-flows are an important phenomenon in power system utility [Chowdhury and
Bhuiya (2001)] as they can decreasetransmission losses, resulting in cost savings. Wid-iin
the deregulated market, it is important that all parties benefit from resulting counter flows
to maintain fair competition.
D.
Wheeling or third party wheeling

Wheelingis a consequenceof counter-flows.The following exampleof wheelingis based
on one given by Hydro One (2004),a serviceprovided by a transmissionsystembetweena
buyer or a sellerin different jurisdictions.For example,if a utility in areaA wantedto sell
to areaB, it could requestthat an independentutility wheel the power to areaB. The utility
fee
for
doing this. Wheeling is therefore, the processof
then
receive a wheeling
would
transferringelectricalenergyfrom one party to anotherwith the useof a third party,usually
an independent utility. The definition assumesa contracted agreement,however noncontracted wheeling may also occur. In these cases,wheeling becomesa problem as
unknown activity could exceedsecuritylimitationswithin a third or more parties.
E.
Power system security and power quality
Interruptions in electricity supply can causeinconvenienceto domestic customers,and

major disruption and economicloss to areasof industry and trade.1herefore, the designof
the transmissionsystemmust be robust and withstand faults and lossesof equipment.The
level of robustness,known as power system security, is dependent on the level of
acceptableloss of demandbetweengeneratorand the transmissionsystem[Knight (2001)].
Chapter1: 1.4Electridty marketmodels
Power quality is another performance aspect of the power system that tefers to the
consistencyof voltage magnitude and frequency.Systemswith high power quality will
delivervoltage that doesnot often suffer from suddenstep changesand transients[Knight
(2001)].
1.4 Electricity market models

The deregulationof the electricity market from a single private entity to a competitive
industry meant that mechanismsfor fair competition had to be implemented to help
is
defined
dominance.
"
The
transmission
open access"
as
concept of
prevent market
ccaccess
to the transmission system by generatorsand loads be managedin a nondiscriminatoryand equitablemanner" [Singhet al. (1998)].The following market models
discussed are competitive non-vertically based market structures. Three dominant
based
in
developed
Pool
the
national
are
on
seen
economies
market
structures
electricity
A
follows
description
Hybrid
Bilateral
the
the
model.
of
each
model
and
with
model,
dominant
to
two
markets tructures, the spot or centralisedmarket and the
reference
forward and futuresmarket
1.4.1 Pool model
The pool model is based on "spot pricine' [Bohn et al. (1984) and Schweppe et al. (1988)].
Nodal or "nodes" refers to buses on the transmission system and the theory of nodal spot
pricing takes into account the fact that each bus is situated at a different physical location.
The objective of nodal pricing is to adjust energy prices in a pool to reflect their locational
for
losses
(to
and congestion) [Singh et al. (1998)].
account
values
The pool model relies on a central power exchange.The role of the exchangeis to
bids
by
in
the
price
and
electrical
quantities
given
coordinate
generators an efficient manner
to meet demandand supply.Iherefore, the power exchangemust be awareof all energy
bids given by the generatorsand suppliersand all network data from each transmission
area.
Before the use of a pool market system,generatorcost curves were used to meet the
demandrequired for the loads. Bids from generatorsand loads replacedthe cost curves.
The power exchangecoordinateselectricity and decideson the nodal spot prices with
Chapter1: 1.4Electricitymarketmodels
considerationto systemconstraintsto avoid congestionand pay for transmissionlosses.A

consequenceof this action is that nodal spot pricesat the consumerlocationsaregenerally
higher than at the generator locations. The difference in price is the "locational price
differential" which acts as a net income or for the power exchange.Therefore, all
transactionsare dealt with through the power exchangeand there is no direct contact
betweenthe suppliersand consumers.The power exchangeacts as an auctioneer,and is
ableto chargeall consumerswho wish to participate.
1.4.2 Spot or centralised markets
The pool model is commonly conductedin a spot or centralisedmarket style.The main
advantageis immediacyof transactions.This meansthe producer can sell exactquantities,
is
disadvantages
desired
The
that
this
market
are
amounts.
and consumerspurchase
in
For
fluctuations
to
price.
example,
and unpredictablechanges spot
susceptible wild price
forecastscan influence spot prices, a sudden new find in gas could send prices of gas
lack
increase
in
the
the
term;
resources
the
of natural
will
and subsequently,
short
plunging
have
been
developed
forward
futures
long
Therefore,
in
term.
markets
the
and
spot price
describedin Section1.4.4.
to minimisethesedisadvantages,
1.4.3 Bilateral model
This model involves private transactionsbetweentwo individuals,the seller(generator)and
buyer (supplier,load). The bilateral model relies on multiple bilateral tradesand is based
is
best
in
free
belief
to
the
that
the
market
way
achieve
competition
an
competition
upon
independently
(1998)].
Iberefore,
[Singh
prices
are
set and not
et al.
electricity market
known.
publicly
Ihere are different forms of bilateral trades,for examplecustomisedlong-term contacts,
(2004)].
Customised
Strbac
[Kitschen
trading
trading
and
electronic
and
over-the-counter
long-term contractsusuallyinvolve large transactions.These are good for big companies
that negotiate thousands of MW over months or years. Generators and consumers
involve
bilateral
These
trade.
the
trading
type
contracts
commonlyuse
over-the-counter
of
day
Finally,
delivered
the
electronic
standardamountsof energy
or week.
at set periods of
tradingis the fastestof the three.Theseoccur shortly before the market closes,this is when
generatorsand retailersfine-tune their position aheadof the deliveryperiod [Kirschenand
Strbac (2004)].This electronic trading market is automatedand is theoreticallythe most
Chapter1: 1.4Electridty marketmodels
transparent.Quantitiesof electricityand pricesput forward asbids and offers are available

to all participantsbut the correspondingpatty remainsanonymous.The softwareusedfor
electronictrading is designedto match appropriatebids and offers and list any outstanding
ones.TWs takesplacefor all periodsand new bids and offers aregeneratedfor eachperiod.
Bilateral marketsmodels are consideredlesstransparentthan pool market models,which
may decreaseefficiency. Custornisedlong-term contracts are private, but to increase
efficiencyindependentsourcesmay publish summaryinformation about the pricesof the
over-the-counterbilateral tradeswithout revealingthe identity of any party. Togetherwith
form
idea
to
trading,
these
participants
publicationsaid all
a clear
of the position
electronic
and trend of the market
1.4.4 Forward and futures contracts and market
Bilateralcontractscan be a form of forward or futurescontractand thereforethey can play
futures
These
in
forward
marketsare secondarymarketswhere parties
markets.
and
part
a
between
in
Similarities
fluctuations
the terms of
to
prices.
spot
can manageexposure
bilateral, forward and futures contractsinclude quantity and quality of commodity to be
delivered,date of delivery;date of paymentfollowing delivery,penaltiesif either party fails
to honour its commitment and price to be paid which is usually estimatedon historical
information [Kirschenand Strbac(2004)].
For forward markets to exist, enough companiesneed to be interestedin trading for a
is
deal
in
Forward
contractsare made when a competitive
agreed.
commodity advance.
Assumingthere is a standardisationof contractsforward contractscan be brought or sold
to another companywithin the forward market. Forward contractsare backedby physical
delivery of the commodity and thereforeare held betweenpartiesthat actuallyproduceor
backed
by
delivery
Futures
the
the
not
physical
contracts
are
of the
commodity.
consume
in
futures
be
held
by
the
therefore
that
to
party
participate
can
wishes
and
any
commodity
markets.
1.4.5 Hybrid model
Ihe purposeof a hybrid model is to combine the most favourablefeaturesfrom the pool
and the bilateralmodels to maximisemarket competition.A hybrid model can be seenasa
pool model that allows private bilateral transactionsand physical bilateral contracts.The
10
Chapter1: 1.5Electricitymarketsof GreatBritain
present electricity market structure in Britain is a hybrid model with bilateral market
dominance.
1.4.6 Summary of market models

The pool and bilateral market modelsdescribedabove are idealisedsituationsand are not
often realisedin practice.Competitivemarketstructuresimplementedaround the world are
forms of hybrid model that incorporate the some sort of pool market and one or more
bilateral markets. Bilateral markets are usually less organisedand pool markets with a
central operator more organised [Soft (2002)]. For example, in Norway, Swedenand
Finland a predominantpower pool marketis employed,this was also true for Englandand
Walesbefore 2001 [ElectricityPool (2000)].In the USA both pool and bilateralmarketsare
usedin different electricityregions.
1.5Electricity markets of Great Britain
There are two main marketsin deregulatedelectricity systems,the retail market and the
between
domestic
The
the
market
supply
companies
and
retail
exists
market.
wholesale
In
Britain
19
to
their
million
choose
supplier.
over
customers
customersand allows
lower
[National
1999
prices
result
competition
as
a
of
and
since
customerschangedsuppliers
Grid p1c.(2008)].The wholesaleelectricitymarket dealswith transactionsmade between
distributed
network operators (DNO) and
generatingcompaniesand suppliers,such as
industrialloads.An agent,suchasa transmissionsystemoperator(ISO) aidstransactionson
the wholesalemarket and they overseeand coordinatethe electricity transactionson the
transmissionsystemto meetthe forecastdemandon a continuous24 hour basis.
The wholesaleelectricity market of Britain was introduced to facilitate competition and
for
all customers.A motivation behind this included the fact
maintain non-inflated prices
that before deregulationwholesalecostsmadeup aroundhalf of all domesticcustomers'bills
PFGEM (2005)].The presenttrading structureof the electricitymarket of Britain has a
hybrid structurewith bilateralma:rket dominance.The British Electricity Transmissionand
Trading Arrangements (BETTA) set the rules for buying and selling for all market
participantsand Elexon is a non-profit companywhich administersthe wholesaleelectricity
balancing and settlement arrangementsfor Britain. They are also responsiblefor the
Code
[Elexon
Settlement
Balancing
the
the
governanceof
market processesunder
and
(2006)], as the Balance and SettlementCode Company.They e stimated that long-term
11
Chapter 1: 1.5 Electricity markets of Great Britain
bilateral transactions make up about 98% of the total electricity traded and the remaining 2%
by an auction method [Elexon (2005)].
BETTA was introduced on 1" April 2005. It was an update from the previous New
Electricity Trading Arrangements (NETA) by extension of the predominant bilateral
transaction model to include the two Scottish transmission systems with those of England
and Wales, forming for the first time a Great Britain (GB) wholesale electricity market where
the National Grid p1c.became the GB System Operator (SO). It took over the operation of
the two transmission networks from the owners in Scotland, Scottish Power (SP) and
Scottish & Southern Electric (S&SE) while ownership remained with SP and S&SE. Figure
1.2 gives a market overview of BETrA. ne continuous running of the transmission system
is managedby dividing time into half hour delivery periods.
Time
24hr before
delivery
Forward/Futures
contract market
'Gate Closure'
1hr before delivery
Hal hour
delivery
... ............. :
................
Short term bilateral
market
(Exchange)
Imbalance
Setbernent
Generators,suppliersand
traders buy and sell
vAsh
electricityas theywish
Notificationof contractvolumes(to
Settlement)and Final Physical
Notificationto NationalGrid (as
SystemOperator)
Figure 1.2: Overview of BETfA
11
Balancing
Mechanism
23
4
-11111.4
NationalGrid (as System
Operator)acceptsoffersand bids
for systemand energybalancing
SetHement of cash flows

Settleme
fr, the
ansing
ansingfrom
balancing
balancin(,process
market structure [National Grid p1c. (2007)]
1.5.1 Gate closure

One hour ahead of "real- time" (the point of delivery), gate closure defines the point in time
when voluntary market participants notify the SO of their scheduled generation and demand
quantities and is the deadline for notification of exiting contracts. In addition, it is the
deadline for specified generatorsto tell the SO their final physical situations.
12
Chapter1: 1.5Electricitymarketsof GreatBritain
1.5.2 Bilateral markets

There are two types of bilateral markets,forward and futures market and the short-term
bilateralmarketor power exchanges.
Ihe forward and futures markets typically operate 1 year to 24 hours before point of delivery.
Ihese bilateral contracts are made between generators and suppliers to ensure specified
quantities of power are transferred at a set price on a specified date. The majority of
electricity is traded within this market
Short-termbilateralcontractsire generallytradedin the period 24 hours beforegateclosure

The
exchange.
quantity of electricity and the time of
and operate on an electronic
delivery/consumption are specified with guide prices. This market allows the market
be
met.
to
that
their
will
participants ensure
scheduledsupply/demandquantities
1.5.3 Balancing mechanism
1he National Grid p1c.as the GreatBritain systemoperator(GBSO)managesthe balancing
delivery.
has
duty
It
Closure
between
Gate
to
the
point
of
a
and
mechanismthat operates
balancethe system'sgenerationand demandto ensuresecurityof supply and achievean
efficient, economic and coordinateduse of the transmissionnetwork while maintaining
by
does
Emits.
GBSO
The
this
actingasthe commonpurchaserof
operationalstandardsand
transactions.
The market participantsthat take part in the balancingmechanismmust comply with the
balancingand settlementcode and thereforethe Gtid Code.This meansthat generatorsand
bids
if
Balancing
GBSO
Mechanism
the
and accept
andoffers
suppliersmust cooperatewith
The Grid Code is the set of rulesrequired
requestedand to participateduring emergencies.
by aU units, f or example generators,distribution network operators (DNOs) and loads
connectedto the transmissionnetwork.
1.5.4 Imbalances and settlements
Despitethe bilateralmarketcontracts,andbalancingmechanismefforts to ensuregeneration
have
demand,
the
truly
transferred
may not
meets
contractedand actualamount of power
been equal.The imbalancequantity is the difference between the contractedand actual
by
delivered/obtained
in
imbalance
load.
This
the
paid
the
price
quantity
results an
at
13
Chapter1: 1.6Possiblesolutionsto congestionmanagement
contractedmarket participantsto the GBSO, the price is basedon averagecost of the

delivery
imbalance
10OMWh
GBSO
had
the
to
to
the
marginal
purchase resolve
at point of
[NationalGrid p1c.(2007a)].
1.6Possible solutions to congestion management
As previouslydiscussed,congestionoccursby anyviolation of the threetypesof constraintsphysical,policy or operational - therefore any solution to the congestionmanagement
problemgenerallyconcentrateson one of the constraintswhile remainingwithin the limits of
the other two. For example,physicalconstraintsarepredominantlydefinedby the equipment
limitations and network structure,policy constraintsby the market mechanismand model
limitations.
by
the
network structureand security
adopted,and operationalconstraints
The limits of operationalconstraintscan dependupon the transmissionnetwork structure,
location
load
by
dictated
is
the
centresand availablegenerating
and
of
geography
which often
For
demand
by
levels
requirements.
examplethe
and
statutory
customer
sites,and security
by
2010
PTI
in
10%
by
EU
2003
to
the
renewable
generation
achieve
announcement
(2003)]required a mandatoryupdate of Britain's Grid Code for renewablegenerationor
"inten-nittentpower sources"suchaswind, waveand solar[NationalGrid p1c.(2005)].
As policy constraintsare highly dependenton the market structureand marketmechanism,
dependent
in
by
upon the power exchangeor
waysto reducecongestion changes policy are
TSO of the pool, bilateralor hybrid marketrespectively.Although hybrid marketsconsistof
bilateralcontracts,limitations of the network are also taken into accountto prevent overbe
in
Ihe
the
market
can
changedto prevent
ways which
schedulingand congestion.
by
(2000),
discussed
Christie
three
has
been
transmission
et
al.
where
congestion
deregulated
in
marketsapplied around the world are compared.
managementapproaches
These are the approach used in Britain, Australia, New Zealand, the approachused in
Norway,Swedenand Finland,and one approachpredominantlyusedin USA.
One way to overcomephysicalconstraintsis by simplyaddingtransmissionlinesin the areas
load
increasing
the
therefore
the
capacity.
occurs,
wherecongestion
reinforcing network and
However,overheadtransmissionlines are often perceivedas eyesoresand damagingto the
local envirom-nent,therefore planning permission to erect new overheadlines is often
difficult to obtain. Another way to overcome physical constraints and simultaneously
14
improve operationalconstraintsis to use FACTS technology,which is considereda lowenvironmentalimpact technologyand a viable solution for upgradingtransmissionsystem
capacityon a long-term cost-effectivebasisR-Engoraniand Gyugyi (2000)]aswith time the
cost of thyristor valves will continue to decrease[Sood (2004)].The acronym standsfor
Flexible AC TransmissionSystemdefined as, "alternating current transmissionsystems
incorporatingpower electronic-based
and other static controllersto enhancecontrollability
and increasepower transfer capability" [Edris et al. (1997)].Here, the term "flexible" is
defined as "the ability to accommodatechangesin the electric transmissionsystemor
operatingconditionswhile maintainingsufficient steady-state
and transientmargins" [Edris
A
et (1997)].
1.6.1 FACTS controffers
The integration of FACIS controllers aims to achieve a more flexible power system that can
provide control of specific a.c. transmission system parameters. As well as providing
increased support in terms of control of the network, FACTS controllers can be built at
existing substation sites, therefore requiting less space for construction in comparison to
lines.
becoming
In
transmission
they
new
overhead
addition,
are
more compact
erecting
for
modular construction, easeof relocation [Hanson et al. (2002)] and valve units
allowing
housed in containers result in reduced building costs [Sood (2004)].
The ptirnaxycontrol objectivesof power systemsincorporatingFACTS controllersandhigh

direct
HVDC
technologiesate [Zhanget al. (2005)],
current
or
voltage
" to facilitateelectricitytrading,
" to optimise the overall performanceand robustnessof the whole electricitysystemat
distribution
levels;
transmission
generation,
and
" to react in a timely manner to disturbancesto minimise their impact and prevent the
blackouts
systemagainst
and;
" to restorethe systemto the normaloperatinglevelafter a disturbance.
Table 1-1 givesan overviewof commoncompensationmethodsand the proceedingsections
providebrief descriptionsof eachcompensationmethod.
A.
Mechanically switched controllers

Mechar&al switches operate the connection of passive fixed resistance,inductanceor
capacitancecomponents.Historicallytheseare the first categoryof compensatorsemployed
is
and remain in common use due to their relatively low cost in comparisonto FACrS
controllers [GE (2000)]. Fixed series capacitor (FSC) compensationand mechanically
switchedcontrollersconnectedin shunt provide direct compensationand can be controlled
manuallyor automatically[SiemensAG (2008)and (2008a)].These controllersate useful
when there are slow changingdemandvariations,providing steady-state
support to control
transmissionline voltageand decreaseoveralleffectiveseriestransmissionimpedanceof the
line to increasecurrent and transmittedpower respectively.In practice, protection and
monitoring of compensatorsare required. In certain applicationsmechanicallyswitched
capacitorsare used in combination with thyristor-basedcontrollers when an acceptable
performancecanbe achievedat lower cost [MathurandVarma (2002)].
The developmentof FACTS controllerswas motivated in the USA in 1980sbecauseof
restrictionson transmissionline constructionand growth in the amountsof power being
exportedand imported betweenregions,and to facilitatetransactionsbetweenutilities [Song
andJohns (1999)].The two FACTS controllergroupslistedin Table 1-1 aredistinguishedby
the technologyemployed.The first group involves thyristor switchesand the second,static
based
power
voltagesource
electronic
controllers.FACTS controllersare also composedof
fixed resistance,inductance and capacitancecomponents but have more sophisticated
control; this allows smaller step changesand the ability to follow a.c. voltage cycles.
Table 1-1: Overview of common compensationmethodsand FACTS controllers[Zhanget

al. (2006)]
Connection
type
Shunt
Series
Mechanically Switched
Controllers (MSC)
Resistive (R), Inductive (L),
Capacitive (C) componentsand
transformers
Switchedshuntcompensation
(L, C)
FACTS controllers
Thyristor-based
StaticVar Compensator
(SVC)
Switchedseriescompensation
(L, C)
Thyristor Controlled
SeriesCompensator
(TCSC)
Phase-shifter
Combination
shuntand
series
Voltage Source
Converter (VSC) based
StaticSynchronous
Compensator
(STATCOM)
Static Synchronous
SeriesCompensator
(SSSC)
Unified/Interline Power
Flow Controller
(UPFC1lPFC)
B. Thyristor-based controHers
1hyristor-basedcontrollers ate solid-stateswitching devices,also known as "conventional
thyristors" becausethey have turn-on control capability but no turn-off capability.The
16
thyristor switchesare used for the connectionof capacitorand reactorbankscomposedof

fixed components.Ihey can be employedfasterthan mechanicallyswitchedcompensators
and by control of the on and off periods,the thyristor-basedcontrollersare ableto mimic a
variablereactiveimpedance.The switchingfrequencyof thyristor-basedcontrollersis only
twice per cycle which limits the speedof achievablecontrol, but they have low switching
losses.Unlike the mechanicalcompensators,the shunt connectedStaticVar Compensator
(SVC) and the series connectedThytistor Controller Series Compensator(TCSC) act
indirectly on transmissionnetwork. Due to the thyristor switches,the SVC and TCSC are
ableto respondquickerand return to idle statefastercomparedto mechanicalswitchesffohn
(2002)].The TCSChasseveraladvantages
over the FSCincludingfiner and smoothercontrol
for compensation,improved protection of capacitor bank and the ability to mitigate
subsynchronousresonance(SSR)[SiemensAG (2008b)].The phaseshifter or phaseangle
regulatoraimsto maintainthe phaseangledifferencebetweenthe sendingand receiving-end
increase
to
the actualtransmittedpowerover the line [SongandJohns(1999)].
voltages
C. Voltage source converter (VSC) based controllers
Self-con-unutated, voltage-sourced switching converters based on gate tam-off
(GTO)
thyristors convert d.c. to a.c. and employ Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGB'I) or
Insulated Gate Commutated Thyristors (IGM).
Unlike the thyristor-based controllers they
are able to exchange real power directly with a.c. system and are able to control voltage
magnitude and phase more precisely than thyristor-based controllers as they have higher
frequencies,
but
higher
the
switching
at
cost of
switching losses. The high switching
frequencies are obtained by use of pulse width modulation (PWN, which allows the
controller output to contain only low order harmonic and eliminates higher order harmonics.
The shunt connected STATCOM is analogousto the thyristor-controller SVC. Ihe

STATCOM usesinput from a d.c. source(chargedcapacitorsor someother energystorage
device)and outputsa 3-phasea.c. voltageoutput that matchesthe a.c. systemin synchronism
and in phase.I'lie connectionbetweenthe controller and transmissionsystemis through a
coupling transformer. Ile
seriesconnectedSSSCis analogousto the TCSC, in being
connectedby a seriesconnectedtransformerso that it is ableto inject voltagein parallelwith

the line voltage to reduce the effective line reactance(by increasingthe line-reactance
voltage).By combiningthe STATCOM andSSSC,anothercontroller,the unified powerflow
controller (UPFC) can be made.The combinationof shunt-seriesconnectionallowscontrol
17
Chapter1: 1.7Optimal powerflow (OPF)
of active and reactive power flow in transmission lines. The interline power flow controUer
PFC) is another combination controller that employs two or more SSSCeach providing
series compensation for a different line and connected by a common d.c. link- Ihe IPFC,
similarly to the UPFC, is able to control active and reactive power flow in the compensated
line, but
in addition it also has the advantage of being able to provide multiple line
compensadon[Gyugyi(1999)and Zhang(2003a)].
At present,comparedto thyristor-basedcontrollers,VSC power levels for applicationare
lower and require higher installation costs. However, with the expecteddemandson
transmissionsystemsit is predictedthat costswill improve and technologicaladvanceswill
allow higher voltage and power ratings [Zhang et al. (2006)].In light of this, this work
for
based
VSC
FACTS
controller the mitigationof congestion.
concentrateson
1.7Optimal power flow (OPF)
The idea of Optimal Power Flow (OPF) was first discussedin the early 1960s [Carpentier,
(1962)]. Initially it was an extension to the conventional economic dispatch problem, where
the active power generation balance equation, demand plus losses equals sum of power
IV
flows,
Pd+ PLOSS
Pi =0
this was extended to include the entire set of system power
(Pg
limits
flow equations; the active power generation
Pg< Pg
<
reactive
power
and
min
max),
buses,
It
and
other
components.
magnitudes
of
generators
system
aimed to
and voltage
determine the optimal values for control variables with consideration to the operational,
(1968)].
Tinney
Operational constraints relate
Pommel
and
statutory and control constraints
to the electricity network and include power flow constraints, real and reactive generation
limits,
line
bus
limits,
limits,
transmission
capacity
generation
voltage
control,
voltage
capacity
transformer tap-ratio control, load shedding, security constraints, and other limits depending
on the equipment within the system. Statutory constraints that relate to safety, and legal
requirements enforced by relevant governments include contingency constraints endorsed
during and after system faults. The term OPF is used as a generic name for a large seriesof
related network optimisation problems [Momoh (2001)]. OPF problems are generally solved
iteratively using numerical techniques that stop at a solution that satisfies all stipulated
for
increased
Digital
has
technology
constraints.
speeds
and computer programming
allowed
OPF convergence.
18
There is a variety of solution techniquesfor solving OPF problems.Each aims to find a

solution to a specifiedobjective function by seekingmore commonly the minimum, or
occasionallythe maximum feasiblesolution point. Examplesof the applicationof OPF
indude, [Wood andWollenberg(1996)and Zhanget A (2006)]
" finding optimum generationpatternfor minimum generationcost;
" finding optimal power flow for minimum transmissionlosses;
" finding optimal power flow for maximisationof total transfercapability;
" finding optimal settingfor transmissionsystemcomponentsto achievevoltagecontrol
transformertap-ratio adjustments,staticVAR compensators,FACTS controllersand
other devices;
" assistingplanningstudiesof powernetworks;
" calculatingmarginalcost of powerat eachnetworkbus;
" in deregulatedmarkets,assistingTSO or marketoperatorto;
o balancesystemgenerationanddemand,
o choosethe optimalbids andoffers from generatorsand suppliers,
o
obtainmarketclearingprices,
o maximisesocialwelfarefor all customers.
Since Carpentier proposed his method to solve economic dispatch with bus voltage
has
been
defined
in
OPF
1962,
the
problem
as an extensionto the economic
constraints
dispatchproblem,where the solution seeksthe best combinationof control variableswithin
the systemconstraints.A number of OPF techniquesexist: the reducedgradientmethod
Pommel and Tinney (1968)];linear programmingmethod [Stott and Marinho (1979)and
Alsaq et al. (1990)];quadraticprogrammingmethods [Burchett et al. (1984),and Glavitsch
and Spoerry(1983)];Newton methods Pommel and Tinney (1968),Sun et al. (1984)and
Monticelli and Liu (1992)];and interior point methods [Granville (19940 and Wu et al.
(1994)].The best use of eachtechniqueis dependentupon the exactOPF problem.Several
OPF review papershavebeenpublished[Momoh (1993),Huneaultand Galiana(1991)and
Chowdhuryand Rahman(1990)],a more extensivelist can be found in [Zhanget al. (2006)].
The method employedin this work is the interior point programmingmethod.
1.7.1 Interior point programming method overview
The interior point method is so called becauseit searchesfor an optimal point through the
interior of the feasible solution region [Yan (1997)]. '1here, are three key components to
19
interior point methods;the Fiacco-McCormicklogarithmicbarriermethod for conversionof

a minimisation problem with inequality constraintsto an equivalentproblem with only
equalityconstraints;the Lagrangeminimisationfor conversionof a minimisationproblem
with equality constraintsinto an unconstrainedminimisation problem; and the Newton
methodfor solvingthe non-linearunconstrainedminimisationequations.
Interior point methodscan be classifiedinto different variations;the projectivemethod,the
affine scalingmethod, the potential reduction method, and the logarithmic barrier (path
following) method [Yan (1997)].Karmarkar (1984)used the projective method, an affineis
in
is
in
(1992),
Ponnarnbalarn
the
method
method
potential reduction
scaling
used
used
Anstreicher(1991),and the logarithmicbarriermethodsin Quintanaand Torres (1999).'Ihe
interior point methodshavebeenappliedto solvelinear,non-linear,convexand non-convex
optimisationproblems[Quintanaet al. (2000)].
One specific strand of the intetior-point logarithmic barder method is the interior point
is
logarithmic
barrier
the
method
appliedto the primal and dual
ptimal.-dual method where
be
further
interior-point
(1997)].
The
[Yan
primal-dual
methods
can
problemssimultaneously
linear
for
OPF
They
into
the
the
problem.
primal-dual
are
solving
categories
subdivided
interior point OPF, the nonlinearprimal-dualinterior point OPF, and the predictor-cotrector
ptirnal-dual.interior point OPF.
The primal-dualinterior point methodshavebeenappliedto linear problemsNarsten et al.
(1990),Astfalk et al. (1992),Lustig et al. (1994)]and non-linearproblems, [El-Bakryet al.
(1996)]and to the electricity OPF problem [Granville et al. (1996)].A direct primal-dual
inequality
to
the
and equality constraints simultaneouslyusing the
method, able
solve
Kamsh-Kuhn-Tucker(KK'I) conditions and Newton method was proposedin Wu et al.
(1994), Granville (1994) and Granville et al. (1996). The direct non-linear pritnal-dual
methodshas been appliedto a variety of problems,including OPF problemswith FAM
controllers [Zhang and Handschin (2001)and Zhang et al. (2001)];minimisation of load
shedding[Granville et al. (1996)1;and maximum loadability OPF problem Psarri et al.
(1997)].The predictor-correctorprimal-dualinterior point OPF method is an extensionto
the primal-dualmethod. It was developedto reducethe number of iterationsfor solution
convergencebut is more computationallycomplex relative to the other methods stated
20
Chapter1: 1.8Principlesof the interior point method
[Mehrotra (1992), Ponnambalam et al. (1992) and Irisarri et A (1997)]. In this thesis,the nonlinear primal-dual interior point method is applied to the OPF problem.
1.8Principles of the interior point method

'Ihe interior point method was first proposed by [Katmarkar (1984)] for solving linear
optimisationproblems, after which it has been applied to a wide variety of problemsby
adaptingit to solve for particular problems.The approachapplied here is basedon the
mediod appliedby Wu et al. (1994),Granville (1994)and Pctoussis(2006).Ilere are three
key components to interior point methods; the Fiacco-McCormicklogarithmic barrier
method; the Lagrange minimisation method; and Newton method for solving the non-linear
unconstrainedminirnisationequations.
1.8.1 Fiacco-McCormick barrier method
This method was first proposed in 1960s [Fiacco and McCormick (1968)] but not utilised
developing.
interior
It
the
the
point
method
converts a
was
mid-1980s
when
until
minimisation problem with inequality constraints to an equivalent problem with only equality
constraints.
Considerthe optimisationproblem:
(1.1)
min f (x) subjectto x>0

Transforminto equivalentproblemusingFiacco-McCormickbarriermethod:
min
Nh
(six,
I
log
F (x) = f(x) -, u
p
j=I
subjectto: x- sIxJ=0 where sIxJ>0
where,
x is the systemvariable,
p is the barrierparameter,
Nh is the total number of inequalities,
is
inequality
j of systemvariablex,
the
to
slack
variable
related
SIXJ
inequality number j=1,2,..., Nh
21
By addinga non-negativeslackvariablesl the inequalityconstraint x>0 of problem (1 1)

Xi
.
can be converted into an equality constraint.Ille logarithmic term forces the solution
processto begin from a point well within the feasibleregion while obeyingthe inequality.
(SI
)
The term log
force
function
limit,
the
the
objective
above
x>0 when x
xi will also
approacheszero. The contribution of barrier logarithmic term of the objective function
Fp(x) againstthe value of the real objective fimction f(x) is balancedwith the barrier
parameterp As the algorithmreachesits solutionthe barrierparameteris minimised,that is
barrier
At
function
0.
the
the
equalsthe real objective
solution
objective
when xj =x, p st,
function, Fp(x)=f(x).
1.8.2 Lagrange rninimisation with equality constraints

'Ihe Lagrange method applied transforms optimisation problems subject to equality
Consider
into
problem.
an optimisation
optimisation
unconstrained
an equivalent
constraints
problemwith equalityconstraints:
Nh
Minimise
E
F (X) f(x)
=
- /I
,a
j=I
log (six,
subject to: x- sIxJ =0

gj (xj) =0
Equivalentproblemin the form of a Lagrangefunction:

L.u = F, (x) -
NP
2: Aj
gj (xj)
j=l
where,
is
(xj)
the setof equalityconstraints,
gj
x vector of primal variables,
Aj vector of dualvariables,
Np is the total numberof primal variables.
Derive Karush-Kuhn-Tucker(KK1) conditionsto minimiseLagrangefunction:
22
(1.3)
OL,
u
af. (x)
NP
11
agj(xj)
Ai
axi oxi j=l axi
=
Np
(X)
OAj
aAj
(1.5)
-Egj(xj)=o
j=l
The set of minin-iiscdunconstrainedequationsis solvedusing Newton's method.A simple

examplefor power flow analysisusinga typical3 bus systemfollows.
Bus 1
Bus 2
Pgl
Og,
P92
092
V, <00
I
V2 <00
093
V
33<G0
Figure1.3:3 bus system

Where systemvariables correspondto optimisation problem variablesin the following
bus
1:
to
reference
manner,with
primal variables x, =
[Pgl, Qgj, VI,OP
[A.
equality constraints gj (xj) = 9 , AQ,
slackvariablessIj
dual variables Aj =
m
Tmn,
,
s Pe sl;Pgj Sq'SjX'SVrnin,
SjVmax]
g,
[AAp,
Vin, Am
AAQ,APT`I max,I nun Zmax,
-.Qgl Qgj I
,
Pgl
gl
,
1.8.3 Newton's method for solving unconstrained minimisation

Newton's method solvesthe resultingset of equationsthrough approximationsusing first
find
derivatives
following
jacobian
The
to
attempts
or
matrix elements.
approximation
order
the solutionof a(x)= 0, for an initial estimateof xO:
23
Xc+l = Xc -
a(xc)
(1.6)
a'(xc)
forQ. = 1,2,..,Ia(x, )I<e
is
iteration
is
the
where c
count and e a very smallnumber.
Now considera casewherethereareseveralequationswith a numberof unknowns:
a(x) =
al (x)
a2(x)
(x).
_a,
EXI
is
where x a setof variables
9X2 1X3 9... 1Xn
Elements of the jacobian matrix are:

(x)
t9ai
J(X) =
exi
(1.7)
Substituteinto (1.6),the Newton methodapproximationbecomes,

(1.8)
xc+I = xc - J-1 (xc)a(xc)
Let x, -x, equal to dx then (1.8) becomes,

+,
(1.9)
J(xc)dc = -a(xc)
This techniquecan be appliediterativelyto solvea sequenceof simultaneousequations.Ile

be
in
(1.9)
can appliedto an unconstrainedminitnisationproblem.
approximationapplied
Considerthe optimisationproblem,
min Ax)
subjectto gj (xj) =0
Ile correspondingLagrangefunction is,

(1.10)
L., = f(x) - Ajgj (xj)
To minimise L,, consider a(x) from (1.9),set to a(x)
aL, W
u
Assume
Newton.
and apply
L.,,,is a function of z, where z= [x,A], then the set of equationsfor Newton's method a(x)
is,
24
9L#(zi)
gf(Z1)
,
=,
Dzi
G'zi
,
(Z)
t9L,
u
az"
agi(Z1)
&Z,
9gj (Z)
(Z)
OY
az"
az.
Then, the Newton approximationfor solvingthe unconstrainedminimisationproblemis,

V2 L., (zl)dzi = -Vl
Z,
L,, (zl)
(1.12)
(Z )dZ
v2L
zn "nn
= _V ZnL un(Z
where,
n variablenumber n=1,2,...' N and N total numberof systemvariables,
V, L, is the gradientof L. (z) ,
(z).
v2 L,,,is the Hessianof L.,,,
z
Rearranging(1.12)into matrix form, it canbe solvedusingsparsematrix techniques,
VZIVZL.U -dzl'
VZ1
VZ1
L'U ....
(ZI)
L;
-Vzj j
(1-13)
Lu(zn)_
VznVznLu__dzll.,
_-Vz,
VnVzL.,
1.8.4Summary of interior point method

The threekey componentsof the interior point methodareasfollows,
1. the initial optimisation problem is transformed from a problem with inequality
Barrier
the
to
problem
with
equality
constraints
using
an
equivalent
constraints
method;
2. the problem is then transformedagaininto an unconstrainedoptimisationproblem
usingthe Lagrangefunction;
3. the Newton method is applied to solve the series of non-liner unconstrained
minimisationequations(1.13)to obtain the final optimal solution.
The iterativetechniquerequiresan updateof variablesafter eachiterationcount,
x(c+') =
y
(C+I)
P)
+ apAx
(1.14)
= y(c) +ad Ay
25
Chapter1: 1.9Work presentedin this thesis
where,
is
x the vector of variablesof the primal problem,
is
y the vector of variablesof the dualproblem,
is
iteration
the
c
count number,
is
ap the primal steplength,
is
ap the dual steplength.
Iteration stops after specifiedparametersreach their tolerancevalues.The parameterswill

include the barrier parameterp and the complementarygap amongstothers (definedin
Chapter 2, equations (2.87) and (2.88)respectively).
1.9Work presented in this thesis

The researchdescribedin this thesissurroundsfinding a solution for optimal location and
in
bilateral
To
FACTS
to
minimise
market
congestion
a
environment.
rating of a
controller
bilateral
into
foundation
implementing
the
this,
market
model
a
work,
essential
achieve
The
interior point OPF algorithmis necessary,
results
are
estimated.
after which quantitative
latterpart of the thesisdealswith a methodto predictoptimal location,and an assessment
of
economic viability of FACTS controllers as a practical solution to the congestion
problem.
management
1.9.1 Bilateral market model implementation using interior point OPF method with
FACTS controller models
The minimum cost due to congestionandrealpower systemlossesare found with the aid of
based
bilateral
interior
to
the
point
proposed
algorithm,
solve
electricitymarket
non-linear
a
model with full a.c. network representation.Based on the a.c. transmissionmodel the
including
into
takes
real and reactive power
all
operating
aspects
account
algorithm
bus
limits,
line
limits,
transmission
real
voltage
constraints,
andteactive
generationcapacity
systemlosses,transformertap-ratio control and FACTS controller real and reactivepower
and bus voltagelimits. The overallamountof demandand generationcanbe specifiedat the
startof everyiteration.
This allows for direct comparison between systemspre and post FACTS controller
installationsat a variety of demandlevels,permitting analysisat a singleinstant in time and
26
for extensionto typical daily and seasonalload changes.Extrapolationof theseresultscan

givean averagepetfottnanceover an annualperiod.
1.9.2 Generalisedtwo-step mediod for finding optimal location and rating of FACTS
controller
A standardsystemset-upprocedureandgeneralised
method for finding the optimallocation
and rating of a specifiedFACTS controlleris proposedand implementedin Chapters2 and
3. The set-up accountsfor reasonablelevels of generationwith respect to the demand
required and the systemlosses.This gives initial generationquantities for the reference
system.The generalisedmethod is simpleand effective.It is able to identify the location of
congested transmission lines, system costs, differentiate between contributions from
congestionand systemlosses,identify attributesat individual busesand lines and give the
FACTS controller output power rating,voltagemagnitudeand angleat individual
necessary
demandlevels.
1.9.3 Sensitivity analysis for optimal FACTS controller location

The disadvantage
methodis that it is unableto identify the optimal
of the simplegeneralised
FACTS controller installationlocationwithout testingall feasiblesystemsites.Extensionof
t1ds method to the three-step method incorporating sensitivity analysis allows fast
determinationof FACTS controllerlocationby eliminationof whole systemareasandgivesa
in
The
in
the
number
of
simulations.
method
reduction
applied the secondstep,
significant
actsas a screeningprocess,and only requiresa singlesimulationof systembasecaseat the
specifieddemand level. It has been successfulfor indicating locations that require series
controller.
compensationwith a combinedseries-shunt
1.9.4 Economic analysis of FACTS controller investment costs
A generaleconomicanalysisframeworkis presentedusing the "Return Index" (111).
The RI
indicatesa period of time that relatesthe congestioncost savingsmadeby FAM controllers
with the cost requireddue to equipmentrating.Three independent,commonlycited sources
form the basisof the appliedFACIS controller price information; thesewere publishedby
IEEE Power EngineeringSociety(PES),Siemens,and the California Energy Commission.
Economicbenefit is often disregarded
in theoreticalanalyses,
as firm quantitativebenefitsare
difficult to measure,althougha few attemptshavebeenmade,for examplein EPRI (1999)
and Mwanzaet al. (2007).In the casestudiespresentedhere,a measureof congestioncost
27
is
for
known,
'die
factor
final
decision
RI
therefore,
the
savings
making
optimal
acts as
FACTScontrollcr locadon.
1.9.5 Major contributions of this work
The major contributionsof this work canbe summariesasfollows:
a) Implementationof bilateralmarketobjectivefunction into non-linearinterior point
algorithm using a.c. power flow network model, hybtid coordinatesand a reduced
Newton matrix with FACTS controller steadystate models;
b) Detetrrinationof the impact of FACTS controllers on congestionand real power

daily,
bilateral
loss
seasonal
electricity market environment over
system
costs wid-iin a
and annualtime periods;

for
finding
FACICS
Proposal
two-step
method
optimal
controller
of
a
generalised
c)
locationandrating for min:imisationof congestionandrealpower systemlosscosts;
d) Proposala sensitivity-based
three-stepmethod for finding optimal FACTS controller
location and rating for minimising congestionand real power systemloss costs to
reducedthe numberof requiredsimulations;
FACTS
Determination
the
to
method
assess
econorrdc
viability
of
controller
of a
e)
equipmentcostsfor solvingthe congestionmanagementproblem.
A. Advantages of primal-dual interior point method
The pritnal-dualnon-linearinterior point method hasbeenappliedto solvea wide varietyof
OPF problems,and on largescales.Severalprimal-dualmethodshavebeenperformedthat
in
banier
is
logaridunic
the
top
that
method
possibly
methods
one
of
ptitnal-dual
show
it
is
interior
(2006)].
[Petoussis
In
the
to
point
methods
able to
addition,
other
comparison
find optimal resultsefficientlyand accurately[Astfalk et al. (1992)].The biggestadvantageof
the interior point methodsin general,is that it canhandlelargesetsof equalityandinequality
(1997)]
iterations
Rood
Vrisarri
number
et al.
and convergewidiin a sensible
of
constraints
andWollenberg(1996)].
B. Advantages of a.c. model representation
Full a.c. electricitynetwork and FACTS controllerrepresentationis preferredover simplified
d.c. representationbecausesomebasic electricitynetwork propertiesare overlookedwhen
the d.c. power flow approximationmodel is applied[Hogan (1993)].As the d.c. model can
28
only provide a linear approximationto the true behaviourof the electricitynetwork, the
advantages
of implementingthe a.c. modelare:
" Realistica.c. transmissionnetworkline flows;
" Reactivepower generationandreactiveline flows;
" Realandreactivetransmissionnetworklosses;
0 Busvoltagelimits, busvoltagecontrol andvoltageregulations;
& Realandreactivegenerationandtransmissionline capacityEmits;
* Modellingof transformertap-ratiocontrol.
Referencesusing d.c. power flow models [Singh et al. (1998) and Yuen and Lo (2003)] are
functions
to
reactive
power
represent
and
control
such as voltage control, transformer
unable
tap-ratio control and network lossesbecausetransmission line inductance and capacitanceare
not considered.
The proposed non-linear interior-point algorithm and the bilateral market model has the
few
here.
for
in
practical
a
examples
are
surnmarised
potential use several
applications,
i.
The model would be of interestto TSOs for rapidly identi4ing congestedtransmission
lines once amounts of power delivery agreedin bilateral contractsare made known,
thereforeallowing time for balancingadjustments.It also has the capabilityto assessa
demand
individual
bus
and
generation
schemes
at
of
and system
wide combination
levels.
The model is useful for FACTS controller manufacturersby assessingthe impact of
controllersin theoreticaland real situationsduring the steadystate.It is ableto identify
the changesexperiencedat all busesand give an indication of requiredrating for power

flow control.
iiL
iv.
Ihe model is of interest to TSOs and manufacturerssimultaneouslyas the sensitivitybasedanalysisis a useful first stepscreeningtechnique.It is ableto assess
the viability of
FACrS controllerson any transmissionnetwork sufferingfrom congestionproblems.
The proposedmethodscanbe usefulfor predictinglikely locationsof FAM controller
on expectedfuture power systernswith integrationof renewablegenerationsources.
C. Advantages of investigating a variety of load levels

Studiesapplyingsteadystateanalysisoften refer to a singlespecifiedinstantin time, after all
transientshave cleared.Analysisappliedhere extendssingleinstants to multiple ones and
29
Chapter1: 1.10Structureof thesis
demand
level is compiled to assessthe characteristicsof Britain's systemover typical
each
daily load curvesexperiencedin the surnmerand winter seasons.This givesrefined details
and further extrapolationhasallowedestimatesindicatingannualsavings.
D.
Advantages of the sensitivity-basedmethod
Application of sensitivityanalysisto the basecasesystemallowsfor rapid eliminationof the

majority of FACTS controller installationlocations.Furthermore, only one simulationis
required at each specified demandlevel. A practical approach,it has use as a first step
screeningprocess,especiallyapplicablefor large-scale
system.
1.10 Structure of thesis
The remainingchaptersarearrangedasfollows:
In Chapter2 the bilateralmarketmodelandimplementationwith interior point OPF method
is presented.It includes an explanationof the bilateral market model characteristicsand
is
followed
Britain.
This
by
to
the
trading
market
made
reference
system
of
assumptions
with
interior
OPF
description
the
three
the
main
point
methodnamelyFiacco
of
componentsof
a
barrier
for
inequalities,
function
Lagrange
for
McCormick's
method
eliminating
and
optimisation with equalities,and Newton's method for solving non-linear equations.The
the casestudiespresentedat the
chapteralsoincludesdefinition of termsusedfor assessing
endof Chapter2 andin subsequentchapters.
Chapter3 introducesthree main voltagesourcedconverter(VSC)basedFACTS controllers;
the shunt connectedStaticCompensator(STATCONI),seriesconnectedStaticSynchronous
SeriesCompensator(SSSC)and the combination, shunt-seriesconnectedUnified Power
Flow Controller (UPFC).An overviewof the featuresof eachcontroller, functionalmodels
diagrams
and steadystate equivalentcircuit
are given. The steadystate equivalentcircuit
modelsallow derivationof power flow equationsand constraints.'1he inclusion of FACTS
controller models increasesthe size and complexity of the previously presentedOPF
problem,thereforea descriptionof the additionalvariablesarehighlightedwith respectto the
inequalities,equalities,Lagrange function and Newton equations. Finally, the FACTS
controller modelsare testedon a small4 bus systemand the IEEE 14 bus systemto show
be reduced.
that costsdueto increasedload demandscansuccessffilly
30
Chapter1: 1.10Structureof thesis
In Chapter 4, the initial resultspresentedin Chapter3 are extendedto test the ability of
FACTS controllersto reducecostson an annual,seasonaland daily demandbasisbasedon
the load profiles of Britain in 2004/5.The STATCOM is testedat threelocationsat all viable
systemtransmissionline locationsi),firstly at the endsof the lines at bus i, secondlyat the
is
line
UPFC
ij.
The
busj
finally
the
the
transmission
midpoint of
oppositeend at
and
at
testedat four siteson eachtransmissionline namelyshunt branch connectedto bus i, shunt
branchconnectedto busj, seriesbranchconnectedto bus i, and seriesbranchconnectedto
busj. The main conclusionis that significantcongestionmitigationis madewhen the FACTS
controlleris appropriatelysited.
for
controllerallocation
is
A
appliedto attemptto
minimisation.
method
of
sensitivity
analysis
congestionand cost
Ihe
for
for
location
FACFS
mitigation.
the
congestion
controllers
optimal
predict
optimal
Chapter5 is concernedwith the decisionmakingprocessof FAM
identify
is
the
to
the
required
to
the
reduce
number of systemsimulations
analysis
aim of
in
UPFC
identifies
location.
The
the
the
canreduce
area which
method successfully
optimal
line
impedance.
in
by
transmission
congestion change
Chapter6 exploresthe financialconstraintsof installingFACTS controllersto reducesystem
is
is
brief
literature
After
price
assumed
and
cost
equipment
review,
an
averaged
a
congestion.
A
Index
(Rl)
is
Return
by
the
measure
used
the
ratings.
called
requiredcontroller
calculated
to evaluatethe most economicalFACTScontrollersolutionby comparingthe annualsavings
In
by
the
controller. addition to the
made
congestionmitigation and equipmentcost of
decision
for
in
5,
Chapter
this
the
making
process
required
eases
sensitivitymeasureapplied
investmentchoices.
In Chapter7, the conclusions,main contributionsof work and the potential for fin-therwork
aredescribed.
Finally, in the Appendices,the analyticalmathematicalformulae required for the applied
methodspresentedin Chapters2 to 5 atedetailed.
31
Chapter2: 2.1Introduction
Chapter 2
Bilateral electricity market model and the interior point
flow
optimal power
method
2.1Introduction
111isChapter introduces the bilateral market model applied to all case studies in this thesis
flow
(OPF)
into
interior
implementation
the
the
the
model
point optimal point
of
and
algorithm. 1he interior point OPF gP OPF) algorithm has been adapted to minimise the
cost of congestion in a bilateral electricity market environment. 71hetransmission system
lines,
found
includes
transmission
transmission
network;
on
a
model
standardequipment
transformers,generatorsand loads.This chapterforms the foundationsto the implemented
algorid= and results.
In Section2.2 the bilateralmarketemployedon the electricitytransmissionsystemof Britain;
Section 2.3 introduces the bilateral market
first introduced in Chapter 1, is sunu-natised.
include
discussed,
the
model
activepower generationchanges,
model and characteristicsof
loss,
systemcongestionand relationshipwith the total systemcost
of
system
calculation
incurred.In Section2.4 the necessary
stepsto implementthe bilateralmarketmodelinto the
implementationissues.Section2.6
IP OPF method are describedand Section2.5 discusses
bus
involving
test
results
systems,
a4
systemand IEEE 14 bus system.
providesnumerical
Finallyin Section2.7 conclusionsaredrawn.
2.2 Bilateral market
In a bilateralmarket,buyersand sellersof a commoditytradeindependentlyof a third party.
Electricity trading in Britain is performedby a predominantbilateraltrading systemdefined
by BETTA (British Electricity Transmissionand Trading Arrangements)[Elexon (2005)].
bilateral
is
Due to this, an objectivefunction that reflectsthe characteristics
market
used.
of a
The objectivefunction allowsthe simulationto produceresultsthat canbe analysedfrom the
perspectiveof the transmissionsystemoperator (TSO), who is in charge of balancing
generationand demandwhile minimisingcongestioncosts,the processis alsoknown asredispatch,[Bompardet al. (2003)].
32
Chapter2: 2.3&thematicalmodel
In wholesalebilateralelectricitymarketsthe TSO is the centrepieceof electricitytradingon

the transtrdssionsystem.Its role is to ensurethat all demandis met in the most efficient
manner.The priority is to maintainall bilateralcontractsto preventhavingto paygenerators
to changetheir scheduledoutput levels. Electricity is a unique commodity becausethe
transmissionsystemit is transportedupon has a finite capacityand strict safetyregulations.
Ile use of storage is not standard procedure. Iberefore, some electricity bilateral
transactionsmust be changednear to the time of deliveryto ensuredemandis constantly
met. Wid-linBETrA this is doneusingthe "BalancingMechanism"which operatesbetween
the time of GateClosureandpoint of delivery(real-time)andis run by the NationalGrid p1c.
asits role asGreatBritain SystemOperator(GBSO)[NationalGrid (2007a)].
2.3 Mathematical model
In order to balancesystemgenerationand demandthe TSO will pay generatorsto change
their future generationoutput to avoid congestion.This debit is consideredto be the
is
bilateral
The
to
market
represent
simultaneouslya
a
mathematicalmodel
congestioncost.
defined
by,
is
linear
1he
loss
model
and
measureof congestionand system costs.
Ng
min f(x)
I+
Cgi+Pgi+
Ng
(2.1)
CgTPgT
where,
f(x)
bilateral market objective function, system cost, unit: $/h,

ItiIP+qPjIQ
x vector of system variables x=
9i
g isoilvi
P+ per unit (p.u.) increase in MW generation from generator at bus i, P+ --0,

9i
91
in MW generationfiromgeneratorat bus i, Pil

Pj per unit (p.u) decrease
i
,
C+ cost per unit (price) for increase in MW generation, $/IM,
gi
C+ ;>-0,
9i
Cj, cost per unit (price) for decrease in MW generation, $/MWh,
Cg-, 2:0
Ng total number of system generator buses,

i bus index number 1,2,
Ng
...,
*
2.3.1 Incremental active power generator changes at individual busi,

At eachgeneratorbus i, therecanonly be one of threesituations,
33
0,
Chapter2: 2.3 Mathematicalmodel
1. No changein scheduledgeneration: P+ = Pj, = 0,

91
2. Increasein scheduledgeneradon: P+ >0 and P- = 0,
91
gi
0
active power output Pgi = PgjO+ Pgi+ 9
(2.2)
3. Decreasein scheduledgeneradon: P+ =0 and P;7. > 0,

91
gi
active powet output: Pgi = pgq -pg7 It
I
(2.3)
is
Pg9
where, 1 the scheduledMW generation from generator at bus i, PO :0.
91
When thereis no systemcongestiononly situationsone or two can exist,and when thereis

systemcongestiononly situationstwo and threeexist.
2.3.2 System active power generation changes
For the systembase case,with no FACTS controller, there are two conditions; system
without congestionand systemwith congestion.For the systemas a whole, the individual
changesat eachgeneratorbus aresummedfrom bus i to Ng *
P- per unit MW generation

91
The system active power generation output Pg after changes from scheduled generation is
the total MW generation at eachgenerator bus i,
Ng
Ipgi
Ng
Ng
P+
90,1
]-, Ipz
P+
9i
(2.4)
P+ - per unit increase in MW generation

91
The system active power generation increase P' is the increase in MW generation at each
9
bus
increase
in
i.
The
MW from output to scheduledgenerationis,
total
generator
system
N
glp+
1=
Ng
N
[Pgi I- Y-g [p 0
gi
(2.5)
gi
i
It is relatedto systemlossand systemcongestionby the following equation,
34
Chapter12.3 Mathematicalmodel
Ng
[P+
(2.6)
PLOSS +PC
91
per unit decreasein MW generation

The system active power generation decreaseP- is the decreasein MW generation at each
9
generator bus i. The total system decrease in MW from scheduled generation is shown in
defines
is
(2.7).
It
present on the system, as the magnitude
equation
also
whether congestion
decrease
is
power
of system active
generation
equal to the amount of system congestion PC.
Ng
Ng
7
P;g,
1=z
(2.7)
P+ - PLOSS
9i
Substitute equation (2.5),

Ng
Ng
]-PLOSS
E 1Pg'I- Y'[PO
EI pi,
iii
(2.8)
91
Ng
N,
I
(2.9)
PC
Table 2-1 summarises the relationships between objective function, congestion, loss, system
cost, per unit MW generation increaseand decrease.
Table2-1:Systemactivepowergenerationand systemcostrelationsMp.
Condition 1: No congestion
No congesdon PC =0
f(x) >0
Condition 2: With congestion

Congesdon PC >0
f(x) >0
PLOSS >0
PLOSS >0
Ng
P+
[
Ng
Elp
gi
i,
Ng
NgI
> 0,
P+
gi
PLOSS
]=o
Ng
I>
Ig
0,
P+
i
Ng
Elpi,
[P+
gi
i
]>O,
Ng
F,
ii
PLOSS +PC
P,
ii
PC - per unit MW system congestion

SystemcongestionPC is defined by the per unit incrementalMW changerequiredto meet
increase
demand
losses.
is
incremental
MW
It
the
system
excludingsystem
systemper unit
35
Chapter2: 2.3dathematical
model
minus the per unit systemMW loss,which is equalin magnitudeto the incrementalMW
decrease.
Ile sum of MW generationis conservedbecausedemandis constant.
N
PC=
'[P+]-PLOSS=
Ng
it
(2.10)
91
PLOSS- per unit MW system loss

The per unit system loss is defined by the per unit system MW generation Pg subtracted by
the per unit system MW demand Pd
,
Ng
PLOS"E[pgj]-
'I [p
(2.11)
dj]'
iI
where, system MW generation is defined by equation (2.4), and Nd is the total number of
loads on the system. For most systems,only transmission lines and transformers contribute
to system loss as it is assumedthat other components are fewer in number and therefore do
not supply a significant contribution.
2.3.3 Objective function characteristics and assumptions

Equation (2.1) is the bilateral market objective function implementedto minimise system
cost,composedof systemcongestionand loss.On a real systemtherewill alwaysbe system
loss. Iberefore, the system cost will alwaysbe positive unless the sum of scheduled
generationhasalreadyaccountedfor systemlosses.
When there is systemcongestion,the systemcost to the TSO is dependenton incremental
increasein generationto overcomecongestionand systemlosses,
Ng
cgtpg+
Iii,
]+E 9
[Cg -'PgF]2tO
(2.13)
It is assumedthat all generators are rational and will charge the ISO more to increaseactive
power output than to decrease,
(2.14)
Cgl+> Cg1This assumption extends to include all generatingunits on the system,therefore,
36
Chapter2: 2.4Implementationof bilateralmarketmodelinto interior point OPF method
Ng
cgtpgi+
>
Ng
2: [Cgl-. PgF
(2.15)
2.4 Application of bilateral market model into interior point OPF method
The basictaskof any OPF methodis to obtain a viable optimisedsteadystatesolutionof an
electricpower system,and at the sametime to minimise or maximisea chosenobjective
function subjectto physicaland operationalconstraints.Usual objective functions include
mathematicalexpressionsfor the minimisationof the total generatingcost, the activepower
lossesor the maximisationof the total transfercapabilityand the socialwelfare[Zhangand
Handschin(2001)].In the following formulationsfor the non-linear IP OPF an objective
function for the minimisationof the total operatingcost in a bilateralmarketis employed.
The objectivefunction is asfirst statedin equation(2.1):
Ng
min f(x)
Ng
[Cgi+Pgi+ ]+
(2.16)
1Oi'Vi'P+'Pz'QgI'ti
where,
[CgFpgF
x=
IT
vector of system variables,
91
0 bus voltage angle,

V bus voltage magnitude,
P+ bus per unit increase in MW generation,
91
in MW generadon,
Pi bus per unit decrease
Qg, bus per unit reactivepower generation,
tj transfortnertap ratio.
(2.16)is subject to the following constraints: non-linear equality constraints, vector g(x),
(X) = PO + P+ pi,
&Pi
-P,
di
9i
9,
(2.17)
Pi(0, V) =0
AQi(x) 2-Qgi - Qdj- Qi(O'V)*20

bus
(x)
APj
activepower mismatchequations,
where,
AQi(x) bus reactivepower mismatchequations,
PO bus per unit scheduledMW generation,
9i
37
Chapter2: 2.4 Implementationof bilateralmarketmodelinto interior point OPF method
P bus pet unit MW demand,

di
Qdj bus per unit reactive power demand,
P,(0, V) active power injection at bus i,
Qi (0, V) reactive power injection at bus i,
and (2.16)is subjectto non-linearinequalityconstraints,

h
hj (x): 5 h Tax
(2.19)
is
functional
inequality
h(x)
where,
a vector of
constraints including line flow and voltage
magnitudeconstraints,simple inequalityconstraintsof variablessuch as generatoractive

power,generatorreactivepower,transformertaprado.
2.4.1 Elimination of inequality constraints
The IP OPF method employs the logarithmic barrier method for optimisation with
inequalitiesproposedby FiaccoandMcCormick (1968)and Marstenet al. (1990)to solvethe
non-linearoptimisationproblem.The logarithmicbarrier method transformsthe non-linear
inequalityconstraintsinto equivalentequalityconstraintsby the addition of non-negative
(2.16)-(2.19)
is
defined
by
The
transformed
problem
equations
slackvariables.
optimisation
into the equivalentoptirnisationproblemdefinedby equations(2.20)-(2.24):
Nh
Objective: niin f(x)-, uZln(slj)-,
j=l
Nh
(2.20)
ujln(suj)
j=l
Subjectto the following equalityconstraints:

AP,(X) =0
(2.21)
AQ (x) =0
(2.22)
hj (x) - sIj _ hjmin=0
(2.23)
hf(x)+suj-hTax
ji
(2.24)
=0
where,
Nh total numberof systeminequalities,j inequalitynumber 1,2,
Nh
...,
,
p>0 barrierparameter,a positivenumberforcedto minimiseiteratively,
38
sIj >0 lower non-negativeslackvariable,

suj >0 uppernon-negativeslackvariable.
2.4.2 Lagrange function for optimisation with equalities

The Lagrangefunction for an optin-dsation.
problem with only equalitiesis defined by
equations(2.20)-(2.25):
Nh
Z In(su
NN
j=1
i=1
Nh
Lp = f(x) -, u
In(s1j)-,u
j=1
Iqj AQ!
APi
11pi
i=1
(2.25)
Nh
Nh
1: zIj (hj sIj h

min) 1: ;ruj (hj + suj h
rmx)
j=1
j=1
The Lagrange method deals with the objective function and equalities by the addition of a
Lagrange multiplier for each constraint, where, APi Aqi 7di ;zuj are the Lagrange
)
,
I
is
(2.2l)-(2.25)
N
for
the total
respectively
and
the
multipliers
constraintsof equations
number of systembuses, i bus number 1,2, ...,
2.4.3 First order KKT conditions

The Karush-Kuhn-Tucker (KKT) first order conditions state that the partial differentials of
Lagrange
function
Lagrange
the
multiplier variables
the
system, slack and
with respect
(x, Ap, Aqj s1j, suj -dj, nuj) are equal to zero.
,
,
,
Vx,, L,u Vxaf(x)-j:
Nh
NN
VxaAPzApj -I:
Nh
Vx hj; ruj
Vxahj; rlj -I:
VxaAQiAq, -I:
a
j=1
j=1
i=1
i=1
(2.26)
VA L.U = -API =0
Pi
(2.27)
VAqi Ljj = -AQ =0
(2.28)
V; rlj L'a =-
(hj
VzujL, u =-(hj
VS'j LP
hTn)
sIJ
=0
- j
(2.29)
+suj -hTax)=O
(2.30)
(2.31)
slj; rlj =0
(2.32)
VSUj L." ='U + suj; ruj =0

where,
xa = Ix, Ap, , Aq, , s1j, suj, 11j, Ij
39
a system variable number = 1,2,...2N + 3Ng + Nt

N total number of system buses,
Ng total number of generator buses,
Nt is the total number of transformers.
Appendix
in
I
(2.32))
formulae
listed
(equations
(2.26)
and a
are
conditions
-
First order KKT
in
Appendix
V.
derivatives
is
list
first
presented
of
and second order
corresponding
2.4.4 NewtoWs method for solving nonlinear equations

The power flow problem is definedby non-linearequationsandis thus a non-linearproblem.
To utiliseNewton's methodthe first orderKKT equations(2.26)-(2.32)
needto be linearised.
The Taylor seriesexpansionis applied. In generalthis canbe expressedas,
2w+f,
f(w) = Awo) +f '(WO)AW+f "(WOM
if.
(2.33)
(WO)A3w+...
f(w) =P,(W)
and
P,(W)=
[VxLp,
VAi Lp, VAi Lp, V;rlj Lp, V;ruj Lu, Vslj Lp pVsujLp
By ignoringtermshigherthin the secondorder,equation(2.33)becomes,

(2.34)
P,(W) = P,(Wo) + P"(WO)Aw
From the V order KKT conditions equation (2.34) is equal to zero,

(2.35)
p'(w) = p(wo) + p"(wo)Aw =0

so,
-p(wo)
(2.36)
= p"(wo)Aw
Applying this relationsMp to equations (2.26) to (2.32) results in the following expressions for
the Newton equation:

Nh
1 NN
L'U =
x,'
VX(VXAQi)-tqi-I:
i=I
i=I
NN
Vx
AlIAAp,
-EVxaAQiAIqi-I:
-I:
i=l
Nh
VX(Vxhj)zlj-EVX(Vxhj)zuj
Nh
Nh
VxahjA7rlj-I:
Ng
+E Vxvxf(X)AX
40
j=l
j=I
j=l
i=l
Vx hjA; ruj
a
(2.37)
N
V., AP,AX
(2.38)
L",
VXAQiAx
t
=
-V, ,i
-I:
i=l
(2.39)
L" =
N
Nh
VxhjAx + Aslj
Lp
=-Vzlj
Nh
Lp
=-Vxuj
VxhjAx - Asuj
(2.40)
VxhjAx - Asuj
(2.41)
j=l
Nh
Lp
=-V; ruj
Lp
= -sljA; rlj - irIjAslj
-Vslj
(2.42)
Lp
= sujA; ruj + zujAsuj
-Vsuj
(2.43)
Ile
formulae for the elements in the matrix set of Newton equations ((2.37) - (2.43)) ate
listed in Appendix
list of first and second order derivatives is
I and a corresponding
presented in Appendix V.
The linearisationmeansthat the Newton equations(2.37)-(2.43)can then be expressedin a

(1994).
by
Granville
form,
assuggested
symmetricalmatrix
si-iril
0
1
0
-su-IrIu
0
-1
0
1
0
0
0
-VhT
0
0
0
-1
0
0
-VhT
0
0
Asl
SU-IVSULP
-V; rlLu
LP
-V; ru
Asu
-Vh
-Vh
0
0
A; rl
x A; ru
Ax
H
-ip
-Jq
-jp
0
SI-IVSILP
-JqT
0
0
L
-vx U
.
LP
-VAP
AAp
LAAqj
J
(2.44)
VAqLu
where,
His the matrix of secondorder differentialtermswith respectto vector x,
NN
H (x, Ap, Aq, irl,; ru) = VxVxf(x) -E Vx (VxAPi W) Ap, -E Vx (VxAQi (x))Aqi
i=1
i=1
Nh
Nh
I Vx (Vxhj (x+uj
-EV. x(Vxhj(x+Ij.,
j=l
j=l
41
(2.45)
ip and iq are the jacobian. matrices of first order partial derivatives,

I
aAPI(X)
VxApi(X)
Jp(x)= ax
(2.46)
I t9AQi
(X)
VXAQi(X)
JqW=
=
ex
(2.47)
SI diag(slj) diagonal matrix of lower slackvariables
(2.48)
Su diag(sui) diagonal matrix of upper slack variables
(2.49)
HI = diag(;rlj ) diagonal matrix of lower dual variables
(2.50)
rIu = diag(;ruj) diagonal matrix of upper dual variables
(2.51)
I=
in matrix form:
The Hessianmatrix, H canalsobe expressed
Hy,
0
Ht, 0,
000
Ht, V,
000
H-4.
L-V
At
VtL'U
L-
. n+
Lir
-4.0
Igi
IV' gi
-4.
F,.
9
91
00H
000
pil
QgiQgi
0
000
0
0
0
000
0
Apgz.
gi
000
Ht. o.
81
Hti Vi
11
0
Iloi oi
0
Iloi vi
Ho V, HVVI
i
(2.52)
-Vo,
A oj
LA
Lu
u
Qg
AQ
gi
vi
-vp;
L -Vvi
La
Lp
where,
[ti, P'+"Pj" Q"' Oi,V,
x=
Note that the bilateral market objective function is a linear function.

Ng
Ng
fW=
YI[Cgi+pgi+1 +
i
[CgFpgF]
I,
from which,
Of(x)
af (x)
and
= C+
gi
ap+
lapi,
91
(2.53)
C-gi
Iberefore, all second order derivatives widi respect to P+ and Pj, are equal to zero,
gi
02LP
a2Lu
H
H++
and
=0
pzpi' IPZ 'Pi, =0
Pi, P; =-OP+OP+
i
91 91
42
(2-54)
All equationsfor eachelementof the Newton matrix arepresentedanalyticallyin AppendixI

Appendix
V. The derivations of power mismatch equations are presented in
and
AppendixII.
2.4.5 Operational constraints

Ile
bilateral market IP OPF has a total of five double-sided inequality constraints, having
both upper and lower limits and one single-sided inequality constraint, having an upper
operational limit only. They are,
1. per unit incremental MW generation increase P'
9i
hmln: 5P+ 5hmax,

91 P+
P+
9i
91
2. per unit incremental MW generation decreaseP91
h,:,
P;,
3. reactive power generation Qg,:

4. busvoltage Vi:
5.
hmax
p-9i -, "PL
hrmn: 5Qgi :5hmax

Q9i
Qgi
hV7: 5Vi: 5hVax,
transfonner tap ratio ti:
h'
tj
:9ti :5h
max
tj
6. transtnission line capacity constraint S:

S: 5hmax
YYA
Y
Tax
TM
for
Emits
The
lower
h
(x)
h
(x)
the
each
set
of
constraints.
and
upper
and
are
where, ii
bus
Vi are simple
Qg,
tap
ti
ratio
and
voltage
power
reactive
generation
constraints of
,
inequality constraints as they are constrained by constant values of Qgj ti and vi
,
respectively.
Ile
incremental
increase
decrease
MW
the
per
unit
and
constraints of
generation
are
functions of the active power generation inequality constraint, hMM:5Pg, :5hmax or

P9,
P9,
PMM:5P9, pmax.
91
91
For P:+
91
hm'n =0 and hmax=pmax_p

91
91
P+
P+
91
91
For Pj, :
hmm =0 and hmax=P -PMM.

91 91
Pi
Pi,
43
The transmissionline capacityconstraintis also a functional constraint as it is a squared

function of the real and imaginaryvoltagecomponentsof both busesi andj forming the
branchk. Refer to Appendix II for the derivationof the functionaltransmissionline capacity
It is important to realise that the formulation may not be able to guaranteea
constraint, S
y-
feasiblesolutionin all cases.

2.4.6 Formulating the reduced Newton equation
The GaussianElimination techniqueis applied to reduce the dimensionsof the Newton
Newton
in
time
to
the
matrix.
to
complete
matrix reducecomputation
comparison solving
The reduced form involves only bus voltages,associateddual variablesand functional
form
is
in
This
similar
structure to the systemadmittance
compact
constraintvariables.
in
(1994)
by
(1994)
Wu
Granville
This
and utilised
et al.
and
method was proposed
matrix.
publications[Zhanget al. (2001)].
subsequent
A.
Elimination of slack variables
To eliminate the slack variables sIj and suj from Newton equation (2.44), rearrange
equations(2.42)and (2.43)to make AsIj and Asuj the subjectrespectively,
)
(VS1
L'a - sIJA;rlj
AsIj =; rl
JI
J
Asuj = ZUi1
(-vsuj
LIJ - suj7ruj
(2.55)
)
(2.56)
Substitute into equations (2.40) and (2.41) to update the set of Newton matrix equations.
Nh
NN
Vx (Vx, ,PPIpj -v-
Lu
-V x.,,,
Nh
Vx(Vxhj); rlj -
(Vx, '*)1lqj
j=l
Nh
NN
VxaAQilAqi-2]VxahjArIj-2:
Vx
APIAAp,
-2:,
-I:
a
i=l
j=l
Vx(Vxhj)zuj
Ax
j=l
Nh
VxahjA)ruj
(2.57)
j=1
Ng
+I: Vxvxf(X)AX
i=l
N
(2.58)
Lp
= -EVxAPAx
-VAPi
i=l
N
LP
-Vllqi
(2.59)
-EVX4*A"
i=l
44
Nh
-VZjJLp
-EVxhj
j=l
Ax-slj)rglA)rlj
(2.60)
Ax+suj; ru; A7ruj
(2.61)
Nh
-V*XUi
Lp
-I]Vxhj
j=l
where, -V*;rljj Lu of (2.60) and -V*u Lu of (2.61) update to,

LP
Lu
=
-V; rl j
-V ;rij
-; rg'VSIJLu
(2.62)
-1
Vsuj
Lp
L11
L,
rl
=
-V*zuj
-Vzuj " -;
(2.63)
In matrix form the set of Newton equations (2.57)-(2.61)are,

0
-ril-isi
0
-rIu-isu
-VhT
0
-VhT
0
-Vh
-Vh
H
-ip
-jp
0
-Jq
0
0
T
-JqT
0
0j
A7rl
A7ru
L.
-v2rij " -I,;
IVSIJLP
lvsuj LP
-V; rujLu -rI';
x Ax
LP
-vx
AAP
(2.64)
-VAPLP
_AAqj
-VAqLp
where,
NN
(Jq,
(Jp,
1:
(x,
Wqj
W)Ap, Vx
Vx
Ap, Aqirl,; ru) = VxVxf(x) H
i=1
i=1
Nh
Nh
(Vxhj
(Vxhj(x+Ij
Vx
(x+uj
(+;
ruj)Vx
-E
-Z
j=1
j=1
Jpj W=[
I,
eAp,W
ax
(2.65)
aAQ
(X)
Jqj W=[
(2.66)
Using back substitution and theresult from equation (2.64), the values of &Ij and Asuj can
be found by equations (2-55) and (2.56).
B.
Elindnation of dual variables
To elin-dnatethe dual variablesA;rlj and A;ruj from (2.64)a similar procedureis followed.
Rearrangeequations(2.60)and (2.61)to make A;rlj and A;ruj the subjectrespectively,
Nh
A;rIJ = -; rljsl-
hj Ax-V;
L11
+sl;
r
VSIJLII
j=I
45
(2.67)
II
Nh
I: Vxhj Ax-V;
A;ruj=; rujsuj-l
rujLu
(2.68)
+su'VsujLu
j=l
Substitute into equation (2.57) to update the set of Newton matrix equations,
Ng
-Vxa LI, = HAx +
NN
VxVxf (x)Ax Vxa AP,AAp, -
Nh
2: VxhjVxhjAx
+Irljsg
-; rujsu;
-V,Z
(2.69)
Nh
l Z VxhjVxhjAx
j=l
i=l
L,
Vxa AQiAIqi
(2.70)
=-1 vP,AX
i=I
N
(2.71)
VX6Qi6X
L`
-V llqi "-' -I:
i=1
where,
N
YIVVx (VXAPI)Ap,
-I:
Vx(Vx, 6,Qi)lqi
Nh
I vx(v
Nh
xj),
Tlj -
vx(vxlj),
Tuj
(2.72)
j=l
i=l
(2.69)
hand
V*xa
Lu
the
updateto,
right
side
of
equation
and
Nh
'EVxa
Lp+VsIJLu
hT
L'U
LU
v*=
+
;
rljV;
sl
-Vxa
rl
xa
j=l
-Su
Nh
I ZVX
j=l
hjT
(zujV;
(2.73)
+VSUJLU)
TUJLp
Newton equations(2.69)-(2.71)in matrix form without slackand dual variablesare reduced

to the compactform,
H*
_jTPq _jT
-jP
00X
-Jq
00j
Ax
-VXLP
AAP
_AAq_
(2.74)
L.
AP
-V
"
-VAqLPJ
46
Chapter124 Implementationof bilateralmarketmodelinto interior point OPF method
where,
NN
Vx (VxAPI)Ap, -
Nh
1: Vx (Vxhj);
Vx (VxAQi)Aq, -
J=l
Ng
+
VxVxf(x)
Nh
(;
1:
VxhjVxhj
+
rljsl;
-; rujsu;
NJ,
Vx (Vxhj )'Tuj
rlj J=l
(2.75)
J=l
Ng
F,
H+
Vxvxf(x)
Nh
+Z
J=l
i=l
(,
l
l
VxhjVxhj Tljsl; -; rujsu;
(2.76)
where, H is defined in equation (2.72) and widiin the square brackets of equation (2-75).
The solution to (2.74) gives values for Ax, then by substitution into equations (2.67) and
(2.68) the values of A;rI and Axu can be found. Correspondingly, by substitution into
equations(2.55)and (2.56) the valuesof AsI and Asu can be found.
In the compact matrix of Newton equations(2.74) all inequality elementshave been

eliminated,making the solution computationallyeasierto solve than previously(2.44).
Analyticallymatrix (2.77)is shownbelowto giveall relevantelementsrelatedto busi.
Ht
Hp+p+
gi 91
HQ9,Q9,
it1
Pi, Pi,
0
-Jpj, tj
-Jqj, tj
-1 A P+
gi
-1 A, pi,
-Jqi, Qg
Ht, o,
Hoo,
H O*j
V,
-Jpj, Oj
-Jqi, Oi
Ht, V,
Ho, V,
HVV,
-Jpi, ti
-i Ag P+
-Jqi, Vi
0
-Jqi, ti
-i A
'pi,
-Jpj, Oj -Jqi, Vi
-Jqi, Vi
0
-Jqi, Qg
-Jqi, Oi -Jqi, Vi
47
Ix
Chapter1 Z5 Implementation
At
&P+
,
gi
Ap91
-V*
Lp
LP
-V+
-V* Pi,
Lu
AQ
9,
L.
Q" "
A oj
Voi
Lu
-,
A vi
AAp,
-VVILP
LP
-V,I,,
AAqj
z,,
--V,
(2.77)
L.U.
2.5 Implementation
In order to implementthe method,setup and esit conditionsarerequired.The initialisation
iteration
the
of variables,updateof
solutionafter an
step,and an overviewof the solution
routinearedescribedin the followingsections.
2.5.1 Initialisation of solution routine
Initial conditions must satisfy the slack and dual variable properties; sIj > 0, suj > 0, rij >0
and ruj < 0. The following is a Est of initial values for system, slack, dual and the barrier
parametervariables.
PO =P taken directly from input file, initial values of P+O and P-0 set to small
91 gi
91
9,
values (0.001);
slackvariable for P+ : slP;+= P+Oand sup+ = pmax _ pO - P+O,correspondingdual
gj
91
9,91
9,
91
91
variable plslj;
3. slack variable for Pj, : sl
Pil-=
P-0 and su 2PO - P"n - P-0 corresponding

pi,
g,
91 91
91 ,
dualvariable -plsuj;
Q set to average betweenmaximum and minimum;
gl
5. all other slack variables sIj are set to hj hj"'
u/slj;
,
48
and dual variables x1j are set to
Chapter2: 2.5Implementation
6. all other slack variables suj are set to hj"
-hj
and dual variables ;ruj are set to
-plsuj;
7. dual variables AP, are set to 10 and Aq, are set to zero;
8. barrier parameter u is set between 0.01-10 depending on the desired convergence
petfonnance.
2.5.2 Update solution
Widi the solution to equation(2.77)andback substitutioninto equations(2.67),(2-68),(2-55)
is
known.
The
OPF
(2.56);
AAq
AxI
Azu
AsI
Asu
AAp
Ax
solution
and
are
and
,
,
,
,
,
following
by
the
equations,
updated
sl
(c+ 1)
= sl
(c)
(2.78)
+ cap AsI
(2.79)
su(c+') =su(c) +o-apAsu

x(c+')
(2.80)
X(C)+ 0ap Ax
(c+ 1)
(c)
Ad
7d + aad Aid
(2.81)
(c+ 1)
(c)
;zu
= ;zu + aad A;zu
(2.82)
(c)
(C+I)
P
= AP + aad AP
(2.83)
(c
(c)
1)
+
Aq
= Aq + O'cIdA4
(2.84)
where,
c is the iterationcount,
boundary
from
Narsten
factor
the
[0-995
0.99995],
the
reaching
this
prevents
solution
a r=
(1990)],
ap is the primal step-lengthparameter(2.85),
(2.86).
is
dual
parameter
ad
step-length
a=
n-iinl i(
),
s'
),
su
min( Asu
MI--1sli
- ),
d=nnIm4-7dnn(
2zu
(2.85)
-01
(2.86)
(--A2zu)
-01
49
The value of the step lengdis are dependentupon the conditions that, AsI<0, Asu<0,
AzI <0 and A;ru > 0. The parametera ensuresslack and dual variablesremainwitln the
conditions,slj > 0, suj > 0, ;rlj >0 and ;ruj < 0.
Fiaccoand McCormick'sbarrier function theoremstatesthat the barrier parameterp must

approachzero during the iteration process.The amount that it reducesis dependentupon
the performanceof the algorithmto converge.The valueof the barrierparameterafter each
iterationis evaluatedby,
6* Cgap
2*Nh
(2.87)
is
is
[0.0
Cg,,
1-0.2]
the
the
parameter,
where, jOe
centering
complementary
p
gap for the
non-linear IP OPF. Linear programn-dng techniques set the barrier parameter p to a value
proportional
Therefore
to the duality gap; however, this is not valid for non-linear ptimal-dual methods.
the barrier
complementary
parameter p is dependent upon
gap as recommend
by Wu
the predicted
decrease of the
et al. (1994) and Granville
(1994). The
complementary gap is evaluated as,

Nh
Cgap = 1: (slj; rlj - suj; ruj
,
j=1
(2.88)
2.5.3 Solution routine for non-linear interior point OPF

The algorithm terminates when the convergencetolerancesare met or the maximum number
dependent
iterations
is
Convergence
is
reached.
of
upon preset values of the active and
reactive power mismatch, the complementary gap and the barrier parameter
Values used
for results gathered in this chapter are,

I<
Imax
I<
AP,
10-4
10-4
AQ
and
niax
(2.89)
Cgap <5x 10-4
(2.90)
,u<
(2.91)
10-5
An overviewof the solutionroutineis presentedin Figure2.1.
50
Step 0: Initialise variables

1
Step 1: Fomulate Newton maftix

* Equation(2.,U)
Step 2: Forward substitution
2.1 Eliminateslackvariablessl and su of inequalitiesfrom equation
(2.44),obtain equation(2.64).
2.2 EliminatedualvariablesW and ;ru of inequalitiesfrom equation
(2.64),obtain equation(2.74).
Step 3: Solution of the compact Newton equation
3.1 Dimensionwithout FACrS controller
Dsys= 4N + 3Ng + Nt , where N is the number of buses, Ng is the
number of generatorsand Nt is the number transformers.
3.2 Dimension with FACTS controller
0
[3,4,..., 7] dependent upon type of

NF
DF4CT'3-n
=
where
+NF,
SYS - -SYS
FACTS controller and the Control mode requested.
Step 4: Back substitution

4.1 Substitutefor dualvariableszI and ;ru of inequalitiesusingequations
(2.67)and (2.68)respectively.
4.2 Substitutefor slackvariablessl and su of inequalitiesusingequations
(2.55)and (2.56)respectively.
Step 5: Update primal and dual variables
9 Equation (2.78)- (2.84)
Step 6: Calculate barrier parameter and complementary gap
4o Equation (2.8"0and (2.88)
<9
No
Step 7: Test for convergence

tolerancesmet?
* Convergence
Equadons(2.89)-(2.91)
Yes
e Step 8: Optimal solution reached

9 Step 9: Output results
Figure 2.1: Interior point OPF solution routine overview.
51
Chapter2: 2.6Numericalresults
2.6 Numerical results

To ensure the bilateral market model implemented with the IP OPF method was successfA
a number of numerical examples were examined. The are two general situations of most
interest when using the bilateral market model, the first is when there is no systemcongestion
and the second is when congestion is present. Ile
test results show the difference between
the situations and explain two methods in which system congestion is modelled. The
algorithm was implemented in C languageand all power flow equations are representedin
hybrid form, where voltage is representedin polar coordinates and impedance representedin
rectangularcoordinates.
2.6.1 Systemcongestion
1here are two ways in which congestionon a systemcan be caused.First, when a single
demand
is
its
line
transmission
critical
out or
capacityreducedand second,when system
levelsare purely due to daily demandfluctuations.The 4 bus and IEEE 14 bus systemsare
usedto test the systemundereachof the congestedsituationsrespectively.
The 4 bus systemconsistsof four buses,four transmissionlines, two generatorsand three
loads.The IEEE 14 bus systemconsistsof 14 buses,20 transmissionlines,three online tap
data
for
loads.
Input
five
11
transformers,
aUtest systemsin this
changing
generatorsand
bus
for
IEEE
14
be
found
in
Appendix
VIII
the
systemin Universityof
and
chaptercan
Washington(2007).Convergencetoleranceswere set to IxIO-4 P.u. for the absolutebus
powermismatches,5x10-4 for the complementary
gapand Ix 10-5for the barrierparameter.
2.6.2 4 bus system
Both generatorshave generator equal cost coefficient values of C+- = 20 $/MWh and
91
Cjj = 10$/MWh. In the original systemthere is no congestion(Figure 2.2(a))and in the
congestedsystem,the capacityof transmissionline 1-2 is reducedby 60% of that of the
original (Figure2.2(b)).Table 2-2 givesan overview of the systemactivepower generation
changesand lossesandTable 2-3 detailsthe changesat eachgenerator.In thesetest casesthe
initial generationdoesnot accountfor systemlosses.
52
Chapter 2: 2.6 Numerical results
D.. l
Pql 0.J1
11'. 4
Bils 2
Line
'aa
(D AL
OLZ
A ;1
PLZ GL2
PLI OL1
P93 Oo;3
Bits 3
Bits 4
(4
-1
PL3 OL3
PL3 OD
Figure 2.2: 4 bus system (a) no congestion (b) single congested line by reduction of S2 max by
12
60%.
Results in Table 2-2 show that when there is no congestion there are no decreasesto the
initial generation and the systemcost is purely due to systemlosses.The table also shows that
decreases
losses
to the initial
there
there
the
increases,
are
is
congestion
relative system
when
due
losses.
The
due
to
to
partly
system
generation and cost is predominately
congestion and
bus
2-3
detailed
Table
that
there
at
each
generator
confirm
more
set of generation results in
is either increase or decreasein active power generation. The results show the objective
function and model is behaving as expected.All of the 4 bus system test results converged in
fewer than 15 iterations.
Table 2-2: 4 bus system:Systemcomparison with and without congestion.

Total
4 bus system:
System
comparison
No congestion
Congestion
Total
Ng
I P+
9i
I.
(P. U.)
0.3
1.0
Total
Ng
E pi
I.
(P.U.)
0.0
0.6
output
Ng
P
91.
(P.U.)
9.3
9.4
System
losses
PLOSS
System
(P-U-)
0.3
0.4
%
fW
cost
f (X)
%
fW
due to
congesti on
$/h
due to
syst em
losses
5.2
27.0
100%
30%
0%
70%
Table 2-3: 4 bus systemwith congestion: Changesat each generator.

4 bus system
with
congestion
Pg,
P93
System total
Initial active
power
generation
PO (P.U.)
9i
5
4
9
Increasein
active
Decrease in
active power
power P+
9i
(P-U-)
0.00
1.02
1.02
P
9i
(P. U.)
0.65
0.00
0.56
53
Change in active
power generation
AP +9i
Ap9j
(P. U.)
-0.65
1.02
0.37
Active
power
output
P (P.U.)
9i
4.35
5.02
[9.37
Chapter2: 2.6Numericalresults
2.6.3 IEEE 14bus system

In this test system,to reflect daily demandfluctuations,the demandand generationlevelsat
eachof the relevantbusesare increasedby a percentagecalledthe "% Load Rise". In this
way the overall systemdemandand generationis also linearly increased.This ensuresthat
thereis sufficientdemandto meetall generation.Congestionis increasedasthe % Load Rise
increasesbecausethe capacitiesof the transmissionlines and the characteristicsof other
componentson the systemremain constant.All generatorshave the samecost coefficient
$/MWh
$/NfWh.
diagram
line
Figure
2.3(a)
Cji
20
10
valuesC+and
of
shows
a
single
=
=
91
IEEE 14 bus systemand Figure2.3(b)showsthe systemat 70% Load Risehighlightingthe
%
Load
lines
in
lines
become
the
the
three
congested
and showing order which
congestedas
Riseis increasedfrom 30% to 50% and70%.
Table 2-4 shows the relative percentagechangesin system active power generation
incrementalincreaseP' incrementaldecreaseP- output P and systemlosseswith
9i
,
,
91
9i
respectto the systeminitial activepower generationPO at each% Load Risewith one,two
91
definitions
4
(2.95)
7
(2.92)
lines.
Equations
to
the
to
three
of
columns
give
and
congested
respectively.
13
00 GENERATORS
12
14
ry-%
r-r
4
THREE
WWMNG
UNSFOPUNIER EQUrVALENr
9
Figure2.3(a):IEEE 14 bus systern.
54
Chapter 2: 2.6 Numerical results
3rd congesud
Ci
13 OL13
13
ft
PLU OL14
14
_L
OENERATORS
PL9 OLS
PLIO OLIO
PL11 OLII
P96.096
Pvs- 096
Pol. Ogi
lst vong*stod lino
2nd congested line
P12 OU
Pg2.092
(,
P93.093
PL3 OL3
Figure 2.3(b): IFEE 14 bus system:highhghting the congestedhnes and showing the order in
which the three IMcs become congestedas % Load Rise is increased.
NNN
glp+
1=
g lp+
g1PO
I/
IIx
100
(2.92)
X100
(2.93)
9t
9i
Ng
Ng
%I
I/
Pi,
[Pi,
Z[
P0
9i
Ng
%P
9j
NN
g1p,
gIi
Increase
:91-
[PO
11
--g
9i
X100
(2.94)
iI
INg
%PLOSs
5
PLU4
S
[PO ]
9i
(2.95)
X100
The cost increase is measured with respect to the nominal case (0% Load Rise). The two
right hand side columns show the percentage of system cost f (x) due to system losses and
congestion.
In 'Fable 2-4 the % Load Rise values have been chosen to show caseswith zero to three
congested lines. With no congestion, the results follow the conditions set out Mi Table 2-1,
where system cost f(x) is due to system loss only. Congestion causesactive power decrease
55
Chapter2: 2.7Condusions
aswell asincreaseand changesthe relativepercentageof the systemcost. In the congested

casessystemlossesaverage16.3%.
Table 2-4: IEEE 14 bus system:Systemcompatison with no congestion and "% Load Rise"
of 30%, 50% and 70%.
1
0
30
50
70
3
Initial
total
(P.U.)
Ng
0
p
gi
0
1
2
3
%
Ng
2.59
3.367
3.885
4.403
6
%
%
Ng
P+
gi
pi
N
g
2: P
gi
i
(2.92) 1 (2.93)
4.2%
0.0%
18.3%
13.0%
26.0%
20.4%
32.0%
26.6%
increase
(2.94)
4.2%
5.3%
5.6%
5.4%
%
Cost
PLOSS increase
(2.95) w. r. t. 0%
Load Rise
4.2%
5.3%
5.6%
5.4%
x1
x7 3/4
x 13
x 18 1/2
10
%
Ax)
%
Px)
due to
system
losses
due to
congestion
100%
22%
15%
12%
0%
78%
85%
88%
Table 2-5 shows the breakdown of generator changes for the system at 50% Load Rise. To
overcomecongestionat leastcost,increasein activepower is requiredfrom Pg2andPg3,and

decreasein active power from Pgj, there are no changesat Pg, and Pg,. As in the 4 bus
results,Tables 2-2 and 2-3 show that the objective function and model is behavingas
expected.All of the IEEE 14bus systemtestresultsconvergedin 20 iterationsor fewer.
Table 2-5: IEEE 14 bus system:Changesat eachgenerator at 50% Load Rise.
Initial active
14 bus
power
generation
system at
50% Load
Rise
PO (P.U.)
9i
3.240
0.600
0.015
0.015
0.015
Pg1
Pgz
P93
P96
Pgs
Increasein
Decrease in
active power
active power
P+ (P.u.)
91
0
0.900
0.108
0
0
P- (P.u.)
91
0.792
0
0
0
0
Change in active
po er generation
(P+
(P.
)
U.
-P")
91
-0.792
0.900
0.108
0
0
Active
power
output
(P.U.)
9i
2.448
1.500
0.123
0.015
0.015
N
System total
PO (P.U.)
91
3.885
% System change w. r. t. total initial active power generation

26.0%
20A%
5A%
2.7 Conclusions
In this Chapter,the linear bilateralmarket objectivefunction has beenimplementedinto a
non-linearIP OPF method. Expectedbehaviourand characteristicsof the model havethen
beendescribed.Numericalexamplesusingthe 4 bus and IEEE 14 bus systemsdemonstrate
that the expectedcharacteristicsare met, and two methodsto causesystemcongestionare
56
Chapter2: 2.7 Condusions
presented.The results also show that the bilateral market object function shows similar
iterationspeedto previousquadraticobjectivefunctionsappliedto the IP OPF algorithm.
The following characteristics
of the modelwereidentified,
a Active power changefrom scheduledgenerationat eachbus canincrease,decrease
or
remain unchanged only,
9 Active power systemloss is the differencebetween the systemscheduledactive

power and the activepower demand;
Increasein activepower generationis the sum of real power systemlossesand real
powerrequiredto overcomesystemcongestion;
Decreasein active power generationis the magnitudeof the real power changein
scheduledgenerationrequireto overcomesysterncongestiononly;
When congestionexiststhe activepower systemgenerationincreaseis alwaysgreater
than active power systemgenerationdecrease.This is due to real power system
losses.
The next chapterintegratesFACTS controller models into the IP OPF method with the
bilateralmarketobjectivefunction.
57
Chapter 3
FACTS controllers and the interior point OPF method
3.1Introduction
FACTS controllers are one possible solution to the congestion management problem. This
chapter presents the voltage sourced converter (VSC) based FACTS controller models
applied to the OPF analysiswith the bilateral market model. Initial results show that FACTS
controllers can relieve system congestionwhen installed at certain locations.
In
Section
controllers.
3.3 steadystatemodellingassumptionsare stated,controller modelspresentedby functional
diagrams,and equivalent circuits with power flow equations.Section 3.4 highlights the
Section3.2 givesan overviewof the three main VSC basedFAM
is
FAM
interior
(IP)
OPF
the
controller
to
each
changesmade
point
algorithm when
included. Consequently,an adjustmentof the systemsetup is necessary,as describedin
Section3.5.Ile influenceof the FAM controlleron the bilateralmarketmodelis included
in Section3.6 and the solution procedurein Section3.7. Numericalresultsfor systemswith
FACI'S controllersate presentedin Section3.8 and finally conclusionsdrawnin Section3.9.
3.2 Voltage sourced converter based FACTS controller models
The mathematicalmodelsemployedin this chapterare suitablefor OPF studiesaspresented
by [Zhanget al. (2006)]and [Zhangand Handschin(2001a)].An overviewof the threemain
STATCON,
(Static
Compensator,
the series
the
namely
controllers
shunt controller
controller (StaticSynchronousSeriesCompensator,SSSC)and the combinationshunt-series
functional
described
by
(Unified
Power
Flow
Controller,
UPFC)
models
controller
are
and
steadystatemathematicalmodels.Table 3-1 givesan overviewof possiblecontroller steady
statefunctions.
3.3 Steadystate modelling assumptions and FACTS controller models
For ideal steadystateanalysisthe following modelling assumptionsare appliedto gain the
equivalentcircuitsof the FACTS controllers,
* activepower exchange(PE) between,
58
Chapter3: 3.3Steadystatemodelingassumptionsand FACTScontrollermodels
o the a.c. systemand the STATCOM is neglected,

o the a.c. systemand the SSSCis neglected,
o
the shuntand seriesconverterwith the DC link of the UPFC is neglected,
* harmonicsgeneratedoutside of the fundamentalharmonic by the controllers are all

lectec
nev,
o-
o the systemand the controllersarethreephasebalancedat all times.

Table3-1: Overviewof voltagesourcedconverterbasedFACTS control functions.
FACTS
controller
STATCOM
Connection
configuration
Shunt
SSSC
Series
UPFC
Shunt-Series
Possiblelocal control functions [Zhanget al. (2006)]

Voltage magnitudeat local bus
Reactivepower at local bus and reactivepower flow
Impedanceof STATCOM
Currentmagnitudeof STATCOM
Voltage injection from STATCOM
Apparentpower or current of a local or remote transmission
lin
line
flow
Active
transmission
power
of
0
line
flow
Reactive
transmission
of
power
0
e Bus voltage
0 Impedanceof transmissionline
9 Local bus voltage
line
flow
Active
transmission
of
power
*
line
flow
Reactive
transmission
of
power
9
local
bus
flow
Simultaneous
of
voltage
and
power
of
control
9
transmissionline allows control of.
o Circuit impedance
o Bus voltageangle
o Transmissionline power flow
*
*
0
0
0
0
3.3.1 STATCOM model

Shunt connectedcontroHersare the most conunonly used controUertypes and ptimarfly
operateas reactivepower compensatorsto control transmissionvoltage.STATCOMs are
usuallycomposedof three components,a couplingtransformer,an inverter and a capacitor
As
input
inverter,
(1996)].
[Schauder
DC
tenninals
the
to
the
et
aL
represented
of
connected
in the functionalmodel,Figure3.1(a).
The STATCOM can be representedby an equivalentcircuit, Figute 3.1(b); composedof an
impedanceand a controllablefundamentalfrequencypositive sequencevoltagesource.The
voltagesourceis regulatedto control the reactivepower from the STATOM at the localbus.
59
As activepower exchangeis neglected,only reactivepower exchangecan occurbetweenthe

STATCOM and the system,[Zhanget al. (2004)].
Powerflow constraintsof the STATCOM arebasedon the derivationin AppendixII:
Psh Vilgsh
(3.1)
-ViVsh(gsh COS(Oi
-Osh)+bsh sin(Oi -Osh))
Qsh -l7i2bsh- ViVsh(9sh sin(Oi- Osh)- bshcOs(Oi- Osh))
(3.2)
where,
is the voltagesourcefrom the STATCOM,
Vsh VshZOsh
Vi= ViZOiis the busvoltageat bus i,
9sh + jbsh =I/ Zsh is the STATCOM equivalentadmittance,
9sh is the STATCOM conductance,
bsh is the STATCOM susceptance.
The operatingconstraintof the STATCOM is the activepower exchange(PE) betweenthe
controllerand the systemvia the DC link:
)
*
PESTATCOM = Re(VshIsh =0
(3.3)
where,
(V * )=V2
(9sh
Osh
bsh
Osh
Re A Ish
Vi
Vsh
sin(Oi
cOs(Oi
9sh
h
s
Bus i
Bus I
Ish
I jPsh+JQsh
Ish
J,
VIL 011
V,
Zsh
Vsh L Osh
Figure 3.1: (a) Functional model of a STATCOM [Zhang et al. (2004)], (b) STATCOM
equivalentcircuit.
60
3.3.2 SSSCmodel
SSSCscan be connectedat any convenientpoint along a line, and usuallyconsistof three
components,a coupling transformer,an inverter and a capacitor.The functional model,
Figure3.2(a)looks similar to that of the STATCOM however;the SSSCis a more complex
devicedue to necessaryplatform mounting and thyristor or power electronicsprotection
(especiallywhen using insulatedgate bipolar transistorsgGBI)). 1herefore the increased
complexityand requiredprotection makesthe SSSCa more expensivecontroller compared
to the STATCOM. SSSCsfor steadystate operation are used to control any one of the
followingparameters,
" activepower flow of the transmissionline;
" reactivepower flow of the transmissionline;
" busvoltage;
" impedanceof the transmissionline.
Another popular seriescontroller is the Thyristor Controlled SeriesCompensator(TCSC),
is
be
TCSC
listed
Ihe
functions
to
those
also
used
provide
above.
which can
similarcontrol
to control dynamic problems in transmissionsystemssuch as providing an increasein
dampingand overcomingSubsynchronous
Resonance(SSR).
The SSSCmodel equivalent circuit is representedin Figure 3.2(b). It consists of an
impedanceand a variablefundamentalfrequencypositive sequencevoltagesourcebetween
two buses.Again, as activepower exchangeis neglected,only reactivepower exchangecan
occurbetweenthe SSSCand the system.As the SSSCis seriesconnectedwith a transmission
line the activepower flow of the SSSCbranch#is equalto the sendingend activepowerflow
flow
(2003)].
line.
The
[Zhang
the
transmission
to
the
reactive
power
of
sameapplies
I,
+V.-
11
fpuflou
IQ
BusI
I
ON.
L!
VsfLOss
sueI
. 0-
Pilfloil
Vi
\nLei
40)
vv
Figure3.2: (a)Functionalmodel of a SSSC[Zhang(2003)],(b) SSSCequivalentcircuit.
61
ip
Ihe power flow constraints of the SSSCare basedon the derivation in Appendix IL
p
(gy
V2g,, _V Vj
cos(o, - Oj) +by sin(Oi- Oj))
(3.4)
Vivse(9
by
COSA
sin(Oi -Ose))
y
-Ose)+
(gy
Qy -Vi2bii -ViVj
sin(Oi-0j)- by cos(Oi-0j))
(gy
Vi
Vse
Ose)
by
Ose))
cOs(Oi
sin(Oi
PjI
2gjj
V
-ViVj
(gy
cos(Oj -0i)+ by sin(Oj -0i))
(9
+ Vj Vse y cOs(Oj- Ose)+ by sin(Oj- Ose))
Qjl=_V2b---V.
V-(g
sin(Oj-0j)-bycos(Oj-0i)
j ji
IjU
(gy
Vj Vse sin(Oj - Ose)- by cos(Oj- Ose))
(3.5)
(3.6)
(3.7)
where,
Vs, Vsezos,is the voltage source from the SSSC,
Fj- Vj Z Oj is the bus
voltage at busi,
gy + iby =II Zse is the SSSCadmittance,
gii = gy , bii = by , g.# = gy , by = by are the bus conductancesand susceptances.
The operatingconstraint of the SSSCis the activepower exchangebetweenthe controller

and the systemvia the DC hA
PESSSC
IJI
= Re(Vse
(3.8)
where,
(gy
Ose)
Ose))
Re(VseIj*i)= -ViVse cOs(Oi
sin(Oi
-by
+ VjV
Ose)
bij
Ose))
gii COs(Oj
sin(Oi
se(
3.3.3 UPFC model

The UPFC consists of two switching converters,one shunt converter and one series
The
is
by
link.
Ihe
DC
are
converter.
converters
connected a common
shunt converter
by
coupled a shunt-connectedtransformerto a localbus i. The seriesconverteris coupledvia
a seriestransformer to a transmissionline, Figure 3.3(a).Ihe shunt converteris able to
generateor absorb reactivepower, and it can provide active power exchangeto the series
For steadystateoperation,it is able to
converterfor control requirementswhen necessary.
control the following,
62
Chapter3: 3.3SteadystatemodelingassumptionsandFACTScontrollermodels
" simultaneouscontrol of a localbusvoltageandpower flows of a transmissionline;

" circuit impedance;
" voltageangle;
" systempower flows.
This equivalent circuit model can be seen as a STATCOM and an SSSCcombined as each
shunt and seriesbranches are representedby an impedance and a voltage source respectively,
Figure 3.3(b).
pl, + joll
Pil + Jail
1,
Iq Bus I
flI.
VI
Zs!.
vee
+ /-, \
Bus I III
-
Ish
l
VI
VI
7T
ah
'sh
Re (Vrtll*sh-Ysefll*l
=0
Vsh
Figure 3.3: (a) Functional model of UPFC, (b) UPFC equivalent circuit [Zhang and
Handschin(2001a) and Zhang (2003a)]
lhc power flow constraintsfor both shunt and seriesbranchesof the UPFC are basedon
the dcrivationin Appendix II:
Psh
2
17 9sh -ViVsh(gsh cOs(Oi-Osh)+bsh sin(Oi -Osh))
Qsh
2bsh Vi Vsh(9sh
Osh
sin(Oi
_V.1
bsh cOs(Oi- Osh
(3.9)
(3.10)
(gy
Py = Vj2gy - Vi Vj
cos(Oi - Oj) + by sin(Oi - OP)
(9
Ose)
by
Ose))
Vi
Vse
+
sin(Oi
cos(Oi
y
-
(3.11)
(gi
QU= -V[2by - ViVj y sin(Oi- Oj) - by cos(Oi- Oj))
(3.12)
pj, = V2
YjY
jg"-V*V'(9
(3.13)
(--'Y
Vi VSl
cls(Oi - Ose)- by sin(Oi - Ose))
cOs(Oj-0i)+bysin(Oj-0j))
+VjVse(gyc0s(Oj-Ose)+bysin(Oj-Ose))
Qji
(gi
Oi)
by
ViVj
by
Oi)
sin(Oj
cos(Oj
-V?
1
(gy
Vi Vse sin(Oj - Ose)- by cos(Oj- Ose))
63
(3.14)
Chapter3: 3.4 Integrationof FACIS controllermodelsinto interior point OPF method
where,
Vsh Vsh-"Oshis the voltage source from the shunt branch,
is the voltage source from the seriesbranch,
Vse Vse-"Ose
9sh + jbsh -I/ Zsh is the admittance from the shunt branch,
gy + jby I/ Zse is the admittance from the seriesbranch,
gy = gji and by = bjj arethe branchconductances

and susceptances.
The operatingconstraintof the UPFC is the activepower balancebetweenthe two inverters

via the common DC linX
PEUPFC PEA - PEse =Re VshIs*h - Vse
(3.15)
)=
)=0
where, PEA = Re(VshIs*h 0 and PEse= Re(Vselj*i
are the active power exchangesof
the shunt converterand the seriesconverterto the DC link as expressedin equations(3.3)

and (3.8)respecdvely.
Derivationsof power mismatchequationsfor the three FACTS controllersare presentedin
Appendix IV.
3.3.4 Control modes of FACTS controller models

Each FACTS controller has a different set of control functions which can be activated.When
there is a control target specified, the control is called local control (Table 3-1). When no
explicit control target is specified for a FACTS controller the control is known as global
control. The results presentedin this work utilises the global control.
3.4 Integration of FACTS controller models into interior point OPF mediod
Inclusionof the FACTS controllerincreasesthe complexityof the simulationand dimension
of the matrix of Newton equations.Table 3-2 summariesthe additional systemvariables,
equality constraints and inequality constraintsrequired when each FACTS controller is
utilised.For all casestudiespresentedno power flow controls are specified,diereforeonly
the equalityconstraint PE =0 and the correspondingLagrangemultiplier, ApE areutilised.
The UPFC is the most complexmodel of the threecontrollers.Ihis sectiongivesa summary
of the additional systemvariables,slackvariables,dual variables,Lagrangemultipliers and
64
Chapter3: 3.4Integrationof FACIS controllermodelsinto interior point OPF method
equationsrequired when a UPFC is utilised on a system. For the shunt connected

STATCOM controHerignore all terms with the seriessubscript se, and for the series
connectedSSSCcontroHersubtractall termswith the shuntsubscriptsh.
Table3-2: Summaryof additionalelementsmodelledon systemwhen FACTS controllersare
included.
STATCOM
SSSC
FACTS
controller
System
variables
Ose,Vse
Osh,Vsh
Ose,Vse
Osh,Vsh
Inequality
constraints
hnun:50se :5hmax
Ose
Ose
hnun:50se :5hmax
O
O
se
se
hmm :5Vse:5hmax.
V
V
se
se
hmax
hnun :50h
:5
SO
6sh
sh
hrmn :5Vsh:9hmax
Vh
V
s
sh
SlO '; rlO 'SuO '; ruO

se
se se se
S'V '; rlV 'SUV '2rUV
se
se se se
r1OSh'SUOh
S10,
"Tuosh,
h';
slv,, '; rlv,,, Suv ')ruvsh
sh
PEUpFC =0
PESSSC=0
PESTATCOM 0
11PE
11PE
11PE
Dual
variables
UPFC
hnun :5Vse:5hmax,
V
V
11
S,
e
hmax
hM1n:50h
SO:5
O
sh
sh
hnun :5Vsh:5hmax
V
Vsh
'h
SlO 'lrlo 'suo 'ruO
se
;e
se
se
SlV '; rlV 'SUV '; rUVse'
s'e se se
Slosh"T16sh
'Iru0sh
'SUOsh
ruvsh
SIVA 7r'Vsh
';
'SUVsh
Equality
constraint
Lagrange
multiplier
Power flow
control
equality
Active
control
power
flow
pC=p j, _ p7ec _n
ji
constraints,
Lagrange
multipliers
APC
Reactivepowerflow
control
Spec
QC= Qji - Qi
V
Active
control
power
pec
PC=P ji -Pji 2
flow
_A
APC
Reactivepowerflow
control
Spec
QC= Qji - Qj
,Qc
Active and reactive N/A
powerflow control
N/A
N/A
)Qc
PC=P
pqec
-n
ji
Spec
QC= Qji - Qi
V
ApC and IQC
65
N/A
wherethe systemvariablesare;
T
X=[Ose, Vse,Osh,Vsh,ti, O!,Vi, Oj, Vj, Pgi+, PgF, Qg]
N total number of system buses,
Nh total number of inequality constraints,
NF total number of FACTS controller variables, dependent on the number of FACTS
controllers on the system and control mode of operation,
h(x) inequality constraints including those concerning Ose,Vse,Osh and Vsh
-
3.4.1 Lagrange function for optimisation with equalities

Lagrangefunction with addidonal equahtiesdue to a FACTS controller updated from
equation(2.25),
Lp 'f
Nh
(x) -, u 1: ln(slj)
Nh
NN
2] In(suj)
Ap,
API
-Z
-Z
-/j
i=1
j=1
j=1
AQC, QCi
ApC, PCi -
IPEj PEi -
i=1
NF
NF
NF
Aq, AQ
(3.16)
Nh
Nh
;ruj (hj + suj - hjnlax)
;rIj (hj - sIj - hrnin)

j
j=1
j=1
3.4.2 First order KKT conditions

The first order KKT conditions(equations(2.26)-(2.32))
updateto,
N
Vxc, Lp =Vxf(X)-YVxPilpi
i=I
NF
-YVxQiAqi
i=I
NF
Z'VXQCiIQCI
2: VXPEiApE, Y'VXPCiIpC,
.j
i=l
i=l
Nh
2: VxhprIj
j=i
(3.17)
14
Nh
-1
j=I
Vxhjzuj
=0
V,t L'a = -AP, =0

pi
(3.18)
V,tgiLp = -AQi =0
(3.19)
V,zpEiLp = -PEi =0
(3.20)
V,ZPQLp = -PCi =0
(3.21)
66
Chapter3: 3.4Integrationof FACTScontrollermodelsinto interior point OPF method
V,; Lju= -QCi =0

Qci
(3.22)
V; rl Lp
j
hjmin)
slj
=0
-(hj -
(3.23)
V;
max)
=0
-(hj + suj -h
(3.24)
rujLp
Vsli Lp
p- slj; rlj =0
(3.25)
Vsuj Lu
p+ suj; ruj =0
(3.26)
where,
Xa *"
[xs
II
Aqj
APEj
APCi
AQCi
SIJ
Orlj
suj
;
ruj
Ilpi s i
9
P
9 i
1,2,...2N + 3Ng + Nt + eNF

,
integer
that dependsupon the numberof FACTScontrollers.
e
First order KKT conditions (equations(3.17)- (3.36))formulaeare listed in Appendix III
and a correspondinglist of first and secondorder derivativescanbe found in AppendixVI.
3.4.3 Newton's method for solving nonlinear equations
Equations (2.37)-(2.43)update to,
-VX. Llj=
NN
VX(Vx,
,
Pi)llp,
-I:
-FVX(VXAQi),
NF
NF
Iqi-I:
Nh
VX(VxQci)-,
Qci -E
VX(Vxhj); rlj-I:
Vx, AQiA-Iqi
Vx(VxPCi)APCi
I
VX(Vxhj); ruj
Ax
j=l
NF
1: Vxa PEil"PEj
i=l
NF
VX(VXPEi)-IPEi-I:
Nh
i=l
NN
Vx, APiAllpi
NF
-d
Nh
Nh
Vx QOiAAQO, - 1: Vx hjAxlj Vxa hjAruj
aa
j=l
j=l
NF
Y, Vxa POiAlPOI,
-
Ng
Flvxvxf(x)Ax
i=l
(3.27)
L,
v.
p, x
1,
= -1
_V,
i
i=I
AqiLP
(3.28)
N
XV.,, AQiAx
(3.29)
67
NF
(3.30)
V, PEiAx
L,, = -Z
i=1
-VA"i
NF
L'U
=-VAPCI
vxPcjAx
(3.31)
V.
(3.32)
NF
L'U
IQC
=
-V,
'CQCjAx
Nh
(3.33)
-V; rljL, u =-EVxhjAx+Aslj

i=l
Nh
-Vlruj
VxhjAx
L.
U
(3.34)
- Asuj
j=l
-V Sli
LP
-SljArlj
-, rljAslj
Lp
-Vsuj
-sujA7ruj
The matrix
of Newton
sr'ni
0
0 -si-Inu
1
0
0
-1
(3.35)
(3.36)
- irujAsuj
equations
1
0
0
-1
0
0
T
-Vh
-Vh
(2.44) updates to,
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
-Vh
-Vh
T
_j q
_jPET
_jPCT
_jQCT
_j p
-jp
-Jq
-JPE
-Jpc
-JQC
68
AS/
Sl-lvslLlj
Asu
SU-IVSULP
A)rl
-V; rlLp
A;ru
-v;
ruL1,
-VXLP
AX
(3.37)
-V, ZPL,u
AAP
-VAqL, u
AAq
AAPE
&APC
.
IQC
_A,
LP
-VAPE
-V, tpc LI,
Lp
tgc
-V
where,
H equation(2.45)updatesto,
NN
H(xtpZqtpEtpCIQC,
Irl, 7ru) = VxVxf(X)-lVx
(VXAPi)Api
-JVX
(VxQi), Zqi
i=I
i=I
NF
NF
Vx (VxPCi)
Vx (VXPEi) IPEj -
IIPCI
Nh
NF
(Vxhj
lj
(VXQCi)
AQCt-Z Vx
Vx
j=l
Nh
uj
(Vxhj
Vx
j=l
derivatives,
first
jacobian
JQC
partial
JpE , JpC and
order
matricesof
arethe
1Wi (x)
JPE, (x) L
ax
Jpci (x) =
JQct
1 apci (x)
ex
VXPEi
v pci
x
raQci(X)]=v
(x)= L
i
xQci
gx
The Hessianmatrix, H is updatedfrom equation(2-52),
69
(3.38)
Ht, t,
0Hp
0
0
+P+
gi gi
00
p; pi
, l
00
Ht, 0,0
QgiQgi
HO V
i1
Hoiose
Ht oe
i,
Ht Ve
i5
Ht O.,
i h
&tj
,
-V
Hvti
H tiosh
Hoioi
HtiVse
Htiose
Ht, V,
Hti V,
H,.
v
Wsh
Hlioi
HoV
3,
Hoio.
"t
H0iVsh
Ho v
i1
HVVI
H0jose
Ho v
i ge
HV,
HV V
i se
iOse
HV,Ose Hoseose Ho v
st so
HO.,.V.
HV , ev. 3,
HV, V
ve
.
HVO
i
Ho
HV.
HV
HO
HV
sh
iVsh
3ev ,h
ev sh
Ho 0
i sh
Ho v
i sh
Hvo
i sh
Hvv
i sh
Ho 0
se ih
HV
Ho v
se sh
HV
HO3hosh
Ho v
sh sh
Hosh vsh
HV
se03h
h
Veo
.3
, eo. 2h
sh
, eV sh
vh
,h
Lu
ti
Lp
-VAp+
gi
LP
-VAPj
Ap+
gi
ME
LP
-VAQg,
gi
&Oj
,
Avi
AOse
Avse
Lp
-Voi
L.
-Vv, "
(3.39)
L11
-VOse
LP
-VVse
AOsh
LP
-Vosh
A Vsh
-VV A LJU
where,
[ti,
x=
P+, PjpQ,,, ObVi,Oe, VseOsh,

Vsh
9,1
3.4.4 Reduced Newton equations

The elimination of slackvariablesrefers to the slackvariablesof the inequalityconstraints
form
the
presentedin equations(2.55) to (2.63) ate still valid. There is the
only,
general
necessary
addition of equations(3.30)-(3.32)
wherethe matrix of (2.64)updatesto,
70
ril-isi
o
0
riu-Isu
-VhT
-VhT
0
-V
Airl
Alru
-Vh
-Vh
T
_j PCT -JQC
_jpT
-JqT
-jp
-Jq
-JPE
-Jpc
-jf)r
-JPE
I
lll
)rlj - lvsuj LP
Vsli Lp
Lp
-v; rujLli -rIu
AX
LIJ
-vx
AAp
-VAPL. "
AAq
A-4PE
-VAqL, u
Lp
-VAPE
AApC
Lp
IPC
-V,
AAQC
(3.40)
-v, RQCL.u
where,
NN
H= VxVxf(X)-YVx
Np
(Jpi (x, tPi
-EVx
(Jqi (x, tqi

-1
(JPEI
(xAPE,
Vx
i=I
(3.41)
Nh
Nh
NF
NF
(jQC
(Vxhj
uj
(jpC
(Vxhj
IJ
2:
Vx
ZQC
Vx
(x,
Vx
(xpC
Vx
-1
t-2:
i
i
i-2:
i=I
i=I
j=I
j=I
During the process of elimination of dual variables A;rIj and A;ruj, equations (2.67), (2.68),
(2.70), (2.71) and (2.73) remain the same.In equation (2.69), -V*Xa Lp is updated to,
Ng
NN
1]
1]
Vxa
AQiAAqi
Lp
HAx
VxVxf(x)Ax
Vxa
AP,
AAPI
+
=
-Z
x,,
NF
NF
Vxa PEiAAPEi -
NF
Vxa PCiAPCi
Nh
+; rljsll
1: VxhjVxhjAx-;
j=l
Vxa QCiAQCi
Nh
l 1: VxhjVxhjAx
rujsu;
j=l
where, equation (2.72) is updated to,
71
(3.42)
NF
,vN
-FVx(VxAFi),
H=
Ipi-I:
Vx(VxAQi)llqi-I:
NF
NF
VX(VXPEi)-IPEi-I:
Nh
Vx(VxPCi)APCi
(3.43)
Nh
Vx(VXQCi),
IQC,- 1: VX(Vxhj);rlj -Z VX(Vxhj);ruj
j=l
j=l
The compactform is at maximumdimensionwhen both P and Q control are specifiedfor

the UPFC,
T
T
T
T
T"
JP
-JPE
-JPC
-JQC
-Jq
H*
-jP
AAP
AAq
AAPE
AAPC
AAQCj
L
-Jq
-JPE
-JPC
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
L-JQC
0J
Au
-v
-VAPLP
-VAqLu
LP
-VAPE
(3.44)
LI,
-VAPC
-VIQCLu
where,
Ng
HH+Z
Nh
(rljsl
VxVxf(x) +Z VxhjVxhj
i
i=1
j=1
-; rujsu;
(3.45)
Ng is the number of generator busesand H is as defined in equation (3.43).

indusion
FAM
(2.73),
is
initially
defined
in
the
the
of
with
equation
-V XaL,,
controner it
is updated to equation (3.46).
Theright hand sidete=s areupdatedto,

X"
L'u
Nh
5-, vxhT ()rljv,
Lp
=-Vx. +31
'..'
j=l
Nh
-su;
VxhjT
(;
jj
l L, + V'J' L')
(3.46)
rujV; ruj Lp + Vsuj L.")
where,
Ng
NF
Aqi-2: VXPEiZpE,
NN
LjuyVxf(X)-YVxPjApi-lVxAQ!
i=I
l=I
i=I
i=I
NF
-Ev
i=I
PciIpci
(3.47)
Nh
Nh
VxaQCiAQCi
Vxhj2rIj
Vxhjiruj
-Z
j=I
j=I
V;rljL. u = -(hj -slj -hjm
in)
(3.48)
72
Vzuj Lu =-
(hj
(3.49)
+ suj _ hjmax
Vslj Lp
p- sljrlj
(3.50)
Vsuj LP
p+ suilrui
(3.51)
VA Lp
pi
-AP,
(3.52)
VA Lp
i7i
-AQi
(3.53)
VAPEILu = -PEi
(pEsh
(3.54)
pEse)
_
V,jPC Lj, = -PCi

i
(3.55)
V,IQCILp = -QCi
(3.56)
The expandedform of the compactmatrix of Newton equations,showingall the system

in
is
differentials
bus
FACTS
i
equation
to
analytically
controllers shown
variable
related
and
(3.57).
3.4.5Initialisation of FACTS controller variables

Initial conditions must still satisfythe slack and dual variable properties;sij >0, suj >0,
;rIj >0 andruj <0. For UPFC controllerwith non-specifiedcontrol the systemvariablesare
initialisedasfollows,
0
1. seriesand shuntvoltageangles,Os'e
-00
-A- =0001
(Ve
0=
min)
2. seriesvoltage magnitude, V, 0.5 max+ Ve
(Vmax Inin)
3. shunt voltage magnitude, VO = 0.5
+;
AAh
4. all seriesand shunt slackvariablessIj are setto hj - h'h
dual
variables;rIj are
and
set to pI slj;
dual
5. all series and shunt slack variables suj are set to hhmax
hj
and
variables ;ruj
- i
are set to -plsuj
6. dualvariablesApE,= APC =AQCI=0.

i
The updateof the solution remainsthe sameaspreviouslyexplainedin Chapter2, equations
(2.78)to (2.91).
73
cf
+
lb%
00v
d d
$
F
-
,, lo
"?
?"
z
:bl
Lr
4F
kr
car
dQ
00
00
E0
,4
0o
aa
0Q0
"000*.
44
4
4
%
%-,.%% , %%
%
*%
*7*7
w-v
* :Z*
44
z * tZ
icz
:zz
.1,4
,-
ro
.00000000
74
? '?
000
Ln
Chapter3: 3.5Setupof scheduledactivepower generationfor systeminitial conditions
3.5 Setup of scheduled active power generation for system initial conditions
To measurehow FACTS controllerscan changethe optimal solution to the power flow
problem around a system,all the initial conditions excludingthe variablesconcerningthe
FACTS controller must be the same.The bilateralmarket objective function is concerned
with changesin real power at the generatorbuses.The following proceduredescribeshow
the initial real power generationlevelsate setup for the basecase(SystemID and the cases
with a FACTS controller installed(SystemIID from the origing system(SystemD. For all
SystemsI, II and III, the vector of initial per unit MW demandfrom eachload bus,
[Pdi ]
'is
constant.
3.5.1 SystemI
SystemI is the originalsysteminput file at a nominalloadinglevelwith no congestionandno
[Pd, ]
FACrS controllerinstalled.The input vector of per unit MW demandis,
andremains
is
MW
initial
for
input
'Me
per
generation
three
unit
constant
vector of
all
systems.
p
osoi
91
After the optimal solutionis found, the followinginformation canbe obtained,
SI
3
losses,
PLOSSpower
active
system
I
[
vectot of per unit MW generationoutput, PSYSI

giOUT]
Ng
S
Y,,
PgjOUT'
systemper unit MW generationoutput,

Ng
unit MW demand and systemlosses,
Nd
PSYSI
giOUT
is
which equalto the systemper
[pd
SI
PiSYOSS
i]+
0 system cost f (x)SY, is purely due to systemlosses.
3.5.2 SystemII
SystemII is the basecasesystem,set at the congestedsituationwithout a FACTS controller
instaUed.For an individual congestedline, the maximumcomplexpower constraint,S"
U
of specifiedline is reducedand for observationof daily demand fluctuations,the % Load
75
Chapter3: 3.5Setupof scheduledactivepower generationfor systeminitial conditions
Risefactor is increased.The input vector of initial per unit MW demandremainsunchanged,

[PdI ]
input vector of initial per unit MW generation for System II is equal to the vector
-The
1
[PSys,
TMs allows a system
of per unit MW generation output of System I, POSYsIl
91
gIOUT]'
generationlevel that coversnominal systemlossesand allows the algoridun to start near a

known optimal solution (output of SystemD. As congestionis causedin SystemII, it is
sSI
s
ys,,>P
Pc
0.
anticipated that PLOSS
congestion
>
and
LOSS
The optimal solutionoutput from SystemII returnsinformation on,

SSII
active power system losses, PY
LOSS
Ng
Nd
[Pdj
SYSII
I:
Z P
MW
system per unit
generation output,
=
gjOUT
i
I.
system cost f(x)Sy',,
SYSII
SYSII
+P LOSS + Pa
due to system losses and congestion.
3.5.3 SystemIII
SystemIII is the sameas the basecaseof SystemII with a FACTS controller installedat a
for
is
System
III
MW
location.
initial
input
The
equal
generation
per unit
specified
vector of
]=[Posy',, ].
1
"
This keepsall initial variablesthe sameas
System
II,
Posy',
to the vector of
gi
91
SystemII exceptfrom the variablesconcerningthe FACTS controller.
The optimal solutionoutput from SystemIII teturnsinformation on,
S
III
Ys
losses,
P
power
system
active
LOSS I
Ng
F
MW
systemper unit
generationoutput,
SYSIM
P
gjOUT
Nd
[Pdi]+PLOSS
2:
SyslII
PSYsIII
+C
systemcost f(x)Sys,,, due to systemlossesand congestion.

Due to the influenceof the installedFACTS controller it is possiblefor lossesin SystemIII
Therefore, excess system
PSYsI1
to be less than the losses from System II, PSYsII1
<
LOSS
LOSS*
76
Chapter3: 3.6 Influenceof FACTScontrollerson the bilateralelectricitymarketmodel
generationmay exist Where "per unit MWh generationexcess"for individual systemsis

definedas,
Ng
PEXCESS
NJ
PO
j
[Pdj
(3.58)
PEXCESS 1'0,
loss,
and
asdefinedin equation(2.11),
Ng
PLOSS=E
Nd
[Pgi I-Z
[P, 1,
(3.59)
PLOSS>0
The existenceof PEXCESSis dependentupon the relative sizesof lossesfrom SystemIII and
System II. Table 3-3 summaries the three result types, Types A and C have no system
congestion and result Type B can have systemcongestion.
Table3-3: Summaryof resulttypesfrom SystemIII, with a FACTS controllerinstalled.

Result
Type
Result properties
A(i)
SYSIII
SYSH
P
P
LOSS
LOSS
PEXCESS "0
*
0
A(ii)
PSYSIII < PSYSH

LOSS
LOSS
PEXCESS >0
Behaviour without congestion

No changein generation
I
[
P ISYSIM
POSYSM
gj0UT]=[
g,
B(i)
0
N/A
Decreasein generationdue to
PEXCESS
NN
pks,
<
g OUT
Behaviour with congestion
P,Sv-,,,,
gi
SYSH
PSYSIff >P
LOSS
LOSS
Increase in generation due to

FLOSS increase
PSYSIff > PFXCESS

LOSS
Ng
Ng
PSYSIff >
g OUT
N/A
A
9i
Increasein generationdue to
FLOSS and congestionPC
increase
Ng
Ng 0
pks
gi
B(ii)
*
0
SYSH
PSYSIH <P
LOSS
LOSS
Increase in generation due to

FLOSS increase
PSYSHI > PEXCESS

LOSS
Ng
PSYSI11 PSYSH
LOSS
LOSS
SYSIII
P
PFXCESS
LOSS
N
PSYSIII >
g,OUT
f,
P'Syslll
9i
No changein generation
[POSYSI11
PSYSIN
9i0UTJ
L 91
J
>g
OUT
P SYSM
Increasein generationdue to
FLOSS and congestionPC
reduction
Ng
Ng 0
SY'Iff
P
PSYSM >g
giOUT
i
N/A
3.6 Influence of FACTS controllers on the bilateral electricity market model

There are two possiblesituationsfor the systemwith no FACTS controller, (asdescribed
Chapter2, Table 2-1); a systemwithout or with congestion.The installationof a FACTS
77
Chapter3: 3.7 Solutionprocedure:Generaltwo-stepmethod
"setup
for
initial
the
power
conditions"
controllerand
of scheduledactive
generation system
(Section3.5) produce three possibleconditions when there is no congestion.Table 3-4
to
summariesthe conditions which are defined by the relationship between PEXCESS
systemcongestion,systemcost, systemloss,and generationchanges.
Table 3-4: Summary of bilateral market behaviour with PEXCESSand a FACTS controller.
System
cost
;a
0
0
Ib
Generation change
>0
PLOSS`PEXCESS
Ng
PEXCESS
>0
PLOSS PEXCESS
PEXCESS>0
ZI
p+
PEXCESS
>0
PEXCESS <PLOSS
>0
PEXCESS>0
R
Q
3
>0
PLOSS<PEXCESS
PEXCESS>0
I=
No change
PEXCESS
A(ii)
PLOSS
A(i)
>0,
]>0,
g [Pj J>O
0,2]
91
N
2[P+
ii
pgil=
0,
N
g IP9+ I
E
i
1=
91
PLOSS< PEXCESS NN
g[p+
E
PEXCESS>0
PEXCESS`PLOSS
A(i)
Ng
>0
Result
Type
(Table
3-3)
2
Ic
Cause of
generation
change
fW
U
la
Generation
excess PEXCESS
Ng
[Pi,
E
Ng
E>0[Pil
PLOSS+ PC
B(H)
Ng
2: [p
]>O
PLOSS + PC
B(ii)
91
N
g [P
1>0,
2:
+
91
Lil
3.7 Solution procedure: General two-step method for finding optimal location and
rating of a FACTS controller in a bilateral market
Three physical constraintslitnit the possiblelocations of any FACTS controller location
[FangandNgan (1999):
1. No more than one FACTS controlleris requiredto be installedin one branch or at
one bus;
A seriesFACTS controller is not required if the transmissionline impedanceis
relativelysmall(i.e. a physicallyshort line);
3. A shunt FAM controller is not required at any bus that can be conveniently
by
controlled meansof generatorof synchronouscompensator.
78
Chapter3: 3.8Numericalresults:Initial test systemwith FAM
controllers
Figure3.4 showsthe generaltwo-stepmethod to find the optimal location and rating of a

FACTS controller at a specifiedtransmissionline. In Step 1, the congestionmanagement
problem is solvedwithout a FACTS controllerby the IP OPF algorithm and the congested
transmissionlines are identified (SystemID. The solution is expectedto havea high system
cost due to systemlossesand congestion.In Step2, the congestionmanagement
problemis
solvedwith the incorporationof a FACTScontrollerat a spedfiedlocation (SystemIII). This
solutiondeterminesthe optimalcontrollerratingthat minimisesthe objectivefunction.
STEP 1
Output:
Base Case:Solve operationalcost

of bilateral market problem
without FACTS controller
(SystemII)
* Systemcost
e Location of congestedlines
e Systemloss
STEP 2
Output:
Solve operationalcost of bilateral

market problem with FACTS
controller at a specified location
(System III)
Systemcost
FACTS controller rating
ocation of congestedlines
Systemloss
Figure
3A Overview of generaltwo-step method to find optimal location and rating of
Z_
FACIS controller.
Ibis general method will be utilised in the proceedingtest cases,where the specified
locationsarelimited by the physicalconstraintsand testingat the congestedlines.
3.8 Numerical results: Initial test systemswith FACTS controllers
The initial test casesfor the bilateralmarketmodelwith FACrS controllersare,
" STATCOM on 4 bus systemwith a singlecongestedline,
" STATCOM on IEEE 14 bus systemwith dailydemandfluctuations,
" UPFC on IEEE 14 bus systemwith dailydemandfluctuations.
3.8.1 STATCOM on 4 bus system
The 4 bus system is the same as introduced in Chapter 2, Section 2.6, where line 1-2 is
congestedby the transmission hne power capacity, c2m,
12
79
is reduced by 60% to 2 p.u. from
Chapter 3: 3.8 Numerical results: Initial test systemswith FACTS controllers
5 p.u. The two generators have cost coefficient values of C+ = 20 $/NfWh and C- = 10
9i
9i
$/MWh. Constraint 3, from Section 3.2, eliminates generator buses 1 and 2. Figures 3.5(a)
4
bus
STATCOM
3.5(b)
4
bus
2
the
the
and respectively.
connected at
show
and
systemwith
Table 3-5 shows system comparison of the generator output values, active power losses,
congestion, systemcost and breakdown of costs due to systemlossesand congestion.
P(JI 04)l
Bois 1
Line
Conlested
i'011
I 4I L1116
Pql
Q
Bits 2
091
Bois I
PL2 OL2
J4
PLI OLl
plq3
Bois 3
4-migested Line
Bits 2
PL1
Bits
Ll
P93 0(j3 Bits 3
PO 00
PL2 OL2
Bits 4
PL3 OL3
\J"I-
Figure 3.5: System1114bus systemwith STATCOM connected at (a) bus 2 (b) bus 4.
System1, the original system with no congestion is used to find the optimal initial generation
levels and to observe the system power losses.'nere is only increase in power generation
therefore the system cost is purely due to losses.System II, where congestion is causedat line
1-2 by decreasingthe maximum complex power capacity constraint by 60% and the system
scheduledgeneration level is adjusted for the systemlosses;the congestion causesan increase
93%
due
losses
7%
losses
because
PSYsIl
PSYsI'
to
is
and
>
cost
in system
and
system
LOSS
F-VCESS
due to congestion.
The installation of the STATCOM at either bus can reduce the system cost considerably;
refer to Table 3-5. In System Illa the STATCOM is installed at bus 2. A 99% reduction M
(RSC)
because
II
losses
lower
System
than
that
is
and
achieved
cost
system
are
of
system
PLOSS< PEXCESS.The required STATCOM rating for this solution is 117NIVA. In System
80
Chapter3: 3.8Numericalresults:Ir&ial test systemswith FACTScontrollers
IIIb the STATCOM is installedat bus 4 and the sameinitial conditions of SystemII are
applied.A 40% RSCis achievedusinga STATCOM with a rating of 201MVA. The resultis
of Type ACE)and Condition lb (Tables3-3 and 3-4) becausesystemloss hasdecreased
with
respectto SystemII (PEXCESS
< PLOSS)andcongestionis present.
Table3-5:4 bus,System1,11and III comparisonwith STATCOM at buses2 and4.
Systemnumber
11
Ilia
Illb
No congestion
Congested line
Smax =5
12
Smax =2
12
STATCOM
at bus 2
STATCOM
at bus 4
9.00
9.00
9.00
9.00
9.00
9.26
9.26
9.26
0.26
1.02
0.00
0.61
0.00
0.91
0.03
0.55
9.26
9.37
9.23
9.32
0.26
0.37
0.23
0.32
2.9%
4.0%
2.5%
3.5%
P0 Excess PF XCESS
9
Result Type/Condition
(Table. 3-3 and Table 34)
System cost f(x) $/MWh
0.00
0.26
0.26
0.26
N/A
N/A
A(ii)/Ib
B(ii)/2
5.2
29.6
0.26
17.8
% RSC wrt System II

% Cost due to PLOSS
N/A
100%
N/A
7%
99%
40%
7%
System description (across)

Total system values (down)
(units: p. u.)
Nd
1P
I
Demand
di
N
[P 0
91
Scheduled generation
N
Generation increase g[ P+
9i
Ng
[P
Generation decrease
i
N
Generation output
[Pgi
OUT]
Loss PLOSS
N
% Ploss w. r. t.
g [Po
91
PLOSS <
PEXCESS
% Cost due to congestion

%Cost due to PEXCESS
0%
0%
93%
0%
1%
99%
93%
0%
Congested lines
STATCOM rating (MKA)
None
N/A
1-2
N/A
1-2
117
1-2
201
When the STATCOM is locatedat bus 2 thereis reductionin congestionand systemlosses,

therefore,this is the preferredlocation for STATCOM installation.The resultis of TypeB(H)
and Condition 2, the systemcost is due to decreasein MW generationonly due to excess
81
Chapter3: 3.8Numericalresults:Initial test systemswith FAC7rScontrollers
scheduledMW generation.This result is an exampleof a casewhere the potentialglobal

minimum (zero system cost) is not achieved;most likely due to the system equality
constraints.Instead the result convergedto a minimum where there is only decreasein
systemgenerationto balanceinitial generationwith final generation.
3.8.2 IEEE 14 bus system with daily demand fluctuations
The 14 bus system is the same as introduced in Chapter 2, Section 2.6, where a maximum of
three lines are congested by a linear increasein system demand and generation levels up to
70% Load Rise. All generators have equal generator cost coefficient values of Cg+,,.
= 20
$/MWh and Cji=
10 $/MWh. Table 3-6 shows the initial system setup results with 70%
Load Rise and FACTS controller test results with STATCOM at bus 4 and UPFC at
congestedline 1-2.
SystemI, the systemat nominalloadingandwith no congestionis usedto find optimalinitial

generationlevels for each generator.The changein scheduledgenerationis solely to
overcomesystemlosses.In SystemII, congestionis causedby a 70% Load Rise and the
systemgenerationlevel accountsfor lossesincurred in SystemL Congestionhas increased
lossesand the extra demandhasincreasedsystemcost,now 3% due to lossesand 97% due
to congestion.SystemIII[a]; with STATCOM rated at 205MVA installed at bus 2 has
reducedcongestioncost by 10%.SystemIII[b]; with UPFC rated at 15MVA installedat line
1-2 has reducedcongestioncost by 41%, a significantsaving.Both systemswith a FACTS
controller installedare able to reducecongestioncostsby the redirectingthe power flow to
minimisechangefrom scheduledgeneration.
3.8.3 STATCOM on IEEE 14bus system
Physicalconstraintslimit the locationof STATCOM controllersto buseswith no generators
Table3-7 examinesbuses4,5 and 7 and limits the solutionto
or synchronouscompensators.
a singleinstalledcontroller.When the STATCOM is simulatedat buses9 to 14 the % RSCis
less than 2%.
82
Chapter3: 3.8Numericalresults:Initial test systemswith FACTScontrollers
Table 3-6: IEEE 14 bus system at 70% Load Rise, Systems I, II and III comparison with
STATCOM and UPFC.
System number
Systemdescription (across)
Total systemvalues (down)
(units: p.u.)
Nd
]
Demand
Pdi
Scheduledgeneration
N
Z[P
Ng
Generation increase
0
91
[P+
H
Congestion
noFACTS
IIIIal
STATCOM at
bus 4
III[b]
UPFC at
line 1-2
2.59
4.40
4.40
4.40
2.59
4.59
4.59
4.59
0.11
1.22
1.11
0.74
0.00
1.17
1.03
0.67
2.70
4.64
4.67
4.66
0.11
0.24
0.26
0.25
4 2%
.
5.2%
5.7%
5.5%
0.00
0.19
0.19
0.19
N/A
N/A
B(fi)/2
B(H)/2
2.20
36.2
32.6
21.4
N/A
100%
N/A
3%
10%
5%
41%
3%
0%
None
97%
N/A
PFXCESS
95%
N/A
PEXCESS
97%
N/A
PFXCESS
< PLOSS
1-2,7-8,6-13
< PLOSS
1-2,2-5,6-13
N/A
205
< PLOSS
1-2,1-5,7-8,
6-13
15
gi
N
Generation decrease
i
N
Generation output
i
[P
,
1P
]
9iOUT
Loss PLOSS
% Plossw.r. t.
I
No
congestion
g [P
0
91
P0 Excess PEZXCESS
9
Result Type /Condition
Systemcost f(x) $/h
% RSC wrt System II
% Cost due to PLOSS
% Cost due to PFXCESS
Congestedlines
FACTS controller rating (MVA)
None
N/A
1
I
Ihe largest% RSCsare found when the STATCOM is installedat bus 5 (13% RSC)and
bus
At
is
4
(10%
buses
(because
bus
RSC).
7
9
8
14
to
secondlyat
and
a generatorbus) the %
RSCis 2% or below.The relativepercentageof systemcost due to lossesand congestionare
similarin all cases.Ihe requiredSTATCOM ratingsto reducesystemcost by 10% or more
are reasonableat 205MVA and 347MVA. 'Ihe congestionis not mitigated completelyas
therearestill somecongestedlinesat the optimal solution.The STATCOM hasshownthat it
83
Chapter3: 3.8Numericalresults:Initial test systemswith FACM controllers
is ableto help congestionby a smallpercentage,

but this controller is more commonlyused
for voltagecontrol.
Table 3-7: IEEE 14 bus systemwith STATCOM installed at buses 4,5 and 7.
70% Load Rise
System cost f(x)
Basecase
STATCOM at
bus 4
STATCOM at
bus 5
STATCOM at
bus 7
36.2
N/A
N/A
32.6
10%
205 MVA
31.4
13%
347 MVA
35.5
2%
102MVA
3%
97%
5%
95%
8%
92%
9%
97%
5.2%
5.7%
4.6%
5.1%
1-2,7-8,6-13
1-2,2-5,6-13
1-2,4-5,7-8,
6-13
1-2,7-9,6-13
$/h
% RSC w.r. t. Base Case

STATCOM rating MVA
% Cost due to PLOSS
% Ploss w. r. t.
Congestedlines
g [P
O
gi
3.8.4 UPFC on IEEE 14bus system

For this setof test results,the UPFCis installedon the congestedtransmissionlines.At 30%
Load Rise this was line 7-8 only, at 50% Load Rise they were 7-8 and 1-2 and at 70% Load
Rise,7-8,1-2 and 6-13 (Chapter2, Section2.6.3).Tables3-8 to 3-10 show the resultsat each
location.When locatedat lines7-8 and 6-13thereis no significant% RSCs-When locatedat
line 1-2 thereis significantreductionat 50%and 70% Load Rise.
Table3-8: IEEE 14 bus systemat 30%Load Risewith UPFC installedat congestedline 7-8.
30% Load Rise
System cost f(x)
14.1
N/A
N/A
UPFC at line 7-8

13.7
3%
99 MVA
100%
0%
4%
96%
4.7%
4.7%
1-2
1-2
Basecase
$/h
% RSC w. r. t. basecase
UPFC rating (MVA)
% Cost due to PLOSS
N
01
% PLOSS w.r. t.
p
9
Congestedlines
At 50% Load Rise the RSCshas been reducedby 70% when the UPFC is installedat
congestedline 1-2.At line 7-8 the % RSCis only 2%. At 70% Load Risethe RSChasbeen
reducedto 41% when the UPFC is installedat congestedline 1-2. At lines 7-8 and 6-13 %
RSCis 3%. Ihe requiredUPFC rating for eachsolutionis the smallestwhen installedat line
1-2 for both % Load Rise levels.Therefore, UPFC installation at line 1-2 is the optimal
location as it savesmoney by reducingcongestionand has minimal installationcost due to
84
the low UPFC rating required.The systemlossesare similar for all casesand congestionis
not mitigated completelyas there are still some congestedlines at the optimal solutions.
Systeminput datafor 4 and IEEE 14bus systemsis presentedin AppendixVIII.
Table 3-9: IEEE 14 bus systemat 50% Load Rise with UPFC installed at congestedlines 7-8
and 1-2.
50% Load Rise
System cost f (x) $/h
UPFC rating (MVA)
% Cost due to PLOSS
N
Ipg', 1
% PLOSS w.r. t.
Congestedlines
Basecase
24.9
N/A
N/A
UPFC at line 7-8
UPFC at line 1-2
24.3
2%
35 MVA
7.5
70%
13 MVA
4%
96%
18%
82%
4%
96%
5.2%
5.1%
5.7%
1-2,7-8
1-2,7-9
1-2,7-8,1-5
Table 3-10: IEEE 14 bus systemat 70% Load Rise with UPFC installed at congestedlines
7-8,1-2 and 6-13.
70% Load Rise
Systemcost f(x)
$/h
UPFC rating (WA)
% Cost due to PLOSS
N
% PLOSS w.r. t.
Congestedlines
po
91
Basecase
UPFC at
line 7-8
UPFC at
line 1-2
UPFC at
line 6-13
36.2
N/A
N/A
35.5
2%
118MVA
21.4
41%
15 MVA
35.1
3%
157MVA
9%
97%
7%
93%
3%
97%
3%
97%
5.2%
5.1%
5.5%
5.3%
1-2,7-8,6-13
1-2,7-9,6-13
1-2,1-5,7-8,
6-13
1-2,7-8,13-15,
10-11
3.9 Conclusions
In this Chapter,the VSC basedSTATCOM, SSSCand UPFC FACTS controller modelsare
presentedand implementedinto the IP OPF method. 'Ihe additional equipmenton the
but
is
increases
IP
OPF
the
the
ableto provide greaterpower
system
compleidtyof
solution
flow control when STATCOM andUPFC FACTS controllersareapplied.
Numerical tests on the 4 bus systemshave demonstratedthat the STATCOM is the only
controller that is able to reducecongestionconsiderably.Simulationson the IEEE 14 bus
systemsshow that the STATCOM is able to improve RSCby approximately10% but with
the addition of seriescontrol by installingthe UPFC; it is able to reducesystemcostsmuch
85
finther, to approximately40%. Systemlossesare similarwith and without FACTS controller

installations;thereforeit is congestionandnot lossesthat hasthe greatereffect on the system
cost.The efficiencyof RSCis dependentupon location of installationand amountof system
congestion.Both thesefactorsarefurtherinvestigatedin the proceedingchapters.
86
Chapter 4
Daily demand and annual cost savings using
FACTS controHers
4.1Introduction
In Chapter 3, the test case results for the IEEE 14 bus systems concentrate on 30%, 50%
and 70% Load Rises resulting with one, two or three congestedlines respectively.In practice
to maximise the financial benefits of the controller it is vital to assessthe capability of the
controller at different levels of demand and during a range of situations. For example, the
change in MW load demand over a typical 24 hour day in summer and winter in Britain ate
significantly different. In this chapter the averagecost savings made over the summer and
determine
demand
to
the
averageannual
results are used
winter
profiles are examined and
systemcosts.This gives a quantitative measureof the STATCOM and UPFC performances.
The daily demandprofile of Britain in 2004/5 presentedin Section4.2 is usedas the base
for
base
for
Section
4.3
includes
the
to
the
case
map
case.
simulationand
methodsused
interpretationof the results.Sections4.4 and 4.5 detail the basecasesfor the IEEE 14 bus
is
first
4.6
IEEE
30
bus
Section
the
and
of two case studies
systemsrespectively.
investigatingthe effect of the FACTS controllerson the 14 bus and 30 bus systems.The
STATCOM is investigatedin Section4.6 and the UPFC in Section4.7 (the secondof the two
casestudies),wherethe locationandinstallationorientationof the controllersareconsidered.
Conclusionsand referencesaregivenin Sections4.8 and 4.9respectively.
4.2 Daily demand profile of Britain
The wholesaleelectricitymarketstructureusedin Britain (Chapter1, Section1.5)hasa single
systemoperator,the National Grid p1c.that coordinatesthe continuous flow of electricity
and electricity trade surrounding usage of the transmissiongrid. Forward and futures
contractsand the short term bilateralmarketare activeuntil Gate Closure,one hour before
point of delivery or real-time.BetweenGate Closure and point of delivery the balancing
mechanismensuresall demandis met andis usedto balancesupplyand demandin eachhalfhour tradingperiod of everyday [Elexon(2005)and National Grid p1c.(2007a)].
87
Chapter 4: 4.3 General mechanism for assessingthe behaviour of FACTS controllers
Figure 4.1 shows four averagedemand profiles on Britain's system recorded during 2004/5.
The coloured lines running from bottom to top are as follows; red was the Summer
Minimum, green was a Typical Summer day, blue was Typical Winter day and black was the
Winter Maximum. The results are plotted over a 24 hour day with 48 half-hour intervals.
60,000
56.000
01-410
45,000
40000
35,000
OCIO
)O,
20.000
......................
Time
Sitaxnef Minimum 0 3/06/04)
Typical Winter (06,1 Z/04)
Typical Stuninei (16/0&'04)

Winter Maxinnun (13 12104)
Figure 4.1: National Grid record of Britain's summer and winter daily demand profiles for
2004/5 [National Grid p1c.(2006a)].
For simplification, the load curve has been divided into eight sections and the averageMW
demand is taken over each.Table 4-1 details the section number, section start and end times,
duration and averageMW demand at each of the four seasonalcategories.Figure 4.2 shows
the approximated MW demand profiles. For a conservative annual approximation, a 365 day
days
Winter
demand
182.5
days
Typical
Summer
be
182.5
to
at
and
is
at
year assumed
Maximum demand.
4.3 General mechanism for assessing the behaviour of FACTS controllers

The following case studies presented in this chapter aim to show the behaviour of FACTS
in
daily
different
load
levels
that
and seasonal changes
represent normal
controllers over
demand profile. All simulation results give a comparison of system behaviour relative to the
fraction of MW demand change over the full MW demand range as expressedin equations
(4.1) and (4.2), and do not alm to represent the absolute MW demand levels of Britain's
system.
88
Chapter 4: 4.3 General rnecharismfor assessingthe behaviour of FACTS controllers
Table 4-1: Average MW eight section approximation of National Grid record of Britain's
daily
demand profiles for 2004/5.
summer and winter
Section
Number
k
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Time
Duration
(hours)
0000-0300h
3
0300-0600h
3
0600-0700h
1
0700-0800h
1
0800-1500h
7
1500-2000h
5
2000-2200h
2
2
2200-0000h
(MWMseason
MW Range=
MWMseason)
in
wx
Winter
Maximum
36643
34447
40047
48188
52410
56649
50871
42471
Average MW
Typical
Typical
Winter
Summer
35294
27812
33098
26275
38682
30682
37035
46588
42178
49002
41224
54212
48729
37012
34941
40918
22202
21114
15904
Summer
Minimum
25443
22651
23059
25459
32592
32442
31506
31412
9941
55 p
U,
15
In,
50 -
XXXXXXXXXXXXXkXX
45 vvvvvvvvvvvvvv,
IC
40 -
E
a, 35;LXX%00
Ooo
vvvvvvvvvv
Vvvv-
0_0
30 ", 'Vvvvl
25
Winter Maximum
Typical Winter
Summer
--Typical
Summer Minimum
*4
05
20
15
10
Time of Day (24 hours)
Figure 4.2: Average NfW eight section approximation of National Grid record of Britain's
summer and winter daily demand profiles for 2004/5.
Percent change in MW demand is measured relative to the full MW demand range over an
follows,
is
entire year and calculatedas
M
FullRange
Wk
MWmin)'MWFullRangelxlOO
-
where,
MWkis the NfW demand at section number k, k=1,2,...
89
8.
Chapter 4: 4.3 General mechanism for assessingthe behaviour of FACTS controllers
MVmin= 22071 MW, occurs during Summer Minimum between 0430 and 0630 hours,
58871 NfW, occurs during Winter Maximum between 1700 and 1730 hours,
MWmax::::::
MWFullRange
MWmax - MWmin
(4.2)
= 36800 NIW
Table 4-2 shows the percent increase of MW demand relative to the M"W full range for
Winter Maximum and Typical Summer demand profiles.
Table 4-2: % MWFullRange

approximation of Britain's Wmter Maximum andTypiCal Summer
daily demand profiles 2004/5.
Section
Number
Winter Maximum
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Range
Typical Summer
MW
% AIW FullRange
k
36643
34447
40047
48188
52410
56649
50871
42471
22202
40%
34%
49%
71%
82%
94%
78%
55%
60%
MW
0vo MW FuIlRange
k
16%
11%
23%
41%
55%
52%
41%
35%
44%
27812
26275
30682
37035
42178
41224
37012
34941
15904
100
Winter Maxi
90
rn
Typical Summer
80 10
E
IM
C
(16
70 -
60 YVVVVVVVVVVVV'V,
50 40--(-(
/Vvv
vv
ocoo
I:/Vvv
30 Yv
20 10 0
05
,Vvvvv
10
15
20
FullRange
Figure 4.3: %M wi
approximation of Britain's Winter Maximum and TypiCal
Summer from daily demand profiles 2004/5.
90
Chapter 4: 4.4 IEEE 14 bus system daily demand basecase
4.4 IEEE 14 bus system daily demand base case

FullRange
FullRange
The maximum number of congestedhnes is three, at 78 %MW

75
FuIlRange
94%MW
82%AfW
and
during the Winter Maximum period. Table 4-3 lists the number and the
location of congested lines over the eight sections during Winter Maximum and Typical
Summer. Figure 4.4 highlights the locations of all congested lines, where the definition of a
tf`
hne
hne
being
congested
is a
utihsed at its maximum S,, thermal hmit.
Table 4-3: IFFT' 14 bus system, identification of congested lines during Winter Maximum
andTypical Summer periods.
14 Bus
Section
Number
k
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Typi al Summer
Winter Maximum
% MW
FullRange
k
40%
34%
49%
71%
82%
94%
78%
55%
No. of
Cong.
Lines
Congested
1
1
2
2
3
3
3
2
1-2
1-2
1-2,7-8
1-2,7-8
1-2,7-8,6-13
1-2,7-8,6-13
1-2,7-8,6-13
1-2,7-8
Lines i-j
% MW
FullRange
No. of
Cong.
k
16%
11%
23%
41%
55%
52%
41%
35%
Congested
Lines i-j
Lines
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
1-2
1-2
1-2
1-2
1-2,7-8
1-2,7-8
1-2
1-2
13
Congested Line
14
Generators
C,
G
6
4
THREE
NVTN'DrNG
TRANSFORMER
EQUIVALENT
9
II
, -+
743
C,
Figure 4A ll,, f-,E 14 bus system schematicwith congestedlines highlighted.
91
Chapter 4: 4.5 IEEE 30 bus system daily demand basecase
4.5 IEEE 30 bus system daily demand base case

The maximum number of congested lines is four at 94% MWFullRange
during the Winter
6
Maximum period. 'fable 4-4 lists the number and the location of congested lines over the
eight sections during the two seasons.Figure 4.5 highlights the locations of all congested
lines.
Table 4-4: IFIFIE 30 bus system, identification of congested lines dunng Winter Maxiinum
andTyplCal Summer periods.
30 bus
Section
Number
k
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Typical Summe
Winter Maximum
%M
40%
34%
49%
71%
82%
94%
No. of
Cong.
Lines
2
2
2
2
3
4
78%
55%
2
3
FuIlRange
Congested
Lines tj
1-2,6-8
1-2,6-8
1-2,2-6
1-2,2-6
1-2,2-6,12-15
1-2,2-6,6-8,
12-15
1-2,2-6
1-2,2-6,6-8
%M
16%
11%
23%
41%
55%
52%
1-2,6-8
1-2
1-2,6-8
1-2,6-8
1-2,2-6,6-8
1-2,2-6,6-8
41%
35%
2
2
1-2,6-8
1-2,6-8
FuIlRange
Congested Line
Transformer
Generator
/-, %
kjo
Figure 4.5: ll, ',I,',E 30 bus system schematicwith congestedlines highlighted.
92
Congested
Lines i.-j.
No. of
Cong.
Lines
2
1
2
2
3
3
Chapter4: 4.6CasestudyI
The generalmechanismapplied in this chapter is the extensionof the generaltwo-step

method as presentedin Chapter3, Section3.7. The IEEE 14 bus and 30 bus systemsare
usedfor the following casestudies.
4.6 Case study 1: Daily demand profiles and locating the STATCOM to manage
congestion
The STATCOM is testedat all physicallyviable transmissionline locations.The resultsof
particularinterestare (i) the abilityof the controllerto reducethe systemcost,(H)the location
of the controller, (iii) the changeof systemreal power loss in comparisonto the basecase,
and Civ)the rating of the FACTS controller required to achievethe correspondingsystem
cost reduction. The systemcost is so calledasit measuresthe systemcongestioncostsand
transmissionline realpower lossesand doesnot takeinto accountlossesfrom anygeneration
unit, load or FACTS controller.
4.6.1 STATCOM location and position
The STATCOM is, in general installed in one of two positions with respect to the
transmissionline; at eitherend of a transmissionline, Figure4.6(a)and (b) or at the midpoint
installing
fundamental
line,
4.7.
The
Figure
transmission
reactiveshunt
of
of a
objective
increase
in
is
to
transmittable
to
transmission
compensation a
provide a method
system
Positioningat the
powerby improving the steadystateand or dynamicsystemcharacteristics.
for
line
transmission
end of
primarilyprovidesvoltagesupportandvoltagestability loadsat a
line position segmentsthe line, making it
specified bus. The midpoint transn-Assion
electricallyshorter and can provide voltage regulation,improve transient stability and aid
power oscillationdamping.
For installationat the end of a transmissionline the STATCOM can be connectedin shunt
to bus i or busj, theselocationsarereferredto asI:ij andJ:ij respectively.For installationat
the n-Lidpointof a transmissionline an additionalbus icis required.The propertiesof the
transmissionline are divided equallybetweenthe two new independenttransmissionlines,
i1cand icj, this locationis referredto asM:ij.
4.6.2 IEEE 14bus system caseswith STATCOM
In Chapter3, it has been shown that with a STATCOM on the 14 bus system,the system
cost can be reducedto 10% and 13% when installedat buses4 and 5 at 70% Load Rise
93
Chapter4: 4.6 Casestudy1
(rable 3-7), where systemcost includesthe costs incurred due to congestionand system
transmissionlossesonly. Ibis section assesses
the behaviour of the STATCOM at all
possiblelocationsover a TypicalSummerandWinter Maximum for an averageyear.Table45 lists percentageReductionin SystemCosts (RSC) for all locations and three positions,
wherethe annual% RSCis comparedto the systembasecase.
BusI
BuIll
BusI
Busi
Figure4.6:Two positionsfor STATCOM at eachend of transmissionline #, (a)connectedat

bus i, Lij, (b) connectedat busj, J:ij.
BusI
Busr
BusI
Figure4.7:STATCOM installedat midpoint of transmissionline , M:ij.

Installation of a STATCOM at the ends of transmission lines can equally apply to
transformersbetween busesk, transformer locations have been tested in addition to all
transmissionline locations.Therefore,excludinggeneratorbuses(buses1,2,3,6 and 8) and
both
utilising
endsof everytransmissionline and transformer,thereare27 potentiallocations
for installation. Midpoint installation of STATCOM only applies to transtnissionlines;
therefore,there are 17 potentiallocationsfor installationOinenumbers8-10in Table 4-5 are
transformers).In total, there are44 potentiallocationsfor STATCOM installationon the 14
bus system.
94
Chapter4: 4.6Casestudy1
Table4-5: IEEE 14 bus system,all STATCOM locationsandpositionsI:ij, J:ij andM:ij.

Line
no.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Line 1-j
1-2 Congested
1-5
2-3
24
2-5
34
4-5
4-7 Transformer
4-9 Transformer
5-6 Transformer
6-11
6-12
6-13 Congested
7-8 Congested
, 7-9
9-10
9-14
10-11
12-13
13-14
Annual % Reduction in System Cost w.r. t. basecase

W-j (At bus i)
J: N (At busj)
M: i-j (At midpoint)
GeneratorBus
GeneratorBus
61%
GeneratorBus
-25%
-25%
GeneratorBus
GeneratorBus
6%
GeneratorBus
14%
11%
GeneratorBus
12%
19%
GeneratorBus
0%
3%
-5%
5%
5%
8%
GeneratorBus
GeneratorBus
GeneratorBus
3%
3%
3%
3%
1%
2%
2%
-7%
3%
3%
GeneratorBus
I%
2%
2%
GeneratorBus
3%
1%
2%
2%
2%
2%
-7%
Transformer
Transformer
Transformer
2%
2%
2%
0%
3%
1%
2%
1%
1%
1%
Six positions;1:5-6,J:2-4,J:2-5, M:2-3, M:2-4 and M:2-5 producedannualRSCgreaterthan

5%. Five positions,1:4-5, J:1-5,J:4-5, M: 1-5 and M:4-5 produce an increasein systemcost
36
locations
base
The
the
the
than
remaining
made
case.
and
systemcongestionworse
achieveRSCsof 5% or less.RSCsabove10%arehighlightedin bold.
A.
STATCOM installed at ends of transmission lines

Figures4.8 and 4.9 show the systemcost profiles for the Typical Summer and Winter
Maximum periods over 24 hours for J:2-4, J:2-5 and 1:5-6 respectively.In both seasons
STATCOM locationJ:2-5 providesthe largestRSCs.
B.
STATCOM instaUcd at midpoint of transmission fines

Figures4.10 and 4.11 show the systemcost profiles for the Typical Summerand Winter
,0-Maximum periods over 24 hour period for M: 1-2, M:2-4 and M:2-5 respectively.In both
seasonsM: 1-2providesthe largestsavings.
Tables4-5,4-6 and 4-7 show that over a singleyear installinga STATCOM at specificline
locationscan achieveRSCsup to 61%.Any valueover 10% RSCis considereda significant
saving.
95
Chapter 4: 4.6 Casestudy 1
IIII
0-
)OOOOOMN
I 816-
xxxxxxxx
0
4
:x*
,
ei 2U
0-
xxK X-
tlvvv
(I)
86,
xxx x X)C%
wvvvv\**++*
2xx X-Xx
v V,.,v vv
--v
05
Figure 4.8: IEEE
10
15
Time of Day
No FACTS
J: 24
J: 2-5
1:5-6
20
14 bus system Typical Summer system cost profile with STATCOM
located at ends of transmission lines, J:2-4, J:2-5 and 1:5-6 (half hour time intervals).
(Pee ee eeee-(P
35 ceee E)E)E)eaee
30 -
e-e6,
..t
+
)6vvvvvvvvvvvvv\q
25 -
!(XK*
20 , X-K K
4)41
vvvv
xxx
10 -xxxxxx
05
"()oo(,
',
No FACTS
J:2-4
'v, J:2-5
-+--1: 5-6
vvvV,
10
15
20
Figure 4.9: IEEE 14 bus system Winter Maximum system cost profile with STATCONI
located at ends of transmission lines,J:2-4, J:2-5 and 1:5-6 (half hour timeMitervals).
96
4.6.3 IEEE 14 bus system: Analysis of STATCOM results

Tables 4-6 and 4-7 summarises values of system cost (f(x),
units: $/h), congestion, real
power systemlossesand STATCOM controller ratings at the top three locations that provide
line
lines
(1-2,6-13
7-8).
For
the
in
end of
system congested
reduction system costs and
and
installation, locations are J:2-4, J:2-5 and J: 5-6. For midpoint line installation, locations are
M: 1-2, M:2-4 and M: 2-5.
Systemcost is composed of the costs due to lossesand congestion only (defmed in Chapter
2, Section 2.3). Column three shows the percentage of system cost due to congestion (the
remaining percent is due to the system losses). Column four represents the percent real
power systemlossesmeasuredagainstthe total initial real power output
(pOTOT)
91
IIII
20-o
No FACTS
---M-1-2
18-v
M'.2-4
M:2-5
1642U
08-
:;:
1
17,
:I
4)
2
n
05
15
10
20
Figure 4.10: IEEE 14 bus system Typical Summer system cost profile with STATCOM
located at midpoint of transmission lines at lines, M: 1-2, M: 2-4 and M: 2-5 (half hour time
mtervals)-
97
35 -
NoFACTS
M: 1-2
M: 2-4
M.,2-5
5-
16
0-
Z;
5,
Yoooo (I
'
10 5XXXX
05
10
15
20
Figure 4.11: IFEF 14 bus system WMter Maximum system cost profile with STATCOM
located at midpoint of transtnIssion lines, A1
(half hour time intervals).
M:
2-5
M:
2-4
and
-2,
A.
Table 4-6 shows a summary of results for STATCOM installed at ends of transmission fines
for IEEE 14 bus system at system congested lines and at top three locations that provided
reduction in system cost.
STATCOM at ends of transmission lines that achieve RSCsgreater than 5%

a: 2-4. J:2-5,1: 5-6)
In Table 4-6, greater than 5% RSCs are achieved; however, the percent in system lossesare
mcreaseddue to the change in power flow. For these results the decreasein congestion and
the increasein system loss appear to have an inverse relationship.
STATCOM instafled at ends of congestedlines a: 6-13.1:7-8)

There are three congested lines but only two possible locations for the STATCOM
6-13
J:
positions
and 1:7-8, as four buses are generator buses. RSCsare 2% and 3%
controfler,
respectively and change to system losses minimal. The performance of the system to deal
with congestion when a STATCOM is used is not significantly improved. Similar results are
STATCOM
located
the
when
is
obtained
at A other locations.
98
Table4-6: IEEE 14 bus system,summaryof STATCOM resultsinstalledat Lij andJ:ij.

Basecase
Winter Maximum
Typical Summer
Annual
Winter Maximum period
Typical Summerperiod
Annual
% RSCsrelative to basecase
Changerelative to basecase
Annual
Typical Sununerperiod
Annual
Winter
Typical Suirmer period
Annual
Chanizerelative to basecase
Winter
Annual
System cost
f(x) ($Ih)
% of f(x) t lue
to congesti on
25.9
96.50%
14.2
96.10%
20.0
96.30%
J: Location 24
22.8
93.90%
11.7
88.70%
17.2
91.30%
14%
N/A
% System
loss
5.0%
4.7%
4.89%
STATCOM rating
MVA
N/A
227
-2.8
5.6%
5.2%
5.42%
N/A
+0.53%
404
-3.7
7.2%
7.0%
7.10%
N/A
+2.22%
6.4%
6.4%
6.40%
N/A
+1.52%
373
5.2%
5.0%
5.06%
N/A
+0.17%
59
-5.00%
J: Location 2-5
21.8
86.30%
10.9
67.40%
16.3
76.87%
N/A
19%
-19.40%
J: Location 5-6
24.2
90.80%
82.60%
12.8
86.69%
18.5
8%
N/A
-1.5
-9.60%
d line
J: Location 6 13 Congeste,
0/
.
96.00/6
25.4
94.10%
13.8
95.00%
19.6
2%
N/A
-0.4
I: Location
25.3
13.8
19.5
3%
-1.30%
8 Congest&1line
96.60/o
96.00%
96.29%
N/A
-0.5
-0.01%
5.0%
4.7%
4.861/o
N/A
Oz
-0.03, o
116
STATCOM tatino when instaUedat ends of transmission Enes
The resultsshownin Table 4-6 suggestthat to achieveRSCsover 5% requiresrelativelyhigh

STATCOM ratingsin comparisonto the congestedline locations.Location J:2-5 provides
the largestRSCbut at the sametime requires404NfVArating,the highestof all locations.At
congestedline locationsand the remaininglocationslistedin Table 4-5 with savingsof 5% or
less,the STATCOM controllerratingrequirementsrangefrom 27.5MVA to 350MVA.
99
B.
STATCOM installed at midpoint of transmission lines
Table 4-7 is a summary of midpoint STATCOM results for the IEEE 14 bus system at
systemcongestedlinesand at the top ffireelocationsthat providedreductionin systemcost.

Table 4-7: IEEE 14 bus system,summary of STATCOM results installed at M: ij.
Base case
Annual
Annual
Annual
Annual
Annual
Annual
Systemcost % of f(x) due % System

f(x) ($Ih)
loss
to congestion
25.9
96.50%
5.0%
14.2
96.10%
4.7%
4.89%
20.0
96.30%
M: Location -2 Congestedline
12.5
65.44%
5.7%
3.0
33.43%
5.6%
49.44%
5.64%
7.7
N/A
N/A
61%
46.86%
+0.75%
-12.3
M: Location 24
5.3%
23.5
95.51%
4.9%
93.43%
12.3
5.09%
94.47%
17.9
N/A
N/A
11%
+0.2%
-1.83%
-2.1
M: Location 2-5
5.5%
94.66%
23.2
5.0%
92.23%
12.1
5.23%
93.45%
17.7
N/A
N/A
12%
+0.34%
-2.85%
-2.3
M: Location 13 Congestedline
5.1%
96.23%
25.4
4.8%
95.08%
13.8
4.97%
95.66%
19.6
N/A
N/A
2%
+0.08%
-0.64%
-0.4
M: Location -8 Congestedline
5.04%
96.59%
25.9
4.71%
96.19%
14.2
4.90%
96.40%
20.0
N/A
N/A
0%
0.0
+0.01%
+0.1%
STATCOM rating
MVA
N/A
68
68
90
48
39
STATCOM at midpoint location of transmission hnes that achieve RSCs greater than 10%
(L4:1-2. M.-2-4-M: 2-5)
61% RSCis achievedat congestedline M: 1-2 and 11% and 12% at locationsM:2-4 andM:25 respectively,on averagethesearegreaterthan the RSCsmadewhen installed at the endsof
in congestion
the transmissionlines.Similarto resultsin Table4-6, the resultsshow decrease
increase
in
and simultaneous
systemloss.
100
Chapter4: 4.6CasestudyI
STATCOM installed at midpoint of conggstedtransmission lines (L4:6-13. Mj.

-8a
Installation
at congested line locations M: 6-13 and M: 7-8 achieved 2% and 0% RSC
respectively and increased system losses. Similar results are obtained when the STATCOM
is
located at the midpoint of all other transmission lines, as listed in Table 4-5.
STATCOM rad= when installeda midpoint of transmissionlines

Resultsshown in Table 4-7 suggestthat to achieveRSCsover 10% requiresrelativelyhigh
STATCOM ratingsin comparisonto congestedline locationsM:6-13 and M:7-8. Congested
line location M: 1-2 provides the largestRSC and requiresa STATCOM of 69MVA. In
comparisonto resultsgiven in Table 4-6, the required ratings are an order of magnitude
lower,tensof MVA insteadof hundredsof MVA. At all other locations,RSCsare5% or less
andthe STATCOM controllerratingrequirementsrangefirom.3MVA to 270MVA.
Basedon annual RSCs,midpoint position at location M: 1-2 is the best location for the
STATCOM on the 14 bus system.
4.6.4 IEEE 30 bus system caseswith STATCOM

For installationof STATCOM at the endsof transmissionlines and transformerlocations,
(excludinggeneratorbuses 1,2,5,8,11 and 13) there are 71 potential locations for the
STATCOM. For midpoint transmissionline installationof STATCOM thereare37 potential
locationsasline numbers11,12,15 and 36 are transformers.In total, thereare 108potential
locationsfor STATCOM installationon the IEEE 30 bus system.The first 20 aredetailedin
Table 4-8, it lists all STATCOM locationsusing both ends and midpoint of transmission
lines,where the annual% RSCis comparedto the systembasecaseand line numbers21 to
41 inclusiveshow no significantRSC (:5 1%). Systemsetupand setupresultsfor the IEEE
30 bus systemcan be found in Appendix VII, similar to that presentedfor IEEE 14 bus
systemin Chapter3.
Four locations G:2-4, J:2-6, M: 1-2 and M:2-6) producedannualRSCsequalor greaterthan
10%,two locationsproducedRSCsbetween1% and 9%, 18 locationsproducedan increase
in systemcost, maldng the systemcongestionworse, the remaining 84 locations achieve
annual% RSCsbetween0% and 1%.
101
Table4-8: IEEE 30 bus system,all STATCOM locationsandpositionsI:ij, J:ij andM:ij.

Line 1-j
Line
no.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21-41
I
1-2 Congested
1-3
24
34
2-5
2-6 Congested
4-6
5-7
6-7
6-8 Congested
6-9 Transformer
6-10 Transformer
9-11
9-10
4-12 Transformer
12-13
12-14
12-15 Congested
12-16
14-15
Includes buses16
to 30
Annual % Reduction in System Cost w. r. t. basecase

M: i-] (At midpoint)
J: i-j (At busj)
I: 1-j (At bus i)
GeneratorBus
GeneratorBus
70%
% Increase
GeneratorBus
Increase
7%
GeneratorBus
10%
% Increase
% Increase
% Increase
2%
GeneratorBus
GeneratorBus
13%
GeneratorBus
14%
% Increase
% Increase
% Increase
% Increase
% Increase
GeneratorBus
% Increase
% Increase
% Increase
GeneratorBus
<1%
<1%
Transformer
<1%
<1%
Transformer
<1%
<1%
% In-ease
GeneratorBus
<1%
<1%
<1%
<1%
Transformer
% Increase
<1%
% Increase
GeneratorBus
<1%
% Increase
<1%
<1%
% Increase
< 1%
<1%
0%
<1%
< l'O
1%
<1%
<1%
1
1%
1
0%
1%
<and<
51%
:5
STATCOM instaRedat ends of transmission lines

Figures4.12 and 4.13 show the profiles for the Typical Surnmerand Winter Maximum
A.
location
STATCOM
both
In
J:
hours
for
2-6
J:
2-4
24
seasons
respectively.
periodsover
and
J:2-4 providesthe largestRSC.
Figures4.14 and 4.15 show the systemcost profiles for the Typical Summerand Winter
B.
Maximum periods over 24 hour period for M:1-2 and M:2-4 respectively.In both seasons
M: 1-2 provides the largest RSCs.
102
Chapter 4: 4.6 Casestudy I
14
Wl(-)-IOOCIO-
(o(-)()
*)(-X
x
xxxX-X
12
7vvvvvv-vvvvvvv%
,
-x
1,
-x x X-x
xxx
X-)K
10
4
No FACTS
J:2-4
J: 2-6
v05
Figure 4.12: IEEE
15
10
20
30 bus system Typical Summer system cost profile with STATCOM
located at ends of transmission lines, J:2-4 and J:2-6 (half hour time intervals).
30
I
No FACTS
J: 2-4
J: 2-6
25
20
(91
15
,,Vvv I
10
I--I05
Figure 4.13: IEEE
-1- -III
15
10
30 bus system Winter Maximum
20
system cost profile with STATCOM
located at ends of transnussion lines, J:2-4 and J:2-6 (half hour time intervals).
103
14
T--------
-- --
No FACTS
M: 1-2
M-.2-4
12
--
Vvvv
vvvv-,
10
F.
0
U
15
10
20
Figure 4.14: IEEE 30 bus system Typical Summer system cost profile with STATCONI
located at Midpoint of transmission lines, M: 1-2 and NI:2-4 (half hour time intervals).
3(
2(
'lt
0,1
0
11f
15
10
20
Figure 4.15: IEIEE 30 bus system Winter Maximum system cost proffle with STATCOM
located at n-ndpoint of transmission lines M: 1-2 and M: 2-4 (half hour time intervals).
104
Chapter4: 4.6 CasestudyI
4.6.5 IEEE 30 bus system: Analysis of STATCOM results

Table 4-9 and 4-10 summatisesresultsfor STATCOM at locationsthat provide significant
annualRSC and at the systemcongestedlines (1-2,2-6,6-8 and 12-15)at buseswithout
generatots.
A.

Table 4-9 is a summaryof STATCOM resultsfor the IEEE 30 bus systemwhen installedat
endsof transmissionlines at locationsthat provided 10% reduction in systemcost and at
systemcongestedlines.
Table4-9: IEEE 30 bus system,summaryof STATCOM resultsinstalledat I:ij andJ:ij.

Basecase
Winter Maximum
Typical Summer
Annual
Annual
% RSC relative to basecase
Annual
Annual
Chame relative to basecase
Annual
Annual
System cost
f(x) ($Ih)
% of f(x) due
to congestion
% System
loss
19.1
8.7
13.9
96.60%
79.50%
88.07%
J: Location 24
17.6
94.70%
7.4
67.10%
12.5
80.89%
N/A
10%
3.7%
3.8%
3.743/-o
0.6%
0.8%
0.70/TN/A
-1.4
-7.19% J: Location 2-6 Congestdl ine
93.20%
16.7
64.90%
7.2
11.9
79.04%
N/A
14%
-3.04%
-9.03%
-2.0
I: Location -8 Congested1ine
19.1
96.90%
8.7
77.00%
13.9
86.92%
0%
N/A
0.0
-1.15%1: Location 12-15 Congestedline
19.1
96.60%
8.8
78.90%
13.9
87.72%
0%
N/A
0.0
-0.36%
_ line
J: Location 2-15 Congested
19.4
96.40%
9.0
78.40%
14.2
87.42%
N/A
-2%
+0.3
-0.66%_
-2.7W6-
105
0.9%
1.2%
1.02%
N/A
0.4%
0.7%
0.57%
N/A
STATCOM rating
MVA
N/A
191
132
III
-3.17%
0.5%
0.8%
0.63%
N/A
76
-3.12%
0.3%
0.9%
0.58%
N/A
33
STATCOM installedat endsof transmissionlinesthat achieveRSCsof 10%or greate

a:2-4 and 2-65
-1:
Total annualcost is reducedat the two locationsdue to decreases
in both systemlossesand
congestion.Approximately 2% higher RSCs are made at J:2-4 than J:2-6. The results
reinforcethat congestionis more significantto the contribution of annualsystemcost than
systemlosses.
STATCOM installed at ends of congestedlines (1: 6-8- 1:12-15 and 1:12-15)
0% annual RSCs are made at 1:6-8 and 1:12-15 and at J:12-15 an increase in annual system
is
A
losses
by
3%.
All
locations
trend
seen
similar
cost occurs.
reduce system
approximately
when the STATCOM is located at other systemlocations, as listed in Table 4-8.
STATCOM rating5when installedat endsof transmissionlines

Similar to results shown in Table 4-6, resultsin Table 4-9 suggestthat a relativelyhigher
STATCOM rating is requiredto achieveRSCsof 10% or greater.Unlike resultsfrom Table
4-6 the largestSTATCOM ratingdoesnot coincidewith the greatestRSC.
Table4-10is a summaryof midpoint STATCOM resultsat locationsthat providedreduction
B.
in systemcost and at systemcongestedlinesfor IEEE 30 bus system.

STATCOM at midj2oint location of transmissionlines that achieveRSCsgreaterthan 10%
(L4:1-2.M:2-4.M:2-6)
Significantannual RSCsare achievedat two locations,70% at MA-2, and 13% at M:2-6,
bus
in
loss.
Similar
14
both
locations
increase
in
to
the
results
seen
where
system
experience
lines.
installed
RSCs
the
transmission
than
the
at
ends
of
system,on average
aregreater
when
STATCOM at midpoint locationswith lessthan 10%RSC(L4:2-4,M:2-6.M:6-8.M: 12-15)
0% annualRSCsare made at locationsM:6-8 and M: 12-15.All locationsgive increasein
systemlossesof lessthan 1%.At all other locationslistedin Table 4-8 RSCsarelessthan 1%
anda similartrend is seenin systemlosses.
106
STATCOM rad=
when installed a midpoint of transmission line
In Table 4-10, the required STATCOM ratings are varied, the highest rating is 37MVA at
M: 12-15 where there is 0% RSC and the lowest rating is 13MVA at M: 2-6 where there is 13%
RSC.
Table4-10:IEEE 30 bus system,summaryof STATCOM resultsinstalledat M:ij.

Base case
Maximum
_Winter Summer
_Typical
Annual
Sununerperiod
_Typical
_Annual
Chanaerelative to basecase
Typical Sumner period
Annual
Annual
Winter
Summer
Annual
% RSC elative to basecase
System cost
f(x) ($Ih)
% of f(x) due
to congestion
19.1
8.7
13.9
96.60%
79.50%
88.07%
M: Location 1-2
7.5
51.50%
0.00%
1.0
25.75%
4.2
N/A
70%
% System
loss
3.7%
3.8%
3.74%
4.9%
4.4%
4.63%
N/A
+0.89%
-6232%
M: Location 24
3.52%
96.89%
18.1
3.64%
70.61%
7.7
3.58%
83.75%
12.9
N/A
N/A
7%
4.32%
+0.16%
-1.0
M: Locatio 2-6 Congestedline
3.98%
93.97%
16.8
4.09%
67.25%
7.5
4.04%
80.61%
12.1
N/A
N/A
13%
+0.3%
-7A6%
-1.8
M: Locatio 6-8 Congestedline
3.65%
96.55%
19.1
3.85%
78.98%
8.7
3.75%
87.77%
13.9
N/A
N/A
0%
0.0
+0.01%
-0.3%
M: Location 12-15 Congsteid line
3.66%
96.66%
19.1
3.90%
8.7
78.33%
3.78%
87.49%
13.9
N/A
N/A
0%
0.0
+0.04%
-0.58%
-9.7
STATCOM rating
MVA,
N/A
26
33
13
35
37
Basedon annual RSCs midpoint position at location M: 1-2 is the best location for the
STATCOM on the IEEE 30 bus system.
4.6.6 Summary of case study 1 results
Tables 4-6,4-7 and 4-9,4-10 show that congestion is a higher contribution to system cost
compared to system loss. Therefore, to reduce overall costs it is logical find the FAM
107
in
location
losses
that
minimises
not
suggested
controller
systemcongestion,and
system
as
SinghandDavid (2000)andPreedavicbdt
andSrivastava(1998).
Comparingresultsin Table 4-6 to 4-7 and Table 4-9 to 4-10 shows that positioning the
STATCOM at the midpoint of transmissionlinesgiveshigherRSCscomparedto positioning
at the endsof transmissionlines.In additionSTATCOM ratingswhen installedat midpoint
lines.
than
the
transmission
requirerelativelysmallerratings
positioningat
end of
Instaffing the STATCOM on congestedlines was only effective at M: 1-2 for both the IEEE
14 and30 bus systems.At other congestedlinesRSCswerelessthin 10%.

At both positions there is no direct relationshipbetweenRSC and required STATCOM
in
indicates
It
the
that the nonlinearityof
problem results a nonlinearrelationship
rating.
betweensystemcost and STATCOM controllerrating.
4.7 Case study 2: Daily demand profiles and locating the UPFC to manage
congestion
It is well known that the UPFC alongwith other FACTS controllersarelikely to continueto
be useful tools to mitigate congestionand provide effective expansionof future power
following
(2005)].
The
Zhang
(2000)
[Sood
(2004),
Hingorani
case
et al.
and
systems
et al.
how
UPFC
bus
bus
30
14
IEEE
the
performs
show
the
systems
and
studiescarriedout on
lines)
during
daily
(including
locations
it
is
installed
normal
congested
when
at all possible
demandchanges.The primary interestis in the systemcost savingsdue to congestion.'Me
due
FACTS
losses
to
the
made
to
controller
changes
system
are also observed compare
installation and the proportion of real systemloss to the scheduledoutput power. The
is
3,
Section
3.7
in
Chapter
described
two-step
applied.
general
solutionprocedureas
4.7.1 UPFC orientations
'Ihe UPFC has a shunt and a seriesbranch and can be placedat different orientationson
transmission lines ij. Figures 4.6(a) to (d) shows the four orientations used for these case
studies;
Orientation1- Shuntbranchof UPFC attachedto bus i, seriesbranchto bus ic,

Orientation2- Shuntbranchof UPFC attachedto busj, seriesbranchto bus ic,
108
Chapter4.4.7 Casestudy2
Orientation3- Seriesbranchof UPFC attachedto bus i, shuntbranchto bus ic,

Orientation4- Seriesbranchof UPFC attachedto busj, shuntbranchto bus ic
A review of literature revealsthat Orientation 1 is the most common orientation for
schematicof the UPFC, that is, the shunt branch connectedto the left hand bus i and the
seriesbranch connected to the additional intermediate bus Ic [Nabavi-Niaki (1996), FuerteEsquivel et al. (1997) and Zhang et A (2006)].
Ihe orientation of the UPFC in any practicalinstallationis dependentupon the individual

systemproblem and the desiredoutcome. For examplethe first UPFC installationwas
commissionedin Kentucky, USA to increasepower transfercapabilityand provide voltage
supportdue to the low populationdensityand rural natureof the area[Schauderet A (1998)]
and the ConverterStaticCompensator(CSC)was installedat a New York PowerAuthority
substationto increasethe power flow transferlimit and provide greatercontrol precision
during contingencysituations [Edris et al. (2002)]. In each example static and dynamic
attributeswere takeninto accountto decidethe orientationof the controller.
The objectiveof exploringthe different orientationsin this chapteris to observeif thereare
anymajor differencesin the reductionof congestionand systemcosts.
Orientaiton I
v
60
b**Md"eam
U"C
Figure 4.16(a): Four UPFC Orientations: Orientation 1 (01).
109
Orlentalton 2
bowdd.
S-k
6-1
V68
Bm
We
Figure 4.16(b): Four UPFC Orientations: Orientation 2 (02).

Orientation 3
V60
I
Due
25e
W-WIM.
wak
B. 0
musl
lehl
Zlh
VI
+
V,
Vk
Vsh
We
Figure 4.16(c): Four UPFC Orientations: Orientation 3 (03).

4
Orientation
WA.
""m 3.6
VS&
Zm
15.1
VI
Tra-A.
I.. Lb.
UPFC
Figure 4.16(d): Four UPFC Orientations: Orientation 4 (04).
110
4.7.2 IEEE 14 bus system casewith UPFC

The IEEE 14 bus systemwas first introducedin Chapter2, Section2.6.All generationcost
$/NM
20
coefficients are equal and set to C+=
91
All
lines
$/MWh.
10
Cjj
are
and
=
bus
For
14
four
UPFC
the
the
system there
possible orientations.
at
simulated with a single
for
UPFC.
locations
lines
3
20
17
the
transformers,
transmission
maldng
potential
and
are
Five lines (1-2,1-5,2-4,2-5 and 4-5) at all four orientations show RSCs over 10%. Only
d-ds
is
large
does
RSC,
line
UPFC
located
1-2
the
also the
and
show
when
at congested
location that shows the best results overall. Table 4-11 lists the annual % RSC due the
base
line
the
UPFC
to
case
and orientation compared
at each combination of
addition of a
in
bold.
highlighted
10%
RSCs
Percentages
are
above
system.
Table 4-11: IEEE 14 bus systemlisting all UPFC locations and four orientations.
Line
no.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
E 18
19
20
Line tj
1-2 Congested
1-5
2-3
24
2-5
34
4-5
4-7 Transformer
4-9 Transformer
5-6 Transformer
6-11
6-12
6-13 Congested
7-8 Congested
7-9
9-10
9-14
10-11
12-13
13-14
.
Annual % Reduction in S stem cost w. r. t. basecase

04
03
02
01
66%
70%
68%
71%
27%
57%
32%
61%
6%
13%
12%
7%
24%
27%
31%
15%
51%
18%
58%
38%
9%
7%
9%
11%
16%
26%
31%
14%
4%
5%
4%
3%
4%
5%
4%
5%
5%
9%
6%
7%
5%
2%
3%
7%
5%
2%
2%
2%
4%
2%
2%
5%
3%
0%
0%
3%
4%
4%
4%
4%
3%
2%
2%
4%
2%
3%
2%
3%
2%
2%
2%
2%
1%
2%
2%
2%
2%
2%
2%
2%
Figures4.17(a)and (b) showsthe resultsfor the UPFC in Orientation 1 at lines 1-2,1-5,2-3,

2-4,2-5,3-4 and 5-6 during TypicalSummerand Figures4.18(a)and (b) at Winter Maximum
is
better
UPFC
during
The
the
the
period
comparedto the
surnmer
period.
performanceof
is
during
because
level
the
the
winter more severe.
of congestionexperienced
winter,
The orientationof the UPFC doeshavesomeeffect on the systemperformanceto minimise
congestioncosts.For example,line number 5 indicatesthat if installedusing Orientation 1,
therewould be an annualRSC40% higher than Orientation 3. The resultshavehighlighted
ill
that this is another important factor that should have been given more consideration in
pubbshed hterature to date. For steady state analysispresented from here on Orientation 1 is
exan-unedto indicate common trends.
2'
No FACTS
1-2
-01:
1B-01: 1-5
Ot2-3
01: 24
164
2
)Oooo
XXAXX
K--X
VXvvvvvvvvvvvv
KX
)C--,
K_
V"X
xxx
IK "Y "111
IU
10
zu
Figure 4.17(a)
2'
No FACTS
-01: 2-5
01: 3-4
01: 5-6
?\AAAAAAAA^,
=1
er*
AAAA,
'6 A
6000
.
A/\A/\
Z;
(,y
++++++4-++-1-+
+++......
AA
+-+++
2A++
05
10
15
20
Figure 4.17(b)
Figure 4.17: IEEE 14 bus system UPFC Orientation
at: (a) locations 1-2,1-5,2-3
1, Typical Summer system cost profile
and 2-4 (b) locations 2-5,3-4 and 5-6 (half hour time intervals).
112
Chapter 4: 4.- Casestudy 2
No
-01:
01:
01:
01:
31
1
FACTS
1-2
1-5
2-3
2-4
******
41**-*
**
vv"IV
2 5xxxxxxxxx
2
vvv
5(Yoo oo c
?KXXXXXXXXXXXX
xxx
vvvv
Xxx
114
vv
20
15
10
05
Figure 4.18(a)
--
I --
----
---T--
---
-7-
--
--
---F
--
35A4
44
4A
OJ0) 4 4-
004
3025Q 20-
00
(A
10-
No FACTS
01: 2-5
01: 34
01: 5-6
5.........
110115210
Figure 4.18(b)
Figure 4.18: IF, EE 14 bus system UPFC Orientation
1, Winter Maximum system cost profile
and 2-4, (b) locations 2-5,3-4 and 5-6 (half hour time intervals).
113
IEEE 14bus system: Analysis of UPFC results

Table 4-12 showsresultsfor UPFC Orientation 1 at the locationsthat provide RSCabove
10% and at the systemcongestedlines (1-2,6-13 and 7-8). It includesvaluesof systemcost
f(x), congestion,realpower systemlossesand UPFC ratings.
Comparedto the resultsachievedby simulatingthe STATCOM, the UPFC is ableto achieve
greater RSCswidi lower required ratings. Using the UPFC there are five locations widi RSCs
greaterthan 10%,acMevedwith UPFC ratingsbetween66MVA and 141MVA.

UPFC locations that achieve RSCsMeater than 10% (0 1:1
-2.1-5,2-5.2-4.3-4.4-5)
The % RSCchangerelativeto the basecaserangesfrom 11% at location 01: 34 to 71% at

location 01: 1-2.Percentsystemlossesare increasedby a maximum of 0.82%at 0: 2-5 and
in
losses
directly
Increase
to
not
are a minor
are
proportional congestionreduction.
system
consequence
of reducingsystemcongestion.
UPFC locations at congestedlines and with RSCsequal to 5% or less Q1: 6-13.7-B)
RSCsof 5% and 3% are achievedwhen the UPFC is locatedat lines 01: 6-13 and 01: 7-8.
Ihere is a fractional increasein systemloss from 01: 6-13 and a fractional decreasefrom
01: 7-8.
UPEC ratinga
For all locations in 01, UPFC ratings range from 36-2MVA to 381MVA at 01: 10-11 and
01: 5-6 respectively. From the eight locations included in Table 4-12, the congested lines
01: 6-13 and 01: 7-8 require larger UPFC ratings of 155MVA and 117MVA to achieve
system cost savings of 5% or below, whereas locations 01: 1-2,01: 1-5,01: 2-5,01: 2-4 and
0 1:3-4 require UPFC ratings of 93MVA or less to achieve RSCs above 11%. The exception
is 0 1:4-5 where a 141MVA controller is required to achieve 14% RSC.
Taking into considerationRSCsonly; location 01: 1-2 is the optimal location to install the
UPFC on the 14bus system.
114
Table 4-12: IEEE 14 bus system,summary of UPFC Orientation 1 results.

Base case
Annual
Annual
Annual
Annual
Annual
Annual
Annual
Annual
Annual
Systemcost
f(x) ($Ih)
% of f(x) due
% System
loss
to congestion
25.9
96.50%
5.10%
14.2
96.40%
4.90%
20.0
96.44%
4.98%
1
1
1
1
01: Location 1-2 Congestedline
1.1
5.10%
5.40%
10.5
61.90%
5.50%
5.8
33.49%
5.48%
N/A
N/A
71%
+0.50%
-14.2
-63.95%
01: Location 1-5
13.1
5.6%
74.00%
2.5
8.20%
5.3%
7.8
41.08%
5.49%
N/A
61%
N/A
+0.52%
-12.2
-55.36%
01: Location 2-5
21.1
5.80%
71.50%
3.6
38.30%
7.10%
6.46%
12.4
54.87%
N/A
38%
N/A
41.57%
+0.82%
-7.7
01: Location 24
5.50%
22.7
92.50%
5.10%
11.4
80.70%
86.60%
5.30%
17.0
N/A
N/A
15%
40.52%
-3.0
-9.85%
01: Location 34
5.70%
24.2
92.60%
5.70%
11.4
78.30%
5.70%
17.8
85.46%
N/A
N/A
11%
+0.72%
-2.2
-10.98%
_
01: Location 4-5
4.80%
20.3
94.50%
14.2
90.90%
5.40%
17.2
92.71%
5.11%
N/A
N/A
14%
+0.13%
-2.8
-3.73%
01: Location 6-13 Congestedli e
24.9
95.70%
5.3%
13.3
93.70%
5.0%
19.1
94.65%
5.12%
N/A
N/A
5%
+0.14%
-0.9
-1.79%
01: Location -8 Congestedline
25.3
96.60%
5.00%
13.7
96.00%
4.70%
19.5
96.29%
4.86%
3%
N/A
N/A
-0.6
-0.16%
115
-0.12%
UPFC rating
MVA
N/A
70
92
93
66
39
141
155
117

A similar analysis has been carried out on the IEEE 30 bus system. All generation cost
$/NM
20
coeffidents are equal and set to C+=
gi
lines
$/MWh
All
Cii
10
are
and
=
bus
for
30
four
UPFC
the
systemthereate
possible
simulatedwith a single
at all
orientations,
37 transmissionlinesand four transformers,that equals41 potentiallocationsfor the UPFC,
making 164 locations.Appendix IV detailsof IEEE 30 bus systemssetup,similar to that
first
bus
in
Chapter
3.
4-13
for
20
Table
IEEE
14
transmission
the
the
system
shows
shown
linesand transformersand lists eachUPFC location,the % RSCis comparedto the IEEE 30
bus base casesystem, line numbers 21-41 inclusive show no significant RSC :51% and RSCs
in
highlighted
bold.
10%
than
are
greater
Figures 4.19 and 4.20 shows system cost profiles of the 30 bus system with UPFC
Orientation 1 during Typical Summer and Winter Maximum respectively.Locations 1-2,1-3,
2-4 and 3-4 are shown in 19(a)and 20(a) and locations 2-4,4-6 and 6-7 in 19(b) and 20(b).
%
Table4-13:IEEE 30 bus system,all UPFC orientations;
and corresponding RSC.
Line
no.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21 - 41
Line i-j
1-2 Congested
1-3
24
34
2-5
2-6 Congested
4-6
5-7
6-7
6-8 Congested
6-9 Transformer
6-10 Transformer
9-11
9-10
4-12 Transformer
12-13
12-14
U-15 Congested
12-16
14-15
Includes buses 16 to 30
Annual % Reduction in S:7stemCost w.r. t. b asecase

03
04
02
01
72%
73%
73%
70%
60%
76%
29%
75%
11%
10%
14%
10%
72%
71%
63%
52%
2%
3%
2%
2%
21%
15%
19%
14%
21%
9%
17%
16%
2%
0%
2%
1%
0%
1%
% Increase
10%
0%
0%
0%
0%
2%
1%
1%
1%
2%
1%
1%
1%
0%
0%
1%
0%
1%
1%
2%
1%
1%
1%
5%
3%
0%
% Increase
0%
% Increase
0%
0%
0%
0%
1%
1%
1%
1%
1%
1%
1%
1%
0%
1%
0%
1%
!51%
:51%
:51%
:51%
116
15 -- --ie No FACTS
1-2
-01:
v 01: 1-3
01: 2-4
01: 3-4
10 -
4xxxxxxxxxxx
1717-V VIIUI; 7
. 1111
-0
15
10
20
Figure 4.19 (a)

I.TI
e No FACTS
2-6
-1--01:
1:2- ---4-01: 4-6
0 1:6-7
1
)()()O()()()0()()00'()
11
1
er*
:
/'NA
4-
'Itt+-+-+
-0
AAAA
15
10
20
Figure 4.19(b)
1, Typical Summer system cost profile
117
30
,)ooooooooo
01: 1-2
01: 1-3
01: 2-4
01: 3-4
V.1
booQ
4*
O-G
1 ,
A
vVVVVIVv
, KXXXXKXXKXXX
t)()Oo(
vvv
xxx
05
10
15
20
Figu.re 4.20(a)
n^
1)
AAA
No FACTS
----01: 2-6
01:
4-6
-^,
2 5- +- 01: 6-7
oo(D
()()Q
)
0
U
A/%AA
1
+ +++
AAAAAA
nL
05
10
15
20
Figure 4.20(b)
1, Winter Maximum system cost profile
118
IEEE 30 bus system: Analysis of UPFC results

Table4-14 showsresultsfor UPFC Orientation1 at the locationsthat provide a minimumof
10%reductionin cost and at the systemcongestedlines(1-2,2-6,6-8 and 12-15)with respect
to the basecase.It includesvaluesof systemcost f(x), congestion,realpower systemlosses
andUPFC ratings.
UPFC locations with RSCs greater than 10% (C11:1-2.1-3- 2-4.3-4.2-6- 4-6- L-Z
In all results shown in Table 4-14 congestion costs are reduced. In four of the seven
locations system losses are also reduced and at the remaining three casessystem losses are
increasedwith respect to the base case.14%, 52%, 70% and 75% annual RSCs are made at
UPFC installation locations 01: 2-6,01: 3-4,01: 1-2 and 01: 1-3. Costs due to congestion are
responsible for the significant savings as system losses are increased by less than 1%. 17%
At
6-7
01:
2-4.
01:
is
01:
4-6
RSC
RSC
10%,
and
are made at
annual
made at
and
annual
these three locations both congestion and systemlossesare reduced.
Q1:
6-8.1
less
10%
lines
RSC
UPFC locations at conp_,
than
of
ested
and with
When the UPFC is installed at congestedline locations 01: 6-8 and 01: 12-15 RSC are less
than 2%.
UPFC ratinga
For 52%,70% and 75% annualRSCsthe UPFC ratingsrequiredare 141MVA, 125MVA and
169MVA respectively.These are relatively higher than the ratings required at locations
01: 2-6,01: 2-4 and 01: 12-15where14%to 1% annualRSCsaremade.
4.7.4 Summary of case study 2 results
Tables 4-12 and 4-14 are consistentwith Tables 4-6,4-7 and 4-9,4-10 and show that
congestionis a highercontributionto systemcostcomparedto systemloss.
Installingthe UPFC on congestedtransmissionlinesto push the usableline capacitycloserto
their operatinglimits to avoid congestionis not necessarilythe best contenderfor FAM
controllerinstallation,similarlyto the conclusionsin Pe Oliveira et al. (2000)].This wasonly
successfulfor 01: 1-2 on both the 14 and30 bus systems.
119
Table4-14:IEEE 30 bus system,summaryof UPFC Orientation1 results.

Base case
System cost
f(x) ($1h)
Maximum
_Winter Summer
_Typical
Annual
Maximum period
_Winter
_Annual
RSC relative to basecase
_%
relative to basecase
_Change
Maximum period
_Winter Sununer
period
_Typical
_Annual
_%
_Change
Maximum period
_Winter Summer
period
_Typical
_Annual
_%
ChanRerelative to basecase
Maximum
_Winter
Tvt)ical Summert
_%
ChanRerelative to basecase
Maximum period
_Winter Sununer
period
_Typical
_Annual
_%
Maximum period
_Winter Summer
period
_Typical
_Annual
_%
Chan2erelative to basecase
Maximum period
_Winter Summer
period
_Typical
_Annual
_%
_Change
19.1
8.7
13.9
01: Locatio
7.3
1.0
4.2
70%
9.8
01:
6.3
0.8
3.6
75%
10.4
01:
17.7
7.4
12.6
10%
1.4
01:
7.4
5.9
6.7
52%
7.2
01: Locatio
16.73121
7.25
11.99
14%
1.9
01:
17.0
6.3
11.6
17%
2.3
01:
17.4
7.6
12.5
10%
1.4
% of f(x) due
% System
loss
to congestion
96.6%
3.6%
79.5%
3.8%
88.07%
3.74%
1-2 Congested line
54.00o
4.8%
0.0%
4.4%
27.02%
4.60%
N/A
N/A
-61.10%
L ocation 1-3
47.68%
0.00%
23.84%
N/A
-64.23%
L ocation 24
96.56%
67.81%
82.19%
N/A
-5.89%
Location 34
59.73%
39.78%
49.76%
N/A
-38.32%
2-6 Congested line
94.13%
67.24%
80.69%
N/A
-7.39%
Location 4-6
93.21%
69.44%
81.33%
N/A
-6.75%
Location 6-7
96.34%
74.27%
85.31%
N/A
-2.77%
rable 4-14 continued overleaE
120
UPFC rating
MVA
N/A
125
+0.86%
4.80%
4.20%
4.50%
N/A
+0.76%
3.59%
3.68%
3.64%
N/A
: 0.11%
4.44%
4.37%
4.41%
N/A
+0.67%
169
49
141
3.96%
4.08%
4.02%
N/A
44
0.00%
0.43%
0.22%
N/A
117
-3.53%
< 0.01%
<0.01%
<0.01%
N/A
-3.74%
106
Chapter4: 4.8 Condusions
Table4-14continued:IEEE 30 bus system,summaryof UPFC Orientation1 results.

Base case
Maximum period
_Winter
Annual
_%
1
Annual
_%
_Change
% of f(x) due to I % System

loss
congestion
0 1: Locati n 6-8 Congestedline
19.1
96.41%
< 0.01%
8.7
76.12%
< 0.01%
13.9
86.27%
<0.01%
1%
N/A
N/A
0.1
-1.81%
-3.74%
01: Locatio 12-15 Congestedline
19.0
96.06%
<0.01%
8.7
77.61%
< 0.01%
13.9
86.84%
< 0.01%
1%
N/A
N/A
0.1
-1.23%
-3.74%
Sys em cost
f(x) ($/h)
UPFC rating
MVA
110
76
4.8 Conclusions
Results from the IEEE 14 bus system show that both the STATCOM and UPFC can
substantiallyimprove the annual RSC due to congestionif located correctly. For the
STATCOM there are five out of the possible44 locations,with a maximumof 61% RSCat
M: 1-2 but for the UPFC there are five or six from each orientation that achieve RSC of over
10%.
Results from the IEEE 30 bus system also show that both the STATCOM and UPFC can
substantially improve the annual RSC if located correctly. For the STATCOM there are only
four out of a possible110locationsgiving a RSCgreaterthan 10%,with a maximumof 70%

RSC at M: 1-2. For the UPFC there are five to sevenlocations within each orientation that are
ableto provide 10%to 75% RSCs.

A one-by-onemethod to find the optimal location of both the STATCOM and UPFC has
been used in this chapter.The next chapterinvestigatesmethods of sensitivityanalysisto
reducethe numberof simulationsrequiredto find the optimallocationsidentifiedso far.
Resultsshownindicatethat FACTS controller ratingsare not directly proportional to the %
RSCs;the cost minimisationand rating areboth dependentupon the location.The decision
to utilise a FACTS controller is not only dependentupon its performancebut it can be in
conflict with the financialconstraints.One of the most important of theseis the installation
cost,which amongstother things is directly dependentupon the rating of the controller.In
Chapter 6 the conflict between minimisation of congestion and controller rating cost
problemis investigated.
121
Chapter 5
SensitiVity based three-step method for locating
FACTS controflers
5.1Introduction
Although the technology required for the fast switching action for the STATCOM and
UPFC has been available for approximately two decades,they are still considered high priced
finding
(1998)
(1998)].
Therefore,
[Schauder
Mehraban
the
equipment
et al.
and
et al.
key
for
installation
benefits
is
to maximizing the
to
appropriate site
provide maximum system
assetsof these controllers. Chapter 4 presented results from daily and annual congestion cost
savingsfor the STATCOM and UPFC using the IEEE 14 and 30 bus systems.However, for
real electricity transmission networks, the size of the network, number of buses and number
of lines are far greater than that of these small test systems.The simple trial and error method
it
Therefore,
in
be
for
large
3
4
Chapters
analysis.
may
scale
system
applied
not
and
efficient
is desirable to develop a method for finding the optimal locations for FACTS controller
installations, which is suitable for large scalepower systems.
This chapter is organisedas follows; a literature review of sensitivity-basedindicators,

locations
FACTS
to
and the type of controllers
methods applied seek optimal
controller
appliedis discussedin Section5.2.Section5.3 presentsthe aims of this chapter.The theory
and derivationof the proposedsensitivityindicatorsare shown in Section5.4; first for the
branch
describes
for
branch.
5.5
Section
the sensitivity-based
threethen
the
shunt
and
series
step method for applicationin large scalesystemsas an extensionof the generaltwo-step
method presentedin Chapter 3. Numerical results are then presentedin Section 5.6. In
Section5.7,Scenario1 teststhe ability of sensitivityto indicatethe individuallocationsandin
Section5.8,Scenario2 teststhe ability of averagedareasensitivityto identify the bestareato
installFACTS controllers.Finallyin Section5.9 conclusionsaredrawn.
5.2 Overview of literature
Therearemanypublicationsrelatingsensitivitytechniquesto OPF algorithmsand sensitivitybasedmethodswith and without the considerationof FACTS controllers.This sectionaims
122
Chapter5: 5.2 Overviewof literature
to give the readeran overview of techniquesmost sirnUarto the work carriedout in this
chapter.
5.2.1 Sensitivity-basedindicator methods
Sensitivity-based
indicator methodshavebeen commonlyusedwithin the steadystatetime
domain to find the best location to improve the overallperformanceof a power systemfor
sometime [Gribik.et A (1990)and Beladet A (2005)].Ihese include analyseson both d.c.
load flow models [Lie and Deng (1997)]and more commonly on a.c. load flow models,
is
latter
the
where
more complexasit takesinto accountthe influenceof reactivepower on
the economicdispatchor OPF modelof interest.
Frequently,sensitivityindicators are first order differentials or elementsin the Jacobian
Zhang
For
There
has
been
example,
et
matrix.
a varietyof applicationsof sensitivityanalysis.
(Ibyristor
Controlled
Series
TCSC
location
SSSC
(2006a)
finds
the
and
al.
of a
optimal
Compensator)for maximisingthe transfercapacityover interconnectedtransmissionsystems
losses
level,
line
inspection
in
(2005)
Ramirez
Oliva
and generation
of voltage
while
and
an
in
An
(2007)
function.
In
is
to
the
et
al.
addition
respect
costs madewith
systern!
s objective
inspectionof voltage magnitude,phaseshift angle and shunt susceptancefor deciphering
is
is
FAM
power
reactive
capability
appropriate
controller settings achieved,wlOe
measuredin Yao and Strbac(1999).
In publicationsby Singh and David [(2001),(2001a)and (2000)],a measurecalledthe real
power flow performanceindex (PI) is used as a guide to sensitivity.PI is a measureof
TCSC
is
line
the
the
to
the
parameters
of
and the
compared
severityof
overloads,which
TCPAR (Ihytistor-Controlled PhaseAngle Regulator)controllersto give sensitivityvaluesin
been
find
best
has
based
1he
PI
to
applied
market.
same measure also
a predominantpool
locationfor UPFCsbut widiout cleatreferenceto the rnarketstructure[Vennaet al. (2001)].
Loss sensitivityapproacheswere usedin Verma et al. (2001),Singh and David (2000)and
Preedavichitand Srivastava(1998)to find the optimal FACTS location.An et al (2007)and
Gotham and Heydt (1998)suggestthat it is best to install FACTS controllersonto heavily
congestedlines to provide enhancedeconomicoperation.However,neitherof thesetrailsof
thought is appropriateor correct for the minimisation of congestionin a pure bilateral
market;as seenin Chapter4 the systemloss is insignificantrelativeto the cost incurredby
123
Chapter5: 5.2 Overviewof literature
systemcongestionand heavily congestedlines are not alwaysthe best locations for the
reductionof congestioncosts.
Ihe researchgroup headedby T. W. Gedra developedfirst and secondorder sensitivity
factors for various uses such as; locating phaseshifters [Gedra and Damrongkulkamjorn
(1995) and (1994)] and estimation of control settings for UPFC by inserting on all
transmissionlines [An and Gedra(2002)].Furthermore,a secondorder sensitivityapproach,
is able to provide an estimateon the incrementalvalue of the phase shifter (or other
resource)without resolvingthe completeOPF algorithmlines [An and Gedra(2002)].
5.2.2 Methods used to find optimal FACTS controller locations
The one-by-oneapproachpresentedin Chapter3 has alsobeenappliedby Singhand David
(2001a) for seriesFACTS controllers,the TCSCandTCPAPL
Genetic algorithms (GA) have also been a popular choice for tackling the location and
Oliva
(2001),
Ramirez
[Gerbex
install
FACICS
and
et al.
on a system
numberof
controllersto
(2005)and Ippolito et al. (2006)].GA methodsare usuallymore computationaRy
extensive,
for examplein Cai ct al. (2004)the algorithmsimultaneously
attemptsto solvecongestionby
finding the optimal typeof FACIS controlleraswell asthe locationand ratingof the device.
Nevertheless,the OPF basedmethod by linear and non-linearprogrammingis by far the
into
four
broad
fall
Use
categoriesof
methods
most common approach.
of sensitivity-based
objectivefunction;
in
Verma
A
(2001)
losses
(1)
presented
et
only, as
minimising activepower system
and Preedavichitand Srivastava(1998);
(H)
(Iii)
minimisationof generationcosts,(linearand quadraticrepresentation);

in
Singh
David
in
this
and
and
work,
presented
minimising congestioncostsas
(2001)for both pool andbilateralmarketmodelsand;
(IV)
losses
[Ile
installation
FACTS
together
power
system
minimising
with active
cost
and Deng (1997),FangandNgan (1999)and Singhand David (2001a)].
124
Chapter5: 5.3Aims
5.2.3 FACTS controller types applied

Shunt, seriesand combination (shunt-series)FACrS controller steadystate modelshave
been applied to various objective functions including; minimisation of generationcosts,
minirrdsationof systemreal power losses,minimisation of FACTS controller installation
costs,and minimisationof congestioncostsmeasuredon the pool and bilateralmarketsin
the literature.
The series FACTS controllers, TCSC and the TCPAR are used in Singh and David (2000)
and Farahani et al. (2006) within bilateral market models with the aim of providing
congestion managementand reducing load curtailments respectively.However, the sensitivity
indices relate to real power transmission line losses,total system losses,and not congestion.
A similar sensitivity measure is used with the UPFC in Verma. et al. (2001) in which an
additional'sensitivity factor associatedwith the level of congestion on each line is measured.
As seen from previous results, the reduction in system congestion bears a greater proportion
of total system cost therefore it is logical to seeka sensitivity factor that reflects this finding.
An alternativesteadystateUPFC modelis appliedin An, et al. (2007)wheresensitivityvalues

are derivedfrom the changein generationcost with respectto UPFC variablesto provide a
first scanof the potentialcontrollerlocations.The methodappliedis similarto that appliedin
this chapteras first-order sensitivityis measuredby running the OPF problem a singletime
only. In addition for the alleviationof congestionon bilateralbasedmarketsin Singhand
David (2001),sensitivityis not directly linked to congestioncost performance.Ihe work
presentedin this chapterairnsto fill that gap.
5.3Aims
Computationally,the generaltwo-stepmethod implementedin Chapter3, Section3.7 can
becometime consumingfor reallarge-scale
power systemswith thousandsof buses.To save
time and expenditure,a sensitivity-based
analysisis appliedto reducethe numberof potential
buses and transmissionlines for testing FAM
controller performance for alleviating
congestion.
The following list highlights the featuresof the sensitivity-basedmethod applied to the
STATCOM and UPFC presentedin this chapter:
9 Sensitivityisrelated to the control variableof interestof the specifiedFAM
125
controller,
Chapter5: 5.4Iheory and sensitivityderivations
Ihe steadystate FACFS models applied are widely acceptedfor static time domain
studies;
Sensitivityanalysisaims to substantiallyreduce the number of potential locations for
controllerinstallation;
In the averagedareaapproach,sensitivityanalysisairnsto indicatethe most suitablearea
for FACTS controllerinstallation.
5.4Theory and sensitivity derivations
Sensitivityanalysisappliedto nonlinearmodelsis more complex than that appliedto linear
models [Saltelli (2005)]. In this case, the equations defining the transmissionsystem,
transmissionline, transformersandFACIrScontrollersarenonlinear.
The derivation for both the shunt and seriesbranch sensitivitymeasuresstart with the
Lagrangeequation for transmissionline betweenbusesi andj, first statedin Chapter2,
function
f(x) equation
(2.25).
The
Lagrange
the
equation
equationencapsulates objective
(2.1) and all equality and inequalityconstraintsof the OPF problem; the inclusion of a
FACTS controller introducesadditionalvariablesand constraints.The Lagrangeequationin
(5.1) includes systembusesi andj without referenceto the additional FACTS controller
variables.
(In(sti)
(In(sul)
f(x)
In(slj
In(suj
L(x) =
+
+
p
u
-,
-,
(x)
(x)
Aqj
Api
(x)
(x)
AQj
APj
AQi
lA - llqi
-Ap,
(hi
hi
hi
himax
Irli
sit
7rui
sui
- zlj
(hj
hmin
slj
_; Tuj
(hj
hmax
suj
_
_
whetethe objectivefunction is equalto,

Ng
Px)
=I
Ng
C+ P+
gi gi
[Cii
+
Pi,
defined
in Chapter2. Derivationsof power mismatchequations
and all other variablesare as
for the shunt,seriesand combinationcontrollerscanbe found in Appendix IV.
126
Chapter5: 5.4Theory and sensitivityderivations
5.4.1 Shunt bus sensitivity

The shunt controller or STATCOM is able to inject or absorb reactive power at the local
bus.Ihe control variableof interestis the reactivepower Qj at the local bus i. Ihe derivative
of the Lagrangeequation(5.1)with respectto Qj is,
(x)
Qi
i9A
L'L(x)
=
-Aqi
aQi
aQi
(5.2)
where, AQj(x) is the reactivepowermismatchgivenby,

(5.3)
AQi(x) Qgi - Qd,- Qi
lhus
OAQi(x)
=-I
aQj
(5.4)
and
aL(x)
Aqj
=
aQj
(5.5)
The control variable Q is an implicit variableof the objective function f(x) through the
Lagrangeequation (5.1). Sensitivity Sshis representedas in Zhang et al (2007),
OL(x)
OQI
(5.6)
= Ssh
(5.7)
Ssh =A
iq
5.4.2 Seriesbranch sensitivity

The UPFC is a combinationcontroller,composedof a shunt and a seriesbranch.The series
componentof the UPFC is able to influencethe transmissionline impedance,variableXy
for
in
Figure
is
betweenbusesi andj. The lumped 7r-equivalent
5.1
assumed
circuit shown
the model of the transmissionhne.Derivationof power mismatchequationsfor transmission
linesand transformerscanbe found in AppendixII.
127
Chapter5: 5.4Theory and sensitivityderivations
Bus and line conductance (gil and gy respectively) and susceptance(bil and byrespectively)
dependent
Xy and shunt
are
upon the transmissionline properties,resistanceRij, reactance
Bc by the following telationships,
susceptance
Rij
(5.8)
git gjj - gy -- 2
R, + X#
j
B,
bij = bjj = by +
2
(5-9)
-X'
(5.10)
by =j
R +X;
y1jo gljl jblj

Bus I
I
Bus
iij
Vl=vlz-(),
Vi0 ViIIli
-1
4
IJO
ilo
Ij
Bc
Bc
Figure5.1:Transmissionline n-equivalentcircuit model.

The transmissionline reactanceXy is an implicit variable of the objective function f(x)
throughthe Lagrangeequation(5.1).Sensitivitywith respectto Xjj is calculatedby,
OL(x)
(5.11)
= SY
oxii
where,
Sy =
_'lpi
[_V
ii
V,
V
+
i2 i jcos(oi-oj)]gii +[ViVjsin(Oi-0j)]
axy
ab"
[ViVj
sin(Oi-0j)]Lgy-+[Vi2 -ViVj cos(Oi
-Ilqi
-0j)]
f
Txij
ary
[_V2
[ViVj
(Oj
(Oj
Api
Oi)]g-jj
0i)]2I
ViVj
cos
+
sin
j+
axi
IIXY
-Ilqj
[ViVjsin(Oj-0i)]g-j
+[Vj2-VjVjcos(Oj-0j)]
axy
128
abjj
a7y-f
(5.12)
Chapter5: 5.5Sensitivitybasedthree-stepmethod
A similarsensitivityanalysisfor the SSSCcanbe found in Zhang et A (2006a).Derivationof

both sensitivityequationscanbe found in AppendixVII.
5.5 Sensitivity based three-step method
A generalsensitivitybasedthree-stepmethod for finding the optimal location andratingof a
FACTS controller is presented.Step 1 is similar to that presentedin the two-stepmethod
(Chapter3, Section3.7). Step2 utilisessensitivityanalysis.The input variableof interestis
dependentupon the type of FACTScontrollerappliedto the system.The output from Step2
is
At
locations
lines.
Step
3,
identify
the
the
run
simulation
most sensitive
and congested
will
with the controllerat the locationswith the largestsensitivityvaluesonly.
STEP 1
Output:
Solve congestionmanagement
problemwithout FACTS
controller
Generatoractive power levels

Level of congestion
Level of active power losses
Systemcost
I>
Output:
STEP 2
Sensitivity analysisfor FACTS
controller location (problem
solvedwithout FACTS
controller)
I--
Sensitivitiesat eachbus/line
lines
Identificationof congested
Output:
STEP 3
Determinethe rating of the
FACTS controller (problem
solvedwith FACTS controller)
I --
FACTS controller optimal rating

Level of congestion
Level of active power losses
Svstemcost
Figure5.2:Overviewof sensitivity-based
three-step
method.
_0__
5.6 Numerical results
1he IEEE 14 bus and 30 bus system models used in previous chapters combined with
STATCOM and UPFC models provide the numerical results presented in this chapter. '1he
sensitivity method has been tested using two scenarios,
* Scenario 1: ability of sensitivity factor to identify individual buses or lines as the optimal
location;
e ScenarioI ability of averagedareasensitivityfactor to identify the optimal area.
129
Chapter5: 5.7Scenario1
Under each scenariothe shunt bus sensitivityresultsare assessed

againstthe STATCOM
UPFC
line
the
then
the
results
simulation
and
sensitivityresultsare assessed
against
series
interest
locations.
key
The
three
points
are,
simulationresultsat specified
of
1. the tank of the sensidvitymeasures;
2. the performanceof the controllerat specifiedlocations;
3. the correlation between the locations identified by sensitivity analysisand the
performanceof the controllerat thoselocations.
For Scenario2, the IEEE 14 and 30 bus systemsare divided into four and five areas
respectively.
5.7 Scenario 1: Sensitivity for identifying individual buses or lines for FACTS
controller optimal location
STATCOM
from
First the shunt bus sensitivity, Ssh
the
the
simulating
results gathered
i and
installed at the ends of the transmission lines on the 14 and the 30 bus systemsare presented.
Secondly, the series line sensitivity, Sjj and results gathered using the UPFC on the same
systemsare shown.
5.7.1 Shunt bus sensitivity for STATCOM

As shuntbus sensitivityis measuredat bus i, resultsin this sectiononly refer to a STATCOM
installedat the endsof the transmissionlines.
Tables5-1 and 5-2 are to be readin two sectionswith Column I common to both. Columns
2 to 4 show the bus numberswith the highestsensitivitiesas gatheredfrom Step2 of the
locations
(and
5
10
Columns
based
to
the
three-step
show
method.
general sensitivity
from
3
(RSC),
Step
%
in
results
of the
positions)and corresponding reduction systemcost
locations
for
STATCOM
Table
5-1
5-2
that achieve
the
proposedmethod.
and
show results
the greatest% RSCfor the 14 bus and the 30 bus systernstespectively.
Sensitivi1ymeasures(results from Step Z
14 bus system results show the same three bus numbers are consistently the most sensitive,
12,13 and 14.30 bus results show two out of three bus numbers are consistently the most
sensitive,3 and 26.
130
Chapter5: 5.7ScenarioI
Performance of STATCOM tesultsfrom Step 3)

For both systems, during system operation at 16 %MWj FullRange i. e. no congestion, the
,
STATCOM is able to provide significant RSCs, the most varied seen from 30 bus system
results, ranging from 16% to 78% RSC. As the level of system congestion increases,the
STATCOM is less able to reduce systemcosts.
Table 5-1: IEEE 14 bus system,top three shunt sensitivityand % RSCwhen STATCOM
installedat I:ij andJ:ij.
1
%k
WFullRange
16%
55%
94%
21314
Bus numbers with
highest sensitivity
rd
V1
2"'
3
13
14
12
13
12
14
i-4
12
13
181
61
51
7
91
10
Locations i-j and corresponding % reduction in systemcost
nd
ist
J:2-5
J:2-5
J:2-5
2
50%
19%
13%
J:2-4
J:2-4
J:2-4
3
38%
10%
10%
rd
1:5-6
1:5-6
1:5-6
21%
8%
5%
Table 5-2: IEEE 30 bus system,top three shunt sensitivityand % RSC when STATCOM
installedat Lij andJ:ij.
1
% Mwi
FullRange
21314
Bus numbers with
highest sensi ivity
1"
16%
55%
94%
3
26
26
2"'
26
3
T
*91
81
61
71
10
51
Locations i-j and corresponding % reductions in systemcost
rd
3
30
24
23
nd
Ist
J:2-4
J:2-4
1:2-6
ird
2
78%
10%
10%
1:2-6
1:2-6
J:24
77%
15%
5%
3
1:4-12
N/A
1:4-12
1606
<1%
1%
Correlationbetweensensi and STATCOM performance

Thereis no correlationbetweenthe shuntbus sensitivityand the % RSCresultsfor eitherthe
14 or the 30 bus systemwith STATCOM, becauseno common bus numbersare hsted.
Although results from Step 2 and Step 3 individually show consistentresultsat the three
FullRange),
different levelsof congestion(16,55 and 94 %M Wi
the resultsshow this method
is not successfulat detectingthe optimalposition for minimisingcongestioncosts.
A possiblereason for this result is the fact that STATCOMs are only able to inject and
absorb Qj at the local bus, and thereforemainly affect the local bus voltages.Congestion
howeveris predominantlyrelatedto activepower flows and in this situation,in this casethe
STATCOM doesnot appearto be effectivefor congestionmanagement.Ile transmission
line limits, togetherwith the power flow constraintsrestrict the amount of Qj that can be
injected and absorbed, and therefore limit the feasible solution space; although the
131
STATCOM may be ableto inject greaterQ. For completeness,

Appendix VII showstables
of the top three STATCOM locationsusingmidpoint installationfor eachsystem,thereis
alsono correlationin theseresultswith bus sensitivity.
5.7.2 Seriesline sensitivity for UPFC
Table 5-3 and 5-4 show resultsfor the UPFC locationsusing Orientation 1 that achievethe
greatest% RSC for the 14 bus and the 30 bus systernsrespectively.'Me structureof the
.
tablesis the sameasthat describedpreviouslyfor Tables5-1 and 5-2.

Table 5-3: IEEE 14 bus systern, top thtee seties sensitivity and % RSC using UPFC for
Scenario 1.
1
% MwiFullRange
16%
55%
94%
2 131
4
Lines with highest
sensitivit: r
nd
rd
1
l't
2
3
1-2
14-5
1-2
4-5
1-5
1-2
1-5
4-5 1
16
171
19
1 10
5
8
Locations and corresponding % reductions in systemcost
Ist
rd
2d
1-5
1-5
1-5
95%
92%
51%
1-2
1-2
1-2
3
93%
91%
42%
34
2-5
4-5
50%
74
Table 5-4: IEEE 30 bus system,top three seriessensitivity and % RSC using UPFC cost for
Scenario 1.
IFullRange
0 MWk
16%
55%
94%
16
171
19
2 131
8
4
5
Lines with highest
Locations and corresponding % reductions in systemcost
sensitiVit:r
ad
nd
rd
rd
I St
V1
2
2
3
3
1-2
24
82%
1
34
34
83%
1-3
81%
-5 - ./0
1-2
1-2
1-3
34
13
91%
4-6
24%
1-2
1-3
34
54%
34 1 1-3
57%
1-2
-T- 1-0
Sensitivity measures(results from Step 2

Both the 14 and 30 bus systemsshow consistent line locations for the top three sensitivities
FullRange
and at all congestion levels Clo M Wi
Performance of UPFC resultsfrom Sn Z

Within both systems significant RSCs ate made; at all locations listed and at all congestion
levels, and a clear fall in % RSC is made at the highest level of congestion, 95%
FuIlRange
For the 14 bus system the top two locations are consistent at all congestion
MWi.
levels.The third highest% RSC differs and is dependentupon the level of congestion.For
the 30 bus systemthere is more variabilityin the locationsthat provide the highest% RSC-
132
Line 1-3 is common for all load levels,lines 1-2,3-4 are common for two load levelsand;
lines2-4,4-6 occur onceat differentloadlevels.
Correlationbetweensensitivi1y
andUPFCperformance
14 bus systemresultsat 16%and 55% MWjFuIlRange
1evelslist two out of threelocations(1-2
Fu"Range
high
in
1-5)
and
sensitivityand ability to producesignificant% RSC.At 95% MWi
all threelocationswith highestsensitivitycanalsoproducesignificant% RSC.
30 bus system results at 16% and 55% MWjFuIlRange 1evels list two out of three top
sensitivity locations (1-3 and 34, and 1-2 and 1-3 respectively) that also provide the highest
% RSC. At 94% MWi
FuIlRange
the locations identified by sensitivity are also the locations
that provide the greatest % RSC.
Ihe order of sensitivityand locationsthat provide % RSCarenot exactlymatched.However,

resultsfrom both systemsshow that the seriessensitivitymethod presentedis able to give
someindicationto the linesthat providegood % RSCs.
Figures 5.3 show the % RSC when the UPFC is installed at all lines of the 14 bus systemand
FuIlRange.
Figure 5.4 for lines 1-20 of the 30 bus systemat 55% and 94% MWi
The top three
FuIlRange
four
locations
identified
level
be
by the bar graphs, after
%
MWj
or
at each
can
easily
which the remaining line locations produce similar levels of reduction, mostly under 10% for
the 14 bus system and under 5% for the 30 bus system. Note that in a minority of cases there
is a negative reduction in system cost.
In general,the location of generatorson both systemsis widdn the lower bus numbersor left
hand half of the graphs.Refer to Figures5.5 and 5.6 to identify the exact locations of
generators.
'Ihe seriessensitivitymeasuredon the individuallinesis unableto identify the exactlocation
that will provide the greatest% RSC for the UPFC. However, the results have shown
133
Chapter 5: 5.8 Scenario 2
successfulidentification of locations that do provide significant reductions in system costs.

Due to this, in Scenario2 each systemis divided into distinct areasfor investigation.
90.00%
% Mwk FullRange
= 55%
% Mwk FullRange
= 94%
70.00%
50.00%
JU. UU-/o
io. 00%
-10.00,
19
C?
(4
11
cm
1?
C4
IT
F-
I?
cn
co
t.;
7
to
C4
Line i-j
Figure 5.3: IFTT, 14 bus system with medium and high congestion, % RSC at 55% and 94%
M
FidlRange
Wi
at all locations using UPFC Onentation
1.
5.8 Scenario 2: Averaged area sensitivity analysis

Scenario I showed that shunt sensitivity and seriessensitivity are unable to 'indicatethe single
bus or line that is able to give the greatest % RSC. However, series sensitivity and UPFC
2
Scenario
employs averaged sensitivity
positive
correlation.
results showed some
information on distinct areasof the system. It alms to measurethe ability to indicate the area
for
locations
UPFC installation.
the
most promising
with
'Me 14 bus system has been divided into four areasand the 30 bus system into five areasas
detailed in Section 5.8.1. 'Me averagedarea sensitivity measurement is first applied to shunt
sensitivity and STATCOM; Section 5.8.2. Secondly, series sensitivity and its investigation
with UPFC, results are presented;Section 5.8.3.
134
Chapter 5: 5.8 Sccnario 2
90.00%
% Mwk FullRange
= 55%
%Mwk
70.00%
FullRange 94%
=
50.00%
0
t; 30.00%
cc
10.00%
-.
4n -o
nno/
C 1? C4
19
pr
1?
1?
17 17
W
MN
CM le
-
'Ir
to
a?
(0
C4
CY) 0-
C6
C-)
to
T7
----
04
C6
to
La
AA4
Line t'-j'
Figure 5A IFFF
30 bus system with medium and high congestion, % RSC at 55% and 94%
FuIlRange
M Wi
at all locations using UPFC Orientation
1, lines numbers
1 to 20 only.
5.8.1 Area division

The IEEE 14 and 30 bus systems have been divided into four and five separate areas
respectively.'I'lie number of buses in each area of the 14 bus system ranges from four to six
and for the 30 bus system from five to nine, where some buses are included in more than
boundaries
5.5
5.6
division
lines
Figures
the
the
of each area.
show
marking
and
one area.
Tables 5-5 and 5-6 list the lines and transformers within each area on each of the systems
respectively,where T next to the latter bus number denotes a transformer.
Table 5-5: 14 bus system transn-ussionlines and transformers within the four areas.
Area no.
8
Lines and transformers
i-j
No. of lines
1-2,1-5,2-5,5-6T
2-3,24,3 4,4-5,4-7T, 4-9T
2
6-11,6-12,6-13,10-11,12-13,13-14
3
7-8,7-9,9-10,9-14
4
Total number of lines and transformers = 20
135
3
4
6
4
17
No. of transformers
1
2
0
0
3
Area 3-,
----'
13
12
14
Area 4
10
THREE
WrNDrNG
TRANSFORMER
EQUIVALENT
9
Area 17
F-I
4
GENERATORS
G
----------
Area 2
cr
------------Figure 5.5: IEEE 14 bus systemdivided into four areas.
Calculation of shunt sensitivity for each area

Averaged area shunt sensitivity IS defined in (5.13) and the nornialised shunt sensitivity
measurein (5.14),
NO-N
A
Afl
g#
SshNORM
SANORM
i
(5.13)
N,8 - Ngo
(5.14)
SishISshMAX
where,
6=1,2,
number,
area
,6
K,
...
K total number of areas in system,

Np total number of buses in areafl,
Ng,,
total number
Sh shunt sensitivity
I
SAMAX
of generator
buses in area, 6,
at bus i,
largest system bus sensitivity
value.
136
Table 5-6: IEEE 30 bus systemtransmission lines and transformers widiin the five areas.
Lines and transformers i-j
Area no.
fl
-
1-2,1-3,24,2-5,2-6,3-4,4-6,4-12T, 5-7,6-7,6-8
6-9T, 6-1OT,6-28,8-28,9-10,9-11
25-26,25-27,27-28T, 27-29,27-30,29-30
10-17,10-20,10-21,10-22,16-17,21-22,22-24,23-24,
24-25
12-13,12-14,12-15,12-16,14-15,15-18,15-23,18-19,
5
19-20
1
Total number of lines and transformers within system= 41
1
2
3
4
No. of lines
No. of transformers
10
4
5
9
1
2
1
0
37
41
Calculationof seriessensi for eacharea

Averagedarea seriessensitivityis defined in (5.15) and the normalisedseriessensitivity
measurein (5.16),
ILo
L'
j=
A
NORM
Sm'
(5.15)
m
/SY MAX
S
mYNORM=S MiY
(5.16)
where,
number,
area
,6
1,2,
K total numberof areasin system,

m line number, m=1,2,
Lp,
...
Lp total number of lines in areap,
line
Sm'y
seriessensitivityat
m,
xx
ijM,
largest system line sensitivity value.
S
5.8.2 Shunt bus area sensitivity for STATCOM

Resultsfrom the previous sectionof this chaptershow that the STATCOM is only able to
in
In
UPFC.
in
%
few
RSCs
to
the
addition, somecasesthe
comparison
producea
significant
% RSCis negativecomparedto the base.
137
Area 1
Transformer
It8
15
14
19
Area 2
Area 5
34
28
12
75
9
13
76
20
23
26
21
22
25
24
Area 4
Area3
30
27
Figure 5.6: IEEE 30 bus systemdivided into five areas.
A.
IEEE 14 bus system: Divided into 4 areas
Table 5-7 shows the rank in which the averagedarea sensitivity method indicates for each
area.Figure 5.7 shows the averagearea% RSCs.
FullRange
Table 5-7: IEEE 14 bus system,shunt sensitivity at different %M Wi
%
FullRange
m Wi
16%
55%
94%
Area 1
4F-40'
th
4
Sensitivit- Ranking
Area 2
Area 3
rd
3
rd
3
rd
3
Area 4
I st
nd
2
nd
2
nd
2
I st
I st
There is no correlation between the order of the sensitivities and averagedarea % RSC. The
most sensitive areas are Areas 3 and 4 respectively but the areas which provide the highest %
RSC is Areas 4 then Area 3. The method has managed to reduce the number of potential
areasin half Figure 5.7 shows the % RSCs for 55 %M
FuIlRange
Wi
a
sitnilar
5
trend is found
FullRange
Note the very limited % RSC; all less than 2.5% in Areas
with 16% and 94% M Wi
.
2 to 4 and negative for Area 1, approximately
-3%.
138
Z. 501/0
1.50%
U
0.50%
234
-0.50%
I=
-1.50%
-2.50%
-3.50%
Area
Figure 5.7: IEEE
FullRange for STATCOM

14 bus system average area % RSC at 55% MW
k
mstaRed at ends of transmission
B.
IEEE
No.
lines, Lij
Divided
30 bus system:
Table 5-8 shows the rank in which
locations.
feasible
J:
ij,
installed
at
an
and
into 5 areas
method
the averaged area sensitivity
'indicated
5.7.
Figure
Within
bys
A
has
been
displayed
14
the
trend
in
in
system
similar
area.
system the STATCOM
of locations.
number
bus
Shunt
STATCOM
provide
is only able to provide
is
to
sensitivity
analysis
installation
to minin-iise congestion
a sufficient
unable
provide
% RSC (above 10%) at a limited
accurate
costs. In addition,
relief at a very limited

level of improvement
the 30 bus
does not manage to achieve any RSC.
In most cases the STATCOM
some congestion
not provided
significant
for each
number
the STATCOM
of locations.
to the reduction
for
indication
effective
is able to
The STATCOM
in congestion.
FullRange
Table 5-8: IEEE 30 bus system, shunt sensitivity at different %M Wi
FullRange
% Mwi
16%
55%
94%
Area I
4h
th
4
4d'
Area 2
Sensitivity Ranki g
Area 3
th
I st
5
th
5
th
5
nd
I st
2
nd
2
nd
I st
139
Area 4
Area 5
---3-rT
rd
3
rd
3
has
5.8.3 Seriesbus area sensitivity for UPFC

Resultsfrom Chapter4 show that the UPFC can producegreater% RSCsin comparisonto
the STATCOM. In addition,the performanceat higherlevelsof congestionis betterthat the
STATCOM asit is still ableto achieveRSCsof over 50% at specifiedlocations.Although,in
a minority of locationsit canproducesomeincreasein systemcosts.
A.
IEEE 14bus system: Divided into 4 areas

Table 5-9 ranks the sensitivityof eachof the 14 bus systemareasat 16%, 55% and 94%
FuIlRange
mw
k
Areas
1 and 2 ate consistently
the 1" and 2 nd most
ranked
sensitive
areas
hmost
Areas
3
4
3'
4!
respectively.
and arerankedeitherthe or
sensitivearea.Figures5.8,5.9,
and 5.10displaythe averagearea% RSCusingthe UPFC at all locationsand orientationsat
FuIlRange
16%,55% and 94% M Wi
respectively.
Table 5-9: IEEE 14 bus system,seriessensitivity at different % Mwi

% Mwi
Sensitivip
FulMnge
16%
55%
94%
Area I
Area 2
1st
1st
1st
FullRange
r Ranking
Area 3
nd
2
2"d
nd
2
Area 4
3"'
rd
3
4th
4"'
th
4
3'
Sensitivijy measuresresultsfrom St-ep--2
Table 5-9 shows that Areas 1 and 2 are consistentlythe most sensitive.Only at 94%
FullRange
does that sensitivity of Area 3 become greater lhan that of Area 4.
Mwi
Performance of UPFC resultsfrom SLep-3
From Figures5.8,5.9 and 5.10,the greatestand secondgreatest% RSCtakeplacewhen the

UPFC is installedin Areas 1 and 2 respectively.This occurs at all four orientationsof the
FuIlRange
UPFC except at 16% mWi
from
Orientation
results
where
,
3 show that Area 2
produceson averagethe greatestRSC,then Area 1. 'fherefore, for the 14 bus systemthe

applied sensitivityanalysismethod is able to indicate the optimum areato install a UPFC
when consideringthe minimisationof systemcostf(x) -
140
100.00%
90.00%
80.00%
70.00%
60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
`7
,V
cr.
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
1
Area No.
Figure 5.8: IEEE 14 bus system averagearea % RSC with UPFC (all orientations) at 16%
FullRange
mw
k
90.00%
80.00%
70.00%
60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
0
10.00%
0.00%
1
Area No.
Figure 5.9: IEEE 14 bus system average area % RSC widi UPFC (all orientations) at 55%
m
FullRange
k
141
45.00%
r,
40.00%
35.00%
30.00%
25.00%
zu.uu-/o
15.00%
10.00%
5.00%
0.00%
1
Area No.
Figure 5.10: IEEE 14 bus system averagearea % RSC with UPFC (all orientations) at 94%
FullRange
m Wi
Correlation between sensitivity and UPFC performance

kt the higher levels of congestion,
match
method
the averaged
has been able to identify
B.
of the UPFC
within
Areas
measures
1 and 2. Furthermore,
the
the most sensitive area. If this is true for larger systems then
has reduced the total number
the method
original
performance
FullRange
55% and 94% M Wi
the area sensitivity
of potential
installation
areas to one quarter of the
search size.
IEEE 30 bus system: Divided into 5 areas
'fable 5-10 ranks the sensitivity of each of the 30 bus system areasat 16%, 55% and 94% of
FullRange
the % MWj
th
Areas 1,4 and 3 are consistently ranked 1", 4th and 5 respectively.
.
Areas 2 and 5 are ranked either the 2ndor 3rdmost sensitivearea.
Figures 5.11,5.12 and 5.13 display the averagearea % RSC for each area using the UPFC at
locations
and onentation at 16%, 55% and 94%
all
142
FuIlRange
M Wi
respectively.
Table 5-10: IEEE 30 bus system, series sensitivity at different %M WiFullRange

% Mwi
FullRange
16%
55%
Area I
1st
1st
94%
1st
Se sitivity Ranking
Area 2
Area 3
2nd
5th
th
nd
2
5
th
rd
Area 4
4
Area 5
3&
th
---2
4th
n&-
Sensitivi1ymeasures(results from Step 24

Table 5-10 shows that Areas 1,4 and 3 are consistently ranked 1", 4t" and 5that all congestion
FuIlRange
levels,whereasM Areas 2 and 5 interchange their rank at 94% M Wi
Performance of UPFC (results from SLep3

Figures 5.11,5.12 and 5.13 show that the greatest average % RSC take place when the UPFC
FuIlRange
load levels.
is installed in Area 1. This distinction is clearer at 55% and 94% M Wi
Note there is a decreasein the quantity of % RSC on the y-axis is decreasedas the congestion
increasesin from Figure 5.11 to 5.13. In addition, there is still a small number of caseswhere
the reduction has a negativevalue.
60.00%
V
0
u
0 01:
m 02:
1103:
M 04:
50.00%
UPFC
UPFC
UPFC
UPFC
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
-10.00%
Area No.
Figure 5.11: IEEE 30 bus system average area % RSC with UPFC installed (all orientations)
FullRange
%
Mwi
16
at
143
34.00%
0 01:
M02.:
El 03:
M 04:
29.00%
UPFC
UPFC--UPFC
UPFC
24.00%
19.00%
14.00%
9.00%
4.00%
-i nno/-
1234
Area No.
Figure 5.12: IEEE 30 bus system average area % RSC with UPFC installed (all orientations)
at 55%
FullRange
Wi
M
19.00% UPFC
17.00%--
__MO1:
M 02: UPFC
El 03: UPFC
15.00%--
M 04: UPFC
13.00%
11.00%
9.00%
7.00%--
cc
5.00%
3.00%-1.00%-
-1.00%
12345
Area No.
Figure
94%
at
5.13:
M Wi
IEEE
30 bus
system
average
area % RSC
FullRange
144
with
UPFC
installed
(all orientations)
Correlationbetweensensi andUPFC performance

The 30 bus systerntesultsaresimilarto thosegivenby the 14 bus system.The appliedthreestepsensitivitybasedmethodis ableto accuratelyindicatethe bestareafor UPFC installation
when consideringthe minimisationof systemcost, f(x). The resultsshow the identification
of Area 1 as most sensitiveand it is possible to reduce the total number of potential
installationareasto one fifth of the originalsize.
5.9 Conclusions
A sensitivitybasedthree-stepmethod for applicationsin largescalepower systemshasbeen
presented.It is an extensionfrom the two-step method presentedin Chapter3. Detailed
sensitivitiesfor the STATCOM andUPFC controllershavebeenderived,and eachsensitivity
hasbeenappliedto screenpotentiallocationsfor installation.
Individual seriesline sensitivityanalysisfor the UPFC is able to give someindicationof the
locationsthat provide high systemcost savingsbut is unableto identify the exactlocations.
Resultsgatheredfrom the 14 and 30 bus systemswere consistent.1heseresults;motivated
the investigationof Scenario2, where systemswere divided into distinct areasand an
averagedsensitivityand % RSCcalculatedfor each.
The IEEE 14 bus systemwas divided into four areasand seriessensitivityanalysiswas
correctlyable to indicatethat Area 1 then Area 2 acbievedthe greatest% RSCwith UPFC
installationrespectively.Furthermore,sensitivityanalysiswas consistentover all three levels
of congestion(16%,55% and
FullRange
94% M Wi
'1he IEEE 30 bus systemwas dividedinto five areas,in this casesensitivityanalysiswas on

the whole correctly able to indicate that Area I achievedthe greatest% RSC with UPFC
installation.The only exception was at UPFC Orientation 3 where Area 2 managedto
outperformArea 1. However,againseriessensitivityanalysisconsistentlyidentifiedArea 1 as
the optimal areaover all threelevelsof congestion.
Likely reasonsfor seriessensitivityandUPFC results,
9 the control of transmissionline reactanceXY has greater influence on systempower
flows,reliving congestionandhenceon total systemcosts;
145
e changeof Xy has a largerfeasiblesolution spacewhere the primary parameterlimiter is

the thermalline limit, S,Pax-,
the UPFC is able to injectreactivepower at the local bus Qj and influencetransmission
line reactance,Xy; thereforethe possibilityof convergingto a minima for total system
cost is greaterand can be achievedthrough a combinationof the two control optionsof
the shunt-seriescontroller.
Individual shunt bus sensitivityand averagedareashunt bus sensitivityfor the STATCOM
hasproven to be unsuccessfulat predictingbest locationsfor minimising congestioncosts.
Resultsgatheredusingthe IEEE 14 and30 bus systemsshow similarresults.
Possiblereasonsfor shunt sensitivityand STATCOM results,
" reactive power injection at a local bus Q1has very limited influence on the system
congestioncosts,as seenin Sections5.8.2.1and 5.8-2.2,where the averagedarereduction
in systemcostis at bestapproximately2.5%;
" transmissionline reactivepower limits havebeenreachedand the STATCOM is not able
to influencethe reactivepower flow further,
" too largea changein reactivepower increasesthe likelihood of an infeasiblesolution to
the system,thereforefeasiblesolutionscannotgreatlyinfluencecongestioncosts.
Seriessensitivityanalysishasbeensuccessfulat reducingthe number of simulationsrequired
to find the optimal location for the UPFC to minimise congestioncosts.This chapterhas
shownthat at the secondstepof the appliedthree-stepmethod the numberof potentialareas
and thereforeindividual locationsis reducedby approximately4/5thin the caseof the 30 bus
systemand 31e in the 14 bus system.Ihe methodis an improvementfrom the one-by-one
approachdescribedin the previouschapter.The sensitivity-based
methodis efficientbecause
sensitivityanalysisonly requiresa singleOPF simulationand doesnot explicitly requirethe
FACTS controller model. Therefore,it is extremelyhelpful as an initial screeningtechnique
beforefurther detailedstudiesareapplied.Chapter6 will utilise the identifiedlocationsof the
UPFC to investigatethe conffict of controllerrating andinstallationcost.
146
Chapter 6
Economic analysis of FACTS controller investment
for
costs
congestion management
6.1Introduction
In Chapter 4, four case studies identified optimal locations for the STATCOM and UPFC
controllers when installed on the IEEE 14 bus and 30 bus systemsin turn with the objective
to minimise total annual costs. The decision for optimal location was determined by the
largest annual % reduction in system costs (RSCs). For any transmission system operator
(TSO), economic constraints are necessaryconsiderations. This chapter begins with a short
literature review, Section 6.2, which includes the three most regularly cited references for
FACTS controller cost estimates.In two of these,investment cost is broken down into two
is
Equipment
infrastructure
the
the
costs.
cost
components,
equipment costs and
linear
function
is
dependent
FACTS
predominantly
controller rating; an averaged
upon
locations
for
FACTS
for
6.3,
Section
In
the
the
this
optimal
applied
estimateswithin
chapter.
framework
in
identified
in
Chapter
4
controllers
are re-evaluated a general economic analysis
by
FACTS
"Return
Index"
(RI),
the
the
to
made
cost
savings
relate
system
using
which aims
install
Lastly,
locations
the
to
to
the
controller.
controllers at specific
cost required
conclusions are drawn and referenceslisted in Sections6.5 and 6.6 respectively.
6.2 Invcstmcnt cost estimates

A literature review of FACTS controller price and cost information reveals only two main
information
information.
A
free
adequate
on
sources of
shortage of
and widely published
FACTS controller investment costs limits the accuracy of economic estimates for justi4ing
their use [CIGRE JWG (2001)]. Consideration of inflation has been given, therefore cost
before
1996 are not referenced here; although some cost estimates
published
estimates
published before 1996 are cited in CIGRE JWG (2001) and Adapa (2000). The first source
is from 1996 published by the IEEE Power Engineering Society, is referenced in Hauth et al.
(1997) and Mathur and Varma. (2002), and the latter from SiemensAG Database for a World
Bank publication by Habur and OLeary. Cost information from SiemensAG Databasehas
been used in a variety of publications including Cai et aL (2004), TEN-E (2005), 1:Abbate et
al. (2007) and most recently by Vaijayakumar et al. (2007). A range of "investment costs" are
147
Chapter6- 6.2Investmentcostestimates
given; the lower estimateEmit representingthe "equipment costs" and the upper estimate
Emitincludesequipmentand "infrastructurecosts".
A third sourceof UPFC costinginformation is consideredin this analysis,a consultation
report published by the California Energy Commission in 1999 [California Energy
Commission(1999)].The report comparesfive possiblesolutionsfor locatinga UPFC with
the objective of increasingimport capabilityto the San Diego Gas & Electric (SDG&E)
systemand delaytransmissionsystemexpansion.Simulationstudiesestimatedthe required
equipment(UPFCcapacityratings),transmissionreinforcementsand substationcosts.
Within this chapterthe term "equipmentcosts" will primarily refer to the costsassociated
with the FACTS controller capacityrating; "infrastructure costs" refer to any necessary
modifications required of existing transmission system assets,including upgrading of
is
final
the "investmentcose'
total
the
substationsand extensionof communicationsystems;
andis relatedby expression(6.1).
E
CFA
CPA
CFIA
+
-CTS
CTS
CTS
(6.1)
where,
CFACTSinvestmentcost,$
$
CE
FACTSequipmentcost,
CIFACTSinfrastructurecost,
Sections6.2.1to 6.2.6surnmariseestimatesgivenby the threereferences,then comparesthe

proportion of equipmentand infrastructurecost estimatesgiven by SiemensAG Database
(SAGD) and California Energy Commission(CEC) reports. The IEEE PES publication
infrastructure
be
included
in
because
it
does
this
cannot
comparison
not consider
costs.
6.2.1 IEEE PES report: cost estimates
The IEEE PESreport only givesan estimateon equipmentprice as'price per capacityrating'
for a range of controllers including the conventional thyristor based controllers. The
STATCOM estimateis $50/kVAR ($50 OOO/MVAR)and the UPFC estimateis $50AW
148
Chapter6- 6.2Investmentcostestimates
($50 OOO/MWI)for the seriesportion and $50/kVAR ($50 OOO/MVAR)for the shunt
portion. Referencesthat cite thesereport price estimatesare Hauth et A (1997)and Mathur
andVanna,(2002).
6.2.2 SiemensAG Database inErastructurecost estimates
The estirnatesprovided by the SAGD publication give lower and upper curves for price
Emits,where the lower bound indicatesequipmentprices and the upper bound indicates
installationpricesin $/kVAR. Table 6-1 givesestimatesof equipmentcost,investmentcost
and percentequipmentcost relativeto the installation.costsfor the STATCOM and UPFC
for a rangeof capacityratings.For guidelinepurposes,it is assumedthat the $/kW for the
real power capacityrating equalsthe reactivepower capacityrating. Note that as the UPFC
requirestwo branch controllers,it has a higher percentageequipmentcost relativeto the
STATCOM.
Table 6-1: Estimation of STATCOM and UPFC equipmentand infrastructurecost from

SiemensAG Database.
STATCOM
Rating
MVA
100
200
300
350
equipment
Cost CE
FAM
$ million
1
8.7
15.5
20.3
21.9
Ave. %
STATCOM
installation
Cost CFAM
$ n-dllion
12.7
23.4
32.1
35.7
equipment cost
%
Equipment
cost
rE
-FAM
UPFC
equipment
$
Cost CE
FACTS
n-tillion
67%
66%
63%
60%
64%
12.4
21.4
26.8
28.3
Ave. %
UPFC
installation
%
Equipment
cost
COStCFAC7S
$ million
16.9
30.0
39.3
42.5
equipment cost
rE
-FA
CTS
73%
71%
68%
67%
70%
6.2.3 California Energy Commission infrastructure cost estimates

The estimatesprovided by CEC report give a different breakdownof costscomparedto the
branch
include
They
UPFC
costs, transmission
shunt
references.
other
series and
increase
Five
the
to
explored
with
aim
reinforcementsand substationcosts.
alternativesare
the San Diego Gas & Electric's import capabilityand to determineif FAM controllers
were capableto increasethe usablecapacityof the existingSouth-of-SanOnofre Nuclear
GeneratingStationtransmissionsystem.A short descriptionof the five alternativesarelisted,
9 Alternative1- UPFC for control of flow on SanOnofre - Talega230 W line
9 Alternative2- UPFC for control of flow on SanOnofre - Enchina230 kV line
9 Alternative3- UPFC for control of flow on SanOnofre - Mssion 230 kV line
149
Chapter6: 6.2Investmentcostestimates
e Alternative4- UPFC for control of flow on San Onofre/San Luis Rey Tap - Mssion
230 kV line
9 Alternative5- two UPFCsfor control of flow on SanOnofte - Nfissionand SanOnofre

Talega
kV
lines
230
In Table 6-2 the equipmentcostis equivalentto the UPFC seriesand shuntbranchcostsand
the infrastructurecostis equivalentto the transmissionreinforcementand substationcosts.
infrastructureandinstallationcost from CEC report.
Table6-2:Estimationof equipment
Alternative
UPFC cquipment
Cost CE
FACTS
$ n-tillion
1
21
3
4
5*
Average
6.8
18.8
10.3
4.5
9.0
9.9
UPFC Infrastructure
% Equipment
UPFC installation
Cost CFIAC2"S
Cost CFACYS
$ million
18.6
38.6
30.6
36.6
20.3
28.9
$ million
25.4
57.4
40.9
41.1
29.3
38.8
Cost CE
FAM'S
27%
33%
25%
11%
31%
25.4%
*Alternative 5 has two UPFCs instaRed,the averagedcost ot mstawng a smgie uvru
at trus
locationhasbeenconsideredfor fair comparison.

Table 6-3 shows, the CEC report equipmentprice estimates.The averageis rounded to
$40/kVA or
$40OOO/MVA(to two siglficantfigures).
Table6-3:Estimationof price $/MVA from CEC report (1999).
Alternative
1,2,3,4,5
2
35
4
UPFC rating
MVA
UPFC equipment cost
85
385
174
28
3.4
15.4
6.9
1.1
$
CE
FACys millions
Estimate price
$/MVA
40000
40000
39600
39300
Average
39700
6.2.4 Relative size of equipment costs compared to infrastructure costs

The averagequantities of equipment costs relative to the investment costs is summarised in
Table 6-4, where the IEEE PES estimate cannot be included as only equipment costs are
is
from
SAGD
70%
fact
Ihe
the
that
the
percentage
averageequipmentcost
considered.
publicationand 30% from the CEC report showshow varied the publishedestimateprices
found,
Although
discrepancy
has
been
a reasonableand consistentcost
a
are.
and costs
decision
be
for
the
maldngprocess.
can
still
a
valuable
aid
estimation
150
Chapter6: 6.2 Investmentcost estimates
Table 6-4: Comparisonof % equipmentand % infrastructurecost proportions from two

estimates.
Installation Cost Components
% Equipment cost CE
FA CTS
SiemensAG Database
70%
California Energy Commission

30%
30%
70%
% Infrastructure cost C,
FA CTS
6.2.5 Applied equipment cost estimation

Due to the above observations,a simple FACTS controller price estimationis used for
to provide basiccost guidelinesfor comparison
analysisin this chapter.It is only necessary
for two main reasons,
1. the standardIEEE 14 and 30 bus systemmodelsused cannot provide information
infrastructurecoststherefore,only equipmentcosts,asa function of
about necessary
the FACTS controllet capacitycanbe quantifiedeasily,
2. only the realpower costsdueto congestionand systemlossesareexamined.
justification of a more detailedexplanationof installation costs with infrastructurecosts
requiresfurther simulationsof other quantifiablebenefits,which are outsidethe scopeof this
work.
Reductionsin costs due to congestionand systemreal power lossesare only two of many
benefits a FACTS controller could bring to the system.Therefore, the highestequipment
price estimatepresentedin SAGD has been ignored and the remaininganalysisusesthe
averagedequipmentcostpublishedin the IEEE PES and CED reports.That is, $45/kVA or
$45 OOO/MVA({$50 000 + $40 000)/2). A summaryis given in Table 6-5 and Figure 6.1
showsthe cost relationshipapplied.The sameprice is assumedfor seriesand shuntbranches
of the FACrS controllersweatherinstalledat systembus or at midpoint of transmission
lines.
Table6-5:Summaryof averagedequipmentcostestimates.
Reference Source
IEEE PES report
SiemensAG Database
California Energy Commission report
Estimated EquipMent Prices $/MVA

50000
67000
40000
6.2.6 Other FACTS controUerbenefits

In addition to the specific control function benefitsgainedfrom the use of voltagesource
converter(VSC)basedFACTS controllers,aslisted in Table 3-1 of Chapter3 there are also
151
Chapter 6: 6.2 Investment cost estimates
benefits,
listed in Table 6-6. The benefits listed in both tables are often
overall system
difficult to quantify in monetary terms but can improve the system in some way, locally
and/or as a whole.
16
14
12
lo
50
100
200
250
150
FACTS controller rating MVA
300
350
Figure 6.1: FACTS controller capacity-equipmentcost relationship applied.
Table 6-6: Summary of possible benefits from installing VSC based FACTS controllers
[Acharya et al. (2005) and Zhang et al. (2005)].
System Benefits
" Increased system efficiency;
" Better utilisation of existing assetson
transmission system;
" Increased reliability and availability,
giving increased control during
contingencies;
" Increased dynamic and transient grid
stability;
" Increased quality of supply (required by
specific industries);
" Installing FACTS controllers can be
more environmentally friendly than other
solution methods.
0
0
0
0
a
Steady State
Applications
Increased voltage
limits;
Increased thermal
limits;
Increased control of
loop flows;
Increased short
circuit levels;
Increased control
during
subsynchronous
resonances.
Dynamic
Applications
Increased control
of transient
stability problems;
Increased
damping ability;
Increased control
of voltage during
post
contingencies;
Increased control
for voltage
stability.
Quantifying the benefits listed above is outside the scope of this work. More simulation
studies in dynamic and static time domains are necessary.
152
Chapter6: 6.3 Generationcostcoefficients
6.3 Generation cost coefficients

The generationcost coefficientswere introducedin Chapter2, Section2.3. C' is the cost
91
per unit (price) for increasein MW generationand is equal to C' = 20 $/MWh where
91
C+ > 0, and Cg- is the cost per unit (price)for decreasein MW generationand is equalto
1
91
Cit = 10 $/NM
where Cj, >0, i is the bus number i=1, Z., N and N is the total
numberof buseson the system.

The investmentcost estimatesappliedin this chapterare chosenfrom referencespublished
(1999)];
Comn-dssion
California
Energy
(1997)
1996
[Flauth
therefore,the
and
after
only
et al.
by
In
is
the
paper
samerequirement appliedto the choiceof generationcost coefficients.
Christie et al. (2000) the same incrementalgenerator costs values of 20 $/MWh and
10 $/MWh are assumedfor a two zone systemexample.The short four year period is
for
time
assurnedan acceptable
costcomparisons.
6.4 Evaluation of optimal location with congestion cost consideration
To aid evaluationof the cost benefits from installing FACTS controllers at a particular
location,a measurecalledthe Return Index (Rl) is utilised.The aim of the index is to relate
the specific equipment cost to the annual systemcost savingsmade at each controller
location.Therefore,the RI can directly compareresultswithin eachcasestudy and identify
which has the highest rate of return. The systemcasestudiesused are the sameas those
presentedin Chapter4.
" IEEE 14 bus systemcasewith STATCOM;
" IEEE 30 bus systemcasewith STATCOM;
" IEEE 14 bus systemcasewith UPFC;
" IEEE 30 bus systemcasewith UPFC.
6.4.1 Return Index (RI)
The RI aims to identif the solution that has the relative greaterrate of return from the
FAM controller installation.It is assumedthat 25 yearsis a reasonableperiod expectedfor
RI
The
Energy
Comniission
(1999)].
[California
transmission
paybackof
systemequipment
153
Chapter6: 6.5ResiAts
E
compares the relative equipment cost, CpACTSwhich is a function of the equipment rating,
SFACTSWA)
to the system cost savingsmade over 25 years.The RI is defined as,
PJ =
RI >0
25*AS ,
(6.2)
where,
is the FAM
CE
FACTS
controUer equipment cost,
A- annual cost savingsmade due to FACTS controller installation,

21N
Ihe smallerthe RI value the higher the rate of return. For the RI to decreaseeither the
increased.
be
the
equipmentcostmust reducedor
annualcost savings
The relationsbipbetweenRI andpaybackperiod canbe summarisedasfollows,
9 RI > 1, paybackperiod is longerthan 25 years;
9 RI = 1, paybackperiod is 25 years;
o RI < 1, paybackperiod is lessthan 25 years.
6.5 Results
The casestudiespresentedin Chapter4 are extendedto investigatethe viability of FAM
identify
installations
by
This
RL
to
the
the
relative
comparisons
enables
controller
applying
higher
RI
location.
For
the rate of return
the
the
the
return ratesat each
eachcase smaller
be
faster
therefore
the
the
recovered.
cost
will
and,
equipment
6.5.1 IEEE 14bus system casewith STATCOM
Five locationswith the STATCOM on the 14 bus systemmanagedan annual% RSCabove
10%. For installation at ends of transmissionlines, locations J:2-4 and J:2-5 and for
installationat midpoint, locationsM: 1-2,M:2-4 and M:2-5. Table 6-7 summatisesthe system
locations
these
rating
required
and correspondingRIs.
cost, savings,equipment
at
and cost
The basecasesystemcost is 20.0 $/h, the generationcost coefficientsremain a previously
$/MWh,
largest
$/MWh
20
10
C+-Cg-,
the
=
annual savingsand
and
overall
stated as
and
91
the lowestequipmentcostsarehighlightedin bold.
154
Chapter6: 6.5Results
Table 6-7: IEEE 14 bus STATCOM: Summaryof systemcosts,annualsavings,equipment

costsand return index.
STATCOM
location i-i
and position
J:2-4
J:2-5
M: 1-2
M: 2-4
M: 2-5
System
cost f(X)
$/h
17.2
16.3
7.7
17.9
17.7
Savingsw.r. t.
basecase
$/h
Annual
savings
$
STATCOM
rating
MVA
2.8
3.7
12.3
2.1
2.3
24528
32412
107748
18396
20148
227
404
68
68
90
Equipment
Cost CE
FAMN
$ million
10.22
18.18
3.06
3.06
4.05
Return
Index
16.7
22.4
1.1
6.7
8.0
For installationat endsof transmissionlinesJ:2-5 hashigher annualsavingsbus alsorequires

a largerSTATCOM rating. In Chapter4 equipmentcostswere not consideredand location
J:2-5 was identified as the optimal location.In this analysis,restrictionson investmentcosts
for
location
is
has
indicated
J:
2-4
RI
the
that
the
choice
now
optimal
arealsoconsideredand
locating the STATCOM.
For installationat the midpoint of transmissionlines,location M: 1-2 has the highestsavings

lowest
it
has
RI
68MVA.
Iherefore,
lowest
the
of
rating
of
and
equipmentcostwith required
1.1andpaybackperiod of 27.5years.The resultgivenin Chapter4 basedon savingswasalso
MA-2.
Overall,M: 1-2 is the optimal locationbasedon savings,relativeequipmentcost requiredand

position of STATCOM on transmissionline.
6.5.2 IEEE 30 bus system casewith STATCOM
Five locationswith the STATCOM on the 30 bus systemmanagedannual% RSCsabove
10%. For installation at ends of transmission lines, locations J:24 and J:2-6 and for
installation at midpoint, locations M: 1-2, M: 2-4 and M: 2-6. Table 6-8 summatisesthe savings,
is
base
The
RI.
locations
case system cost
and calculated
equipment costs required at these
13.9$/h, the generationcost coefficientsremaina previouslystatedas C= 20 $/MWh and

91
Cg-,= 10 $/MWh, and the overall largestannualsavingsand lowest equipmentcostsare
MahliL7hted
in bold.
For installationat ends of transmissionlinesJ:2-6 has higher annualsavingsand requiresa

has
lines,
installation
location
M:
1-2
For
transmission
smallercontrollerrating.
at midpoint of
155
Chapter6: 6.5Results
the highestcost savingsand location M:2:6 has the lowest equipmentrating and cost.The
lowestRI of 0.6is achievedby MA-2, with paybackperiod of 15 years.
Table 6-8: IEEE 30 bus system STATCOM: Summary of system costs, annual savings,
eqt-dpmentcosts and return index.
STATCOM
location i-j
and position
System
cost
AX)
Savingsw.r. t.
basecase
$/h
Annual
savings
$
J:24
J:2-6
M: 1-2
M: 2-4
M: 2-6
S/h
12.5
11.9
4.2
12.9
12.1
1.4
2.0
9.7
1.0
1.8
12264
17520
84972
8760
15768
STATCOM
rating
MVA
Equipment
E
,,
Cost I
-IFAM
Return
Index
$ million
191
132
26
33
13
8.60
5.94
1.17
1.49
0.59
28.0
13.6
0.6
6.8
1.5
Ihe conclusionsdrawn in Chapter4 both remain unchangedbecauselocation J:2-6 and

MA-2 havethe lower RI values.Overall,MA-2 is the optimal location basedon savingsand
relativeequipmentcost required.
Six UPFC locations using Orientation I on the 14 bus systemmanagedannual % RSCs
greater than 10%; these are locations 1-2,1-5,2-5,2-4,3-4 and 4-5. Table 6-9 summarisesthe
is
base
locations,
the
these
casesystemcost 20.0
savingsand equipmentcosts requiredat
$/h, the generationcost coefficientsremaina previouslystatedas C+= 20 $/MWh and Cg-,
91
= 10 $/MWh, and the largestannualsavingsand smallestequipmentcostsare highlightedin
bold. Figure6.2 showsthe RIs for eachlocation.
Table 6-9: IEEE 14 bus systemUPFC: Summaryof system costs, annual savingsand
equipmentcosts.
UPFC location 1-j
and orientation
01: 1-2
01: 1-5
01: 2-5
01: 2-4
01: 3-4
01: 4-5
System
cost
fW
$/h
5.8
7.8
12.4
17.0
17.8
17.2
Savingsw.r. t.
basecase
S/h
Annual
savings
14.2
12.2
7.6
3.0
2.2
2.8
124392
106872
66576
26280
19272
24528
156
UPFC
rating
MVA
Equipment cost
cEFACTS
70
92
93
66
39
141
3.15
4.14
4.19
2.97
1.76
6.35
S million
Chapter 6: 6.5 Results
In this casestudy UPFC location 01: 1-2 has highest annual savings and requires one of the
smaller controller ratings. Therefore, the conclusion drawn mi Chapter 4 remains unchanged
becauselocation 01: 1 also has the lowest RI. The payback period for the UPFC at location
-2
01: 1-2 is approximately 25 yearsbecausethe RI is approximately ututy.
12
10
C
Ic6
w
2
0
01: 1-2
01: 1-5
01: 2-5
01: 2-4
01: 3-4
01: 4-5
Location: Line and Orientation

Figure 6.2: IEEE 14 bus systemcasestudy -vxqth
UPFC: return index.
6.5.4 IEEE 30 bus system case with UPFC

Seven UPFC locations using Orientation 1 on the 30 bus system managed annual % RSCs
greater than 10%, locations 1-2,1-3,2-4,3-4,2-6,4-6
and 6-7. Table 6-10 summaries the
savings and equipment costs required at these locations, the base case system cost is
13.9 $/h, the generation cost coefficients remain as previously stated as Cg' = 20 $/MWh
9i
$/NfWh,
10
Cg-,
=
and
and the greatest annual savings and smallest equipment costs are
highlighted in bold and, Figure 6.3 shows the corresponding Rls.
Table 6-10: IEEE 14 bus system UPFC: Summary of system costs, annual savings and
equipment costs.
UPFC location
i-j and
orientation
System
cost f (X)
$/h
Savings w. r. t.
base case
$/h
Annual
UPFC
savings
$
rating
MVA
Equipment
E
CFACTS
$ million
01: 1-2
01: 1-3
01: 24
01: 34
01: 2-6
4.2
3.6
12.6
6.7
12.0
15.8
16.4
7.4
13.3
8.0
84972
90228
11 388
63072
16644
125
169
49
141
44
5.63
7.61
2.21
6.35
1.98
01: 4-6
11.6
8.4
20148
117
5.27
01: 6-7
12.5
7.5
12264
106
4.78
157
cost
Chapter 6: 6.5 ResWts
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 1: 1-2 01: 1-3 01: 2-4 01: 3-4 01: 2-6 01: 4-6 01: 6-7
Location: Line and Orientation
Figme 6.3: IEEE 14 bus system UPFC: return index.
On the 30 bus system, the highest annual RSC is made when UPFC is installed at location
01: 3-4 and the location with the smallest required UPFC rating is at location 01: 2-6. The RI
is lowest at location 01: 1-2; and is the optimal location for UPFC installation as its rate of
return is the fastest. However, as the RI is 2.6, payback period is 65 years (2.6*25 years); this
is an unacceptableduration for payback.
6.5.5 Results summary

Chapter 4 showed that the STATCOM and UPFC can reduce congestion and system losses
and achieve annual % RSCs above 10% if located correctly on both the IEEE 14 and 30 bus
systems.For the STATCOM, on each of the 14 and 30 bus systems,there were five possible
locations with RSCs above 10%. Overall, in both system casesthe RI reinforced the choice
of optimal location as decided in Chapter 4, that is location M: 1-2 for both the 14 and 30 bus
systems.
For the UPFC, on the 14 bus system there were siX locations that produced RSCs greater
than 10% and the RI indicated that 01: 1-2 was the optimal location, the same result as
concluded in Chapter 4. For the UPFC on the 30 bus system there were seven locations that
produced RSCsgreater than 10%, in Chapter 4 01: 1-3 was identified as the optimal location
becauseit had the greatest % RSC. However, as location 01: 1-3 has the largest annual savMg
158
Chapter6: 6.6Conclusions
but also the largestUPFC rating the RI indicated that location 01: 1-2 was the optimal
location.
6.6 Conclusions
FACrS controller price information from three independent sources revealedvaried
estimatesfor equipment cost and proportion of equipment to infrastructure cost. The
reasonsfor inconsistenciesare most likely due to publication year, differing calculation
methodsfor estimationand lack of publicly availableinformation. Due to the inconsistency,
derived
in
is
lack
freely
information,
this
the
published
cost
estimate
used
analysis
and
of
ftorn a simplelinear price of $45OOO/MVAby takingthe averagevaluefrom the IEEE PES
(1996)and CEC (1999)reports.In addition,the generationcost coefficientsare takenfrom
Christieet A (2000)and the four yeardifferencein publicationtimesis assumedacceptable
period for cost compalison.
The RI indicator considersthe relative savingsmade by the FACTS controller to the
for
for
installation,
the
to
return
rate
of
equipmentcost required
and givesa measuresimilar
investments.The RI measurehas been useful to the decision making process for the
STATCOM at endsof transmissionlineson 14 bus systemand UPFC on the 30 bus system
lower
had
4,
J:
2-5
in
Chapter
identified
former,
For
location
the
system
the
the
casestudy.
is
has
indicated
J:
2-4
RI
J:
2-4;
but
that
the
the
twice
required almost
rating of
cost savings
latter,
For
is
better
location
the
the
shorter.
the
actually
as the paybackperiod relatively
location identified in Chapter 4,01: 1-3 also required the largest controller rating; by
identified
RI
in
the
assessingthe relative magnitudes annual savingsand equipment cost
location 01: 1-2 ashavingthe fastestrate of return and is ableto achievea paybackperiod of
FACTS
6-11
Table
25
the
controller
optimal
shows a summaryof
approximately years.
locationsgivenin Chapter4 and Chapter6.
Table6-11:Summaryof optimal FACTScontrollerlocationsfor all casestudies
Casestudies IE EE systems
Bus system size
Controller
14
STATCOM at
30
ends of lines
14
STATCOM at
30
midpoint of lines
14
UPFC
30
orientation 1
Result change *
from Chapter 4
Yes
No
No
No
No
Yes
159
Overall optimal location given in

Chapter 4
Chapter 6
J:2-5
J:24
J:2-6
MA-2
M: 1-2
01: 1-2
1
01: 1-3
01: 1-2
As the resultspresentedare restrictedto the quantitativebenefits of congestionand real

installation
is
losses,
it
FACTS
justify
to
power system
not possible
controller
a complete
process
cost.However,the RI hasbeenshownto be a usefultool to aid the decision-making
for optimal location of STATCOM and UPFC FACTS controllers for minimisation of
for
losses.
is
The
that
there
results show
potential
system congestionand real power
applicationto larger existingtransmissionsystems;however in the estimatespresentedthe
into
discount
do
FACTS
take
rate
any
account
and
controllerpower
savings
not
cost
gained
lossesare also neglected.Therefore,although a conservativeestimateis taken for annual
demandlevels the quantitativevalue of the FACTS controllers presentedare likely to be
future
in
installation
FACTS
in
Any
increase
the
the
rate of
of
controllers
over-estimated.
dependsupon; either a reductionin the overallinstallationcost and/or a changein system
limitations,makinga situationwhereFACTScontrollersareone of a minority of solutionsto
solveelectricitysystemproblems.
160
Chapter7: 7.1 Condudingremarks
Chapter 7
Conclusions
7.1 Concluding remarks
The contributions of this thesisare divided into two key areas.The first is relatedto the
formulation of the bilateralmarketmodel using the interior point OPF algorithmwith the
modellingof FACTS controllers.The generalformulation allowseasyexaminationof system
the use of
generation,demand,lossesand congestionslevels.Ihe second area assesses
voltage source converter (VSC) based FACTS controllers as a suitable solution to the
congestionmanagementproblem.
Ihe first area,coveredin Chapters2 and 3 formed the basisof the resultsgatheredin the
thesis;it involved the implementationof the linearbilateralmarketmodel into interior point
hybrid
OPF
FACTS
parameter
together
optimisation.
algorithm
controllermodelsusing
with
representation.Here, a setupprocedurewas proposedfor fair and easycomparisonsof test
two-stepmethodwasconceived.
casesagainstrelevantbasecases,and the generalised
In the second area, Chapters4 to 6 presentedresults that assessedthe performanceof
FACTS controllersfor congestionminimisation.Comparisonover daily and annualdemand
levelsprovidedgreaterdetailthan singlesteadystateinstantsin time.An extensionwasmade
to the generalisedmethod for increasedefficiencyby the addition of a screeningtechnique;
this formed the sensitivitybasedthree-stepmethod. Considerationwas also given to the
economicbenefitsof FACIS controllerinstallations.
7.1.1 Evaluation of results
The bilateral market model reflected the market structure used in Britain. 1he model
included rational generators with predefined bids for change from scheduled generation
which simulated the balancing mechanism. Congestion was imposed on the simulations by
changesin the daily demand requirements. In all cases,when congestion was in existencethe
increase
power
system active
generation
was greater than the system active power generation
decrease,due to the real power systemlosses.Consistently it was found that the contribution
161
Chapter7: 7.1 Condudingremarks
of scheduledgenerationchangesfrom congestionwas much greaterthan the contribution

from real power systemlossesand, the quantity of systemlosseswere similar with and
without the application of FACTS controllers.Therefore, to minimise systemcosts, the
minirn:isationof congestionwasmoreimportant than realpower systemlosses.
Numerical results with the VSC basedFACTS controllers, the STATCOM and UPFC
'Ihe
showedthat they were ableto providepower flow control for congestionmanagement.
bus or line installationlocation was the most important factor as it affects the quantity of
reduction in systemcost (RSC)and the correspondingrequired capacityof the FACTS
controller. The orientation of the controller was not as important as the location of the
controller.Theseaspectswere especiallytrue for the UPFC, asit achievedon averagegreater
RSCscomparedto STATCOM.
The areasensitivitymethod was able to identify the systemareawith the greatestaverage
RSCfor the UPFC consistentlyand acrossa rangeof demandlevels.This areaidentification
At
base
because
it
the
case
system.
of
methodwas efficient
requiredonly a singlesimulation
the individual line level, the line sensitivityindicator was unable to identify the correct
location for the UPFC. For the STATCOM, the areaand individualbus sensitivitymethods
indicate
bestlocationscorrectly.
to
werenot able
Investmentcost is often the limiting factor widiin the industtW decision-makingprocesses.
Applicationof the Return Index OP measureeasedthe final location decisionby quantifng
the equipmentcost and correspondingsystemcost savings,giving an indicator similarto the
economic rate of return.
Congestionmanagementis an increasinglyimportant issue for the entire electricalutility

industry.1he integrationof new technologiessuch as FACIS controllersappearsinevitable
as the technicalcapability,statutoryrequirementsand sociallyacceptablesolutionsavailable
becoming
demanding.
(TSO)
to the transmdssion
more
progressively
are
systemoperators
Steadystate modelling is an important first step to the decisionmaking processfor any
transmissionsystemupgrade.'I'lie results ftom the IEEE systemsshowed that with an
installation
is
location,
UPFC
the
of
a
ableto provide a solutionto the
appropriatechoiceof
based
investment
problem
paybackperiods.
realistic
equipment
management
congestion
with
162
Chapter7: 7.1 Concludingremarks
7.1.2 Main contributions of this work

The major contributionsof this thesisaresummarisedasfollows:
a) Implementationof the non-linearinterior point OPF algotid= for the calculationof
power systemcongestionandpower systemlossesin a pure bilateralmarket,usingan
a.c. power flow networkmodelandreducedmatrix of Newton equations.
b) Determination of the impact of FACrS controllers such as the STATCOM and
UPFC on the power systemcongestionand power systemlossesin a pure bilateral
electricitymarket during dailydemandload profiles in ( a Winter Maximumperiod,
(U)a typicalSummerperiod,and (iii) an average365 dayyear.
c) Proposal of a general two-step method for finding optimal FACTS controller
locationand rating for minimisationof congestionandrealpower systemlosscosts.
d) Fo=ulation of an area sensitivity-basedthree-step screeningtechnique to aid
identification of optimal location for UPFC installationand rating, for minimising
congestionand real power systemloss costs to reduce the number of required
simulations.
e) Determinadonof the impact of FACTS controller equipmentcostson the decision

makingprocessof optimallocationfor solvingthe congestionmanagement
problem.
The a.c. power flow network representationimplementedto determinethe use of FACTS
is ableto investigatethe implicationsof a wide range
controllersfor congestionmanagement
of network featuresand constraintsthat cannot be examinedby approximatemodelling
techniquessuchasthe d.c. power flow model.
Steadystateanalysisover a rangeof load levelshasprovided more information.about longterm system performance with FACTS controllers for congestion management.The
proposedscreeningtechniquemethod may be of interestto TSOs to aid first-stepdecision
makingby rapidly eliminatingthe majorityof FACTS controllerinstallationlocations.
163
Chapter7: 7.2Furtherwork
7.2 Further work
Ihe interior point OPF algotithm for the calculationof congestioncost can be extendedto
investigate different features of dealing with congestion managementwith FACTS
for futureresearchwork is presentedbelow.
controllers.Somesuggestions
Bilateral electricity trading is most concernedwith the delivery and consumptionof real
power; however,the amount of reactivepower within the systemcan affect the qualityand
efficiency of power delivered.Extending the linear bilateral market objective function to
include penalty chargesfor changesto scheduledreactivepower can indicate how much
congestionis affectedby reactivepower as well as active power. In addition, the FACIS
controllermodelsareableto influencethe realand reactivepower flow. Inclusionof reactive
powerin the objectivefunction mayfurtherutilisethis control feature.
FACTS controllersare examinedfor singleinstaRation;however,as their usebecomesmore
in
largeFACTS
installation
the
controllers
widespreadand
costsreduced, use of multiple
OPF
interior
is
The
likely
become
increasingly
point
algorithm
to
scalesystems
common.
for
buses
FACTS
has
larger
30
deal
than
multiple
the
to
and
ability
already
with systems
installations,so that it is possibleto investigatethe impact of multiple FACTS controllerson
congestionmanagement
The major casestudiespresentedin this thesiswereconcernedwith normal demandprofiles.
Plannedand unplannedsystemoutagesare times where the systemis highly stressedand
seriouscongestionis most likely to occur.By settingup a variety of casestudieswith one or
more transmissionlineswith reducedor with zero capacity,a test of FAM controllerscan
be conductedto find the optimal type,ratingandlocation.
The equipment cost for FACTS controller installation was consideredafter installation
locationswere identified. It may be possibleto investigatethe impact of the equipmentcost
on the rating of the FACTS controller by extensionof the objective function to include
equipment cost. The equipment cost curve and the bilateral market relationship are
functions
linear
In
this
they
requirements,
with
gradients
of
opposite
sign.
confficting
as
are
be
for
in
location
installation
tested
reduction
congestion
case,each
would simultaneously
andat low equipmentcost and thereforesmallestcontrollerrating.
164
Chapter7: 7.2Furtherwork
Other topics that could be examinedconcernthe implementationof the algorithm and its
performance with different objective function and equipment combinations. Increased
efficiency was found using rectangularcoordinaterepresentationand the highly reduced
matrix of Newton equationsas usedin [Zhang et A (2005)].If applied to the congestion
managementproblem it could reducethe complexityof the matrix of Newton equationsand
therefore the time required to find a solution, particularly for large scalepower system
applications.
165
AppendixI
APPENDIX
Formulation for interior point OPF in hybrid coordinate representation using power
mismatch equations, as presented in Chapter 2.
All relevantformulationsarepresentedfor bus i and branchrwhere the non-diagonalparts
identical
for
The
all systembusesand branches.
areconsidered. systemelementsare
Newton Matrix Elements:
Equations (2.37) - (2.43) where,
Non-functional constraints are hj =
lp+
pii Qgi vi, vi, ti

,
9,1, ,
Functionalconstraintis S
V
[P+'Pi"Q"'Oi'Vi'Oj'Vj'ti]
x= 91
Aqj
Ap,,
slj,
suj,;
rlj,,
Tuj,
xa =[xi,
Ilq,, Ilpj,
is
the
Nt
3Ng
2N
+
+
number
system
a=1,2,...,
a
variable
,
N is the total number of buses,
Ng is the total number of generators,
Nt is the total number of transformers on the system,
Nh is the total number of inequality constraints.
Left-Hand-Side Formulation
For equation (2.42): -Vslj LI, = -slj A;rlj -; rljAslj
Asl
Lu
A;
xl
rlp+
= -slp+
+
+ p;,
- p;,
-Vslp+
gi
gi
L'"
-Vsl
= -sl
pi,
gi
Arl
pil
pil
-; rl
pil
(A.I-2)
Asl
pi,
(A.I-3)
Asl
A;
Lp
rl
rl
= -sl Q9, Q9, -; Qgi Qgi
-Vsl
Qgi
-Vsl
-Vsl
V,
Vi
Lp = -sl
Lp = -sl
Airl
Asl
rl
-;
V,
V, V,
(A.I-4)
A;rl
ASI
rl
-;
Vi Vi
Vi
(A.I-5)
V,
Vi
AppendixI
-Vslt L." = -slt A 7rlt - ;rlt AsIt
(M-6)
For equation (2.43):

Ljj
= sujA; ruj +; rujAsuj
-Vsuj
Lu
A7ru
Asup+
+;
sup+
ru
=
-Vsup,+
+
+
Pil
P;,
gi
gi
gi
(A.I-7)
LI,
= suPil AlruPil +; ruPil- AsuPil-vsu Pi7l
(A.I-8)
LP
Aru
Asu
+
7ru
=SU
-vsu
Qgi
Qgi
Qgi
Q9,
Qgi
(A.I-9)
-vsu
-vsu
LIU= SU A;ru + 7ru Asu

V,
Vi
V,
V,
(A.1-10)
LI, = SU Airu +ZU Asu

Vi
Vi
Vi
Vi
Vi
(A.I-1 1)
V,
LP
_VSUSO; = su A;ru +; ru Asu 2
S;
S;
S;
S,
(M-12)
Lp
Arut
+; rul Asut
sul
=
-Vsu,
(A.I-13)
Nh
For equation (2.40): -V; LU - 2: VXk hjAxk + Aslj

rlj
j=l
(A. I-14)
Lp
hp+
AP+ + Asl +
=
-V; Tlpr+.
-Vp+
pil
gl
gi g,
gi
-V; rl
_L
pi,
h
AR7
Asl
+
-V pil pil 91
pi,
h
AQ
Lu
+Asl
Qg!
Qgi
=
-V)rl
-V Q9,
gi
119,
(A.I-16)
Lu
hA
Vi
AsIv
+
=
-V; rl
-V V, V,
V,
(A.i -17)
-V; rl
LVi
-V; rlt Lp
hAV-+
-V Vi Vi
J
(A. I-18)
Asl
Vi
htAt
AsIt
+
-Vt
(A. I-19)
Nh
For equation(2.41):-V; Lu
ruj
-Vlru
-Vlru
LP+
gi
pit
Z VxkhjAxk Asuj
j=1
(A. I-20)
AP+
Asup+
-V PPg,
+h+
91 91
gi
Lu= -V
h- AR7 - Asu
gi
pi, pi
pi
ii
AppendixI
h
L
- -V Qgi Qg,AQ - AsuQgi
-v2ru
gi
Qg, '"
(A. I-22)
h
Lu
AVi
=
-V; ru
-V V, V,
-Asu V,
V,
(A.I-23)
h AVj -Asu
Vi Vi
Vi
(A.I-24)
-v; ru
Vi
LU = -V
=-VOhS2AOi-VVhSi2 AVi-VojhS, 2AOj-VVJhSi2AV -Asu

-v; ru
i
yvvjj
SOIL'"
su
'i
(A.1-25)
Ll,
=-VlhAt-Asul
-V; ru,
(A.I-26)
For equation (2.37)with consideration of power mismatch at bus i and busj.

Nk
NN
Vx(VxAPi)Api-2:
Vx(VxAQI)Aqi-yVx(Vxhj);
-I:
-VxL,u
Nh
NN
-I: VxkAPiAApi -I:
i=l
VxkAQiAAqi -ZVxkhjATlj-
i=l
Nh
rlj-I:
Vx(Vxhj); ruj
Nh
2: VxkhjAxuj
j=l
j=l
Ng
+Evxvxf(X)AX
i=l
(A. I-27)
Vp+ hp+ Axup+

Vp+ APIAAp, -Z
Vp+ hp+ Axlp+ gi
gi gi
gi gi
gi j=l
1=1 gi
j=l
Lu
-Vp+
gi
-Vp,
Nh
Nh
N
Lp=-ZVp,
APjAAp, -2]Vp,,,
i=l
j=l
VQg,AQi,6Aqi-
hp,, Arup,,
(A. I-28)
VQglhg, A;ruQgj
Z_,
j=l
(A.I-29)
hp,, Arlp'. -EVp,,

j=l
Nh
Nh
N
-VQgi Lu
Nh
Nh
VQg,hQgiAzlQgi -7
[-VOi
AQj)Aq
tpj
Vo,
(Vol
Lp
VOj
VOI
(VOi
APj),
(VOj
Alcs')Api
(VOI
AQ0Aq,
=
-VOj
jI -Voi(vOhS2)XUS2
u
ij
+[-VVi(vOi, &PI)Api-VVi(VOiAQi)Aqi-VVi(VoiAPj)-4pj-VVI(VOAQj)
qj-
MV
lAoi
hS2)XUS2 Avi
ul
+[-VOj(vOi ApDApi -VOj (VOjAQi)Aqi -VOj (Voi Apj)Apj -Vgj (Vol AQj)Aqj -VOj (Vol hS2)NUS2 Aoj
u
ul
+[-VVj(VoiAPI)Ap,
-VVJ(VO, AQi)Aqi-VVj(VoiAPj)Apj-Vvj(VO,
Aj
AQj)qj-VV(V
+[-V,, (VO,M)Ap, -Vtj(VOjAQ0Aqj -Vlj(VOjAPj), lpj -Vti(vOiAQJ)Aqj

-VOjAplAApj -VOIAQiAAqi -VOjAPjAApj -VOAQjAIqj
-Vol
OhSj2),TUSU2]AVj
IA
ANUSIJ2
Sul
(A.I-30)
III
AppendixI
('VV A"II
hS#2
vj
(VVj
(VVI
Qd-Aqj
(VVI
tpj
Qj)
(VV,
A
APD-Ipj
A
Apj),
USY2
V,
-VV i
-VV I
-VV i
-VV ,
qj -V
-Vv jLp
+[-VOi(VViAPj)lpi-VOI(VViAQI),
+[-VVj
(VVIAPDApi -VVj
Iqi-VOi(VViAPj),
Ipj-VOi(VVIAQJ)-Iqj-VO(VV,
(VVjAQ0Aqj -VVj (VViAPj)Apj
+[-Voj(VVIAPI)Api-VOj(VViAQi),
Iqi-VOj(VViAPj),
(VViAQj)Aqj
Ipj-VOj(VV,
AQj)Aqj-VOj(VV,
IiI
-VViAQjAIqi
Ap
Iqi-VOj(VOj
&Qi),
tpl-VOJ(Voj,
L,
-VO, u[-VOJ(VOJAPI),
hS,,
2))rUS,2 AOJ
]Ali
Ipj-Vti(VViAQJ)Iqj
+[-Vti(VViAPl)Api-Vti(VVIAQI)-Zqi-Vti(VViApj),
-VV, APIA-1p,-VVAQiAAqi -VVAPjAApj
-VVj
hS2); rUS2 AOI

IiU
Ul
I
Avj
(VVhS2);
rUS2
-VV,
ly
Ij
-VVhVA; rlV, -VVhVAzUVI -VVhS2A; rUS2

(i
Ij
(A. I-31)
Iqj-Voj(VojhS2);
j)Apj-VOj(VOjAQj),
rUS2 AOJ
Ul
U
&Qj).Iqj-VOI(VOjhS, 2); rUS2 AOj

jUI
I
+[-VVI (VOjAFDApj -VVI (V9jAQ0, Iqj -VV, (VOJAPj)Apj -VV, (VOJAQj)Aqj -VV,tj(VO hS2)NuS2 AVj
ij
ij
+[-Voi(VojAPI), tpi-VOi(VOjAQi')Aqi-Voi(VOjAPj)Apj-VOI(VOj,
+[-VVJ(VOJAPI),
+
[-Vtj
(VOj APDIpj - Vtj (VOj AQ0-Iqj - Vtj (VOj APj)-Ipj
-VOJAPIAAp, -VOJAQi, &,Iqi -VOJAPjA-Apj
-V Vi (VOjhSU2),TUS12 AV
vIj
APj), Ipj-VVj(vojAQj)Aqj
Ip, -VVJ(VOJAQi), Iqi-VVj(VOj
-VOJAQjA-Iqj
Vtj
(VOj
AQJ)Iqj
-
Ati
-VojhS, 2A)rUS,2
v
(A. I-32)
[-VVj
Lp
=
-VVj
[-VO,
Ipj-VVJ(VVJAQj)Aqj-VVj(VVjhS2)xuS2 AVj
Ul
y
JAPj),
(VVj APDAp,- VVj (VVj AQi),Tqi- VV (VV
(VVJ API)Ap, - VO, (VVJ AQi), Iq, - VO, (VVJ APj), Ipj - VOI (VVj AQJ)Aqj - VOI (vVhj S2)NuS2 A01
Ul
+[-VVj (VVjAPDApj -VVI (VVjAQI)Aqi -VVI (VVj APj)Apj
+[-Voj (VvjAPI)Ap, -VOj (VVjAQI)Aq, -VOj (VVjApj)Apj
lq -VVI (V Vhs 2)xuS2 AVj

Qj)
A
(VVJ
-VVi
i ij
i
41
)ZUSY2
hSY2
AOJ
(VV
(VVJ
AQJ)
VOj
Aqj
-V 01
j
(VVjAQj)-Iqj
(VVj,
&Pj)Apj
(VVjAPDAp,
(VVj,
&Qi)Aqi
+[-Vii
-Vii
-Vtj
-VII
-vv JAP,
AA
PI -VV JAQiAAq, -VVJAPjAAp jj -VV
AQjAlq,
-VVJhVjAxIVJ
]Ali
-VVjhvjAxuvj
- VVJ hS.2 Azus. 2
(A.I-33)
I
[-Vtj
Ati
Ipj
Vtj
(Vtj
AQJ)Aqj
Iqi
Vlj
(Vtj
APj),
Vtj
(Vii
AQI),
Lp
(Vtj
API)Api
-Vt, =
[-VOj (Vtj APDApj VOI(Vtj AQNqj VOj(VIj APj)Apj VOj(Vti,&Qj)-Iqj I AOj
+
]A
[-VV, M, APDAp, VVI(Vtj AQi)Aqi VVI(Vtj AP
Vi
(Vt,
AQj)qj
+
j)Apj -VV ,
]A
[+ VOj (V,, AP,Mpi - VOj (Vtj AQ0Aqj- VOj (VI, APj) Apj - VOj (Vtj AQj) Ilqj Oj
]AVj
[-VV
(Vtj API)Api- VVj (Vtj AQ01%- VVj (Vtj APj)Apj - VVj (Vti,&QJ)Aqj
+
j
A;
&Aqi
APIAAp,
rut,
rll,
-Vilh,,
-VthtA;
-VtiAQjAAqi
-VtjAPjAApj
-VtiAQi,
-V,,
NN
For equation (2-38): -VAjp, Llj -ZVxAPJAx
i=l
= -EJp,
i=l
IV
(x)Ax
(A. I-34)
AppendixI
[Vp+
LIJ
-j,
-VApi
APIA.
P+ +Vp APIAP +VO APIAOj+V APAVj +V APIIAOj
2
01
V,
gi
i
1
gi
(A.I-35)
+V AP,Ati
+V v APJAV.
it
j
i
Lp
-VAp jO
APjAOj +VV APjAVj +Vt APjAtj

i
,
ii
For equation (2.39): -VA Lp

W
NN
VxAQjAx
(A.I-36)
Jq, (x)Ax
AQiAoj
AQAvj
AQjAOj
Lp
AQjAQ9,
+V
+V
+V
= -IV Q
-VAqi
01
V,
Oi
gi
(A.I-37)
+VV AQjAvjt +V AQjAtil

i.
jAQjAtj
AQjAvj
AQjAOj
AQjAvj
+V
AQjAOj
+V
+V
+V
-VAqjLp =-[V O
Vi
ti
01
V,
(A.I-38)
Right-Hand-Side Formulation
From 1" order KKT condition equations,(2.26)- (2-32).
From equation(2.31)Vsj Lu =.u-slj; rlj
j
Vsj Lp =p -SIP+ )r1p+
P+
gi gi
(M-39)
Lp =. u - slp-
(M-40)
gi
VS1
pi,
VS1
gi
Lp =p-sl
119i
irlpi
(M-41)
;
rl
Q Q
9,
gi
(A.I-42)
Vsj Lu =.u - s1V;r1V

V,
i
sohasno lower limit
(M-43)
VS11i
L11=p- slvrlt,
From equation(2.32)VsujLp =.u + supruj

VSU L.U =/I+S
P+
gi
VSU
pi ,
L. =p+su
(M-44)
;rup+
g,
(A.I-45)
)rU
pi, pi,
(M-46)
vSU L'a =p+ suQ9,ZUQgi

Q91
AppendixI
vsu LIj =,a + suV, XuV,
(M-47)
VsusoLU
(A.I-48)
+ su
2
S,
Ij
;ru
SUZ
(A.I-49)
Vsu,,Lp =p+ sut,;rut,

(hj
From equation (2.29) V; Lp

rlj
V;r,
P+
9,
v ;rI
Ve
pi
p+ _ sp+ _ p+ nfin
gi
gi
gi
Lp
(A.I-50)
min)
WI
-S, P) _p,
Lp =-(P
Lp= -(Q -S,

_Q
Q
g
gi
Qgi
gi
vL;rI
in
hjm
sIj
-
(A.I-52)
(A.I -53)
niin)
P =-(V i -S, V, -V i
V,
sy2has no lower limit

V;rl, LIJ
,
(ti
(A.I-54)
_ sIti - tmin
(hj
From equation (2.30) V; Lp

ruj
+ suj
hjmax
(A.I-55)
V7ru LP =_(p+gi +sup+ _p+max

gi
gi
v ;ru LP
p2i
_(P
+supi _p
t
(Q9,
V;ru LP
Qgi
+SUQgi
VIM L,U=-(V.
V,
V;
rU
Lp
so
vLIruti It
(M-56)
max)
(A.I- 5'
niax
;I
-Q
+SUV, _Vmax)
i
(A.I
-58)
max
(A.I-59)
So+ SU 2
sv -s,
+sUtjI_,!
(A.I-60)
nax)
NN
From equation (2.26) V.,Lp Vxf (x)-YVxAPPpj
=
vi
Nh
Nh
Y Vxhjyrtj
Vxhjyruj
Qi-lqi
-1:
-FVx,,,
j=l
i=l
j=l
AppendixI
Vp+ Llj = Vp+ f(x) - Vp+ APIAp, - Vp+ hp+ ;rlp+ - Vp+ hp+ ;rup+
gi
Vpj Lp =V
91
gi
91 91 gi
f(x) - Vp, APS

Ap, - Vp,
pil
z2
rl
.h-pi,
pii
gi gi
V-h-
(A.I-61)
gi
ru
pi, pi, Pi,
h X1 -V
VQg,Ly =v
f(X)-V
h ;rU
A02q, -V
Q9,
Q9,
Q9, Q91 Q9, Q91Q91 Q9,
VO,Lit = -Vol Als',Ipi - VO,AQIIqi - VO,APjlpj - Voi AQj Aqj - Voi hi rli
(A.I-62)
(A. I-63)
(A. I-64)
hg,
hs,,
Voi
Voi
us,
ug,
hV.
AQJAqj
V Lp =-V APIApi-V AQ!Aqi -Vvl 18PjApj
)rlV,
-VVI
-VV.
V,
V,
V,
hs#
vv.
hv,
YrUv'
'Usy,
-vv
i,
i
VtiL.U -vtiAPS'Api-VtjAQAqj -vliApj. 1pj -VtiAQjlqj -Vtjki; rlt -viikiffuji
(A. I-65)
(A.I-66)
From equation (2.2-0

(A.I-67)
VAp, LU = -API = -(Pg, + P+ - Pjj - Pdj -Al

9,
From equation(2.28)
(Qgj
VAq,L'U= -AQ =Qdj
Q)
-
(A.I-68)
vii
AppendixII
Appendix II
Derivation of power mismatch equations as presented in Chapter 2 and Appendix I
The derivation of the power mismatch equationsfor the following componentsof the
transmissionsystemin hybrid equationrepresentationarepresentedin this appendix,
" Transmissionline
" Transformer
Ihe power mismatchequationsarederivedfirst usinga single-linesystemwith one generator
for
load.
hybrid
Where,
polar
representation
coordinates
voltages and
and one
uses
rectangularcoordinatesfor admittances.
Derivation of power mismatch equations for hybrid equation representation
Steady-statemodel of a two-bus systemwith one generatorbus, one load bus and one
transmissionline (branch).
Bus
Bus I
y1i =G li I+jBij
P91
Qg,
Pdj Qdl
Figure AIM: 2 bus system.

,0--
where,
Pg, is the realpower generatedat bus i,
Qg,is the reactivepower generatedat bus i,
Pdj is the realpower demandat busj,
Qdj is the reactivepower demandat busj,
Yjj is the admittanceof the transmissionline equalto Yjj = Gy + jBy.
viii
AppendixII
Complex power Sy flows ftorn bus i to busj. The complex power at bus i is [Gronen
(1988)],
N
F,
Si = P, + jQl = ViIi = vi
YyVj
j=l
(A.II-1)
where,
i andj arethe bus index numbers,
Vi is the voltageat bus i, Vj(cosOj+i sinOj),
Vj is the voltageat busj, Vj (cosOj+i sinOj
Ii is the currentat bus i,
Yjjis the admittanceof branch# betweenbusesi andj,
N is the total number of systembuses.
In hybrid representationthe voltageis representedin polar coordinatesand admittancein
rectangularcoordinates.
J*
(Vj
(cos
1:
(cos
Oj +j sinOj))
(Gy+ jBij)
Oi+j sinOi)
Pi+ jQ = Vi
,
j=1
N
(A.II-2)
where,
Oiis the voltageangleat bus i,
Ojis the voltageangleat busj,
Gyis the conductanceor realpart of the branchadmittanceYy
,
branch
imaginary
By is the susceptance
the
the
part
or
of
admittanceYU.
Expand terms in the parenthesis,substitutethe complex conjugateand separatereal and

imaginaryparts.Complexpowerin hybrid equationrepresentation.
N
Pi + jQi = Vi (cosOi+j sin01)
(Gy
VJ
cosOj-By sin0j)-jVj
(Gy
sinOj +By cosoj)
Include voltage at bus i, and group real and imaginary components.

Pi+jQi
N
ZJViVJ[Gy(cos(Oi-0j)+By
sin
(Oi-0j))]
i=1
[Gy (sin(Oi
(0i
MO
Oj)
By
+jViVj
cos -
Ix
(A.II-3)
AppendixII
Real and reactive power mismatch equations are,

A4
Pgj - Pdj - Pi'
(A.II-5)
AQ Qgj - Qdj-Q
(A.II-6)
where,
P, is the realpower injection at bus i,
Q is the reactivepower injectionat bus i.
Ile general form of the power injection equations is,
NN
A
Iy
P.-=1:
j=I
j=I
(ViVj [Gy (cos (Oi

(Oi
Oj)
By
Oj))]l
+
sin
-
(A.II-7)
NN
IViVj
[Gy (sin(Oi
(Oi
1:
1:
Q1=
Oj)
Oj))])
QU=
By
cos
j=l
i=l
(A.II. 8)
where,
N is the total number of branchesconnectedto bus i.
Modelling and derivation of transmission line power flow equations
A transmissionline canberepresentedby the following equivalentcircuit,
yij= g1j+Jbij
Busj
Bus I
VY
IJO
ilo
Bc
Figure AII-2: Transmissio.n hne modd
where,
(A.II-9)
Iio
jBc Vi
ly
(gy + ikj)(Vi
yy
gy + Aj
(A.II-10)
Vj)
-
is the branch admittance element
AppendixII
The currentat bus i is,

Ii = 40 + IY
(A.II-1 1)
Substitute(A.II-9) and (A.II-10),

(A.II-12)
Ii = (gy + jkj)(Vi - Vj) + jBc Vi

Group terms with respect to voltages and bus i andj,
Ii =
[gy
(A.II-13)
+ j(kj + Bc)] Vi - (gy + jby)Vj
In matrix form,
I Iil=[Yii
Ii
Yij11Vi1=[gY
Yj i
Vi
Yjj
+ j(kj + Bc)
j4j)
+
-(gy
Aj)
Vi
+
-(gy
Lvj
J
gy + j(kj + Bc)J
(A. II-14)
Note that Yy = Yjj

Substitute voltages and group real and imaginary parts the currents at buses i andj become,
Ii
[gij
Vi
+j
Ij
cosOi - ft
[gy
Vi
]
][gy
+ BC)sin Oi Vj
cosOj - kj sin Oj
][gy
sin Oj + by cosOj
sin Oi + (by + Bc) cosOi Vj
]
[gy
][gy
Vi
Vj
cosOi - 4j sin Oi
cosOj - (by + Bc) sin Oj
jVj [gij
[gy
]Oi
Oi
by
Oj
(by
Oj
Vi
Bc)
+
cos
sin
+j
+
+
cos
sin
(A. II-15)
(A. II-16)
The complexpower Sy flows from bus i to busj, equation(A.II-1),

Sy = Pjj + jQy = ViIi = [Vi (cosOi+i sinOi)]Ii*
(A.II-17)
SubstituteIi the real and reactivepower flow equationsare,

,
[gy
2gy
(Oi
(Oi
Oj)]
by
Oj)
Py = Vi
ViVj
+
sin
cos
Qy1=_V2(by-Bc)-ViVj[gijsin(Oi-0j)-bycos
(A. II-18)
(Oi 0A
-
(A. II-19)
Substitute admittance elements gy and by with the equivalent -Gy and -By for the off-
diagonaltermsrespectively,the realandreactivepower flows in generaltermsareobtained:

V.Vj
p;.
V2g..
+
Y- iyI
[Gy
(Oi Oj) By
(Oi Oj)]
+
sin
cos (oi
Qy1=_V2(by-Bc)+ViVj[Gijsin(Oi-0j)-Bycos
where, gij = -Gy and 4j =-By.
xi
(A.II-20)
0A
-
(A.II-21)
AppendixII
N
Gy is the short form for
gy
j=l
N
By is the short form for 1: by
j=1
N is the total number of branches connected to bus
Ilie transmissionline capacityis givenby,

(P3
S =
jQ0
+
YYY
(A.II-22)
Where Py and Qy are given by equations(A.II-18 and A-II-20) and (A.II-19 and A. H-21)
respectively.
Modelling and derivation of transformer widi tap ratio control power flow equations
Steadystatetransformermodelwith tap ratio control at primary sidebus i.
Bus II:
I Vi
t
V,
/0-N
Yt
'4
pp,
ITR
Bus
Vi I
TR'
IJ
FigureAII-3: Transformermodel.
where,
TR
V.I and I,'
are the primary side voltage and current respectively,
TR'
Vi and Ii'
are the secondary side voltage and current respectively,
busj,
VF
ITR
the
are voltageand currentat
ii and
t is the tap value,
ic is the tap-ratio,relatedto t asdefinedbelow,
yt is the transformeradmittance.
Note that
V'
t
Vi
=-'-=x,
ITR
i
and the tap-ratio control is assumedto be at the samesideas
bus i.
xii
AppendixH
The
secondary current
(V.'
TR'
ii,
is
equivalent to,
ITR
IjTR =it
and is be calculated by,
Ihe
is
secondary
yt.
voltage
equivalent toVi=tVi.
-V J)
Substitute the secondary
side values to obtain current on primary side of transformer,

TR
I,,
-I
(tV,
_Vj-
)yt
(A.II-23)
=t2ytV,iV In j
The currentat busj is equalto,

TR
It,
(V
1)
J-V
yt
(V
1)
ji -tv
yt
(A.Il-24)
yt Vi- yt Vj
The current equations in matrix form are,

1=[Yii
TR
Ii
Yy][Vj]=[t2
TR
I
y
'y
yjj
Vj
][Vi
yt
_tyt
-t yt
yt
Vj
Ihe transformer equivalent circuit,
Bus I
-rTR
: tTR
Ij
-tyt
i ilo
Ijo
TR
Bus
(I -t)Yt
(t-t)Yt
FigureAII-4: Transformerequivalentcircuit.
where, yt is the transformer admittance, equal to, yt = gy + jby
Substitute transformer
(A.
(A.
II-23)
into
II-24),
and
equations
admittance and voltages
TR Vi
(gy
in
01
by
Oj
Oi
by
in
Oi
t2g
+i
+
s
cos
s
cos
--IIy
-'-Vit[gycosoj
-bysinOj +j(gijsinOj
+bycos0j)]
ITR = _V,it[gijcos0i -bysin0i +j(gysin0i+bycosOI

+vj[gycosOj -bysinOj +j(gysinOj
(A.II-25)
+bijcos0j)]
xiii
(A.Il-26)
Appcndix II
The complexpower betweenbusesi andj is Sy = ViIiTR*.By substitutingequation(A.Il-25)

the complexpower flow of a transmissionline with a transformerwith tap ratio control on
bus sidei is,
pTR
V2t2g..
_V ,Vjt
iY
1gy
(Oi Oj) by
(Oi Oj)]
+ sin
cos -
TR
%iY _V2t2b.. -ViVjt[gij sin(Oi-0j)-by
(A. II-27)
(0i 0i
cos -
(A.II-28)
Signs should match (A-II-18) and (A. II-19).
TR
STR = p.TR+ j! 2
YYY
The corresponding complex power flow from bus j to bus i with transformer tap ratio
control on side i,
1gy
(Oi
(01
Oj)
Oj)]
pTR
V2g..
V
sin
cos
_
jt
-hy
ji
iY _V-
(A.II -29)
[gy
TR
(Oi
(Oi
Qi --jY_V2b.. + ViVjt
sin - Oj) + by cos - Oj)]
(A.Il-30)
STR - L,. TTR* = pTR + jQTR
ji -'j-j
J1
J1
Ihe transformertap value t is representedin the realand reactivepower mismatchequations

asfollows,
A&
Pgj - Pdj - Pi
(A.II-31)
AQ
QgI - Qdj -Q
(A.II-32)
where,
N
P
Nt
P.
Ij
j=1
(A.II-33)
TR
+J:
j=1
N
Nt
=QJ: Q +j] QTR
Y
j=1
(A.II-34)
j=1
where,
N is the total numberof branchesconnectedto bus i,
Nt is the total number of transformersconnectedto bus i.
Systemvariables, x
o At all buses,N, therearetwo systemvariables,Oi,Vi.
At all generator buses, Ng there are three systemvariables, AP+ AP7,QgI
,
, g,
g'
x1v
AppendixIl
9 At all buseswith transformer tap ratio control, Nt , there is one systemvariable, t.

o At
all buses with
a FAM
controller, NF , there are four system variables,
Ose,Vse,Osh,Vsh
-
Functional
line
S2
transmission
of
constrain
equation
Y
The transmissionline capacityS? is a functionalconstraintof the systemvariablesx.
Y
(A.II-35)
Q2
S2
p2
+
u- YY
p,j
(gij
Oj))
Oj)
by
V2g,,
VjVj
+
sin(Oi
cos(Oi
i
(A.II-36)
(gy
by
Oj)
Oj)
VjVj
QU= _V2bl
cos(Oi
sin(Oi
i
(A.II-37)
max the sin91e sidedinequalityis,

When h(x)= S? and hTax(x) = Sj2j
iY
(A.II-38)
S2
c2max
_
Y -- Y
dual
The associated
slackand
variablesare, su4 and ;ruS;
The Lagrangefunction only concerningS S?
Y, Y
Nh
suS2and xuS is,

ij
Y
Nh
(A.II-39)
L 2=-, ul: ln(suj)-I:;

ruj(hj+suj-hTax)
p ,SY
j=1
j=1
First derivative,
ll
Ui
2
y
'Sii
x
(A.II-40)
Secondderivative,
02S;
-)ruj
(A.II-41)
&ax
Wherethe term on the right hand sidein the bracketsare,

aSI3
2
')
!
Q-j
ap,
Ij
2PIj
+2Qy
ax
ax
L-p1jL-py T-Y
+2
=2
&C ' )X
OX&
Ox
(A.II-42)
2Q'
2p
-Y
!
2Py
+2QY -j
&&
&av
xv
(A.II-43)
AppendixII
Transformer tap ratio constraint t

Ihe transformertap ratio is a double-sidedinequalityconstraint,
tirun ,, t,, tmax
where h(x) =t, hjm" (x) = tn"
and hTax (x) = tmax . The associated slack and dual variables
max
min
funcdon
The
Lagrange
t,
t,
t,
only concerning,
slt,; rlt, sut
are, slt ;rlt , sut and ;rut .
is,
and rut
Nh
Nh
Lp t=-pjln(slj)-1uj]ln(suj)j=l
Nh
ir Ij (hj _s Ij _ hjmln)
j=l
(A.II-44)
Nh
max)
h
(hj
+ suj ;ruj
First derivative,
aL,
U,t =-(;Tlj+zuj)(2-j(X)
at
at
10
(A.II-45)
2j
where, -(x' = I.
at
Second derivative,
a2L'"'t
(A.II-46)
at2
Reference
Gronen,T., (1988)"Modem PowerSystemAnalysis",JohnWilej & Sons,Inc.
xvi
AppendixIII
APPENDIX
III
Formulation for FACTS controllers for the interior point OPF using hybrid
in
the
power
presented
representation
of
mismatch
equations,
as
coordinate
Chapter 3.
All relevantformulationsate presentedfor bus i and branch# where the non-diagonalparts

areconsidered.
Additional Newton matrix elements for FACTS controllers only:
Equations(3.27)- (3.36)where,
FACTS
EO Vse,Osh,Vsh
hi
- se,
FACTS
Xiijj,
=[O, V, o 'V
Ose,Vse,Osh,Vsh
FACTS, lpi, Aqj, Apj,, Iqj, APE,

FA CTS- FXFACTS'SIFACTS FACTS,,, IFACTS
)ru)
Xia
IIPC, IIQC
i
-L
'su)
sIfACTS
i
+10
'O.,
se'SIV.se's h'S'Vh
[SUOse
S
UOsh
SUACTS
Vse
=
'
'Suv Sh
'SU
j
;rl i
A CTS
[TOse'7r
=I
IV
se"r
10
A"T
IV
sh]
FA CTS [TUOse
rU
ruOsh
)r U)
Vse
=
';
'ruVsh
';
N is the total number of buses on the system,

Ng is the total number of generators on the system,
Nt is the total number of transformers on the system,
NF is the total number of FACIS controllers on the system,
Nh is the total number of inequality constraints.
Left-hand-side formulation
For equation (3.35): -Vslj L." = -slj, &zlj -; rljAslj
Asl
L
Airl
7r1
-sl
-vsl
Ose Ose
Ose
Ose
ju
Ose
(A.III-1)
A;
Asl
L
rl
rl
--sl
-VSI
l'
Vse Vse-; Vse Vse
I'se
(A.III-2)
xvil
AppendixIII
-Vsl
- -sl OshA)rl Osh-; rl OshASIOsh

Osh 'a
L
Lp --sl
-VslS'h
(A.III-3)
Aid
ASI
rl
Ksh
Vsh -; Kish vsh
For equation (3.36): -Vsuj LU = sujAiruj
(A.III-4)
+; rujAsuj
Lp
Azu
+TuOseASUOse
su
_VSU
--, Oe
Os,
Ose
(A.III-5)
L1, =SU
A)TU
Asu
+
;
rU
Vse
VS,
Vse
Vse
Vse
(A.III-6)
A7ru
Asu
LU
-su
-VSU
+;
Osh
Osh
TU
Osh
Osh
Osh
(A.III-7)
LP =SU
A;
Asu
+ZU
ru
Vsh
Vsh
Vsh
Vsh
-vsu Vsh
(A.III-8)
-vsu
Nh
For equation (3.33): -V; Lp

rlj
L-Vgl
fl
Ose
-E
j=1
VxhjAz + Aslj
h
-V OseOseAose + Asl0
se
L
-V; rl
o --V
Vse
h
AVse+AsIV,
Vse Vse
se
Lh
Osh
A
+ As'Oh
-Vgl
-V 0, oh
h
0,h
LPhV.
AV+
-V; rl
-V Vsh
A
V,h
sh
For equadon (3.34):
Lp
-Vzuj
(A. III-1 1)
Asl
Vh
Nh
Z VxhjAx
Asuj
-
j=l
Lp - -VO h
AO - Asu
Ose se
Ose
Ose
se
hVse
LI,
= -V 17se A V'se - AsuVse
-v; ru
rse
hOsh
Lu
Aosh -AsuO.,
=
-Vzu
-V Osh
osh
hKsh
Lu
AV -Asu
= -V Vsh
-v; ru
A
Vsh
Vsh
xviii
AppendixIII
For equation(2.37)with considerationof power mismatchat bus i andbusj.

Nh
NN
Ipi-I:
-VXLIJ =[ -EVx(VxAPi),
i=l
Vx(VxAQi)-Iqi-I:
Vx(Vxhj),, Ij-I:
i=l
j=l
NN
Vxk AFItAAPi7 2: Vxk AQiAAqi
i=l
Nh
Vx(Vxhj), r ujj" v
j=l
Nh
2: Vxk hiAgli
Nh
2: Vxk hjATui
j=l
J=l
(A.III-1 7)
Ng
+E Vxvxf (X)AX
i=l
LP
-VO,e =
[-VOs. (VOse
Api)-Pi
&PEUpFC), IPEUpFC]AOse
(Vo
-Vo
se
se
(VOseAWpi
+[-vv
'qi
VOse
(VOse
VOse
(VOse
AQi),
APJ)Ap,
VOse
(VOe
AQj), qj
-
APJ
(VOse
VVse
(VOs.
AQi)Aqi
VV
Api)
VV,, (VO., AQj)qj
e
e
-VV,se(Vo seAPEUpFC)IPEUpFC]AVse
(VO,. AP, ),
+[-VOj
"
[-VVI
(VO,,
e"pl)Pi
[-VOJ
(VOse Apj)"Pi
"
+[-VV
(Vose APj)'pj
&Ft
-VO
IA'P,
"e
Lu
-Vv, se =
pi -VOi(VO., eAQI)'qi
-Vo,
(A.III-1 8)
(Vo.,
eAPEUpFC)PEUpFC]"0j
VV,
(Vo.,
AQi)Aqi
APEUpFC)APEUpFC
VVI
(VOe
],
& vi
],
VOJ
(VOse
AQj)Aqj
-
- VOJ (VOseAPEUpFC)APEUpFC
- VVj (Vose AQj)qj
]V
(V
0., APEU PFC)-ZPEUpFC Aj
Vj
-V
-VoseAQiA'qi
&oj
h
Vo.,
Aru
Ose
e Ose
]A
(VV
Vv,
v
PEUpFC)IPE
se
UPFC
se
se
+[-VO,. (VV API)AP, - VOse(V v AQ)Aqj - VOse(VV APj)"Pi

se
se
e
VOe
(VVse
Iqj
AQj),
-
-Vo se(VVseAPEUpFC)IPEUpFC]AOse
]Aoj
M)Api - VOj (VK, AQi), Iqi - voi (VV, APEUPFC)APEUPFC
s.
[-VVj (VV,.
],
M)Apj - VVj (VVse,'Q! )-'qi - VVj (VVs. APEUPFC)APEUPFC &Vi
+
(A.III-1 9)
(VV,
+[-Voi
]A
-Vo j (VV,seAPEUPFC) ItPEUPFC OJ
AA
+[-VOJ(VVse Apj)PJ-VOJ(VVseAQJ)qj
+[-VVJ(VVse'pj)'PJ-VVJ(VVse'QJ)'qj-VVJ(VVseAPEUPFC)'PEUPFC]"VJ
A
Vvse
Ap
IA A -VVseAQiAqi
Lu
=
-VO,,h
[-VO,
APjAApj
AQjAIqj
-VV,,
-VV,,
(VOshAPDApi - VOsh(VO,, AQI),tqi -%(%APEU

h
h
Aru
-Vv se Vse
Vse
PFC)APEUPFC]AOsh
s
]A
AQi)-'qi -VV (VoshAPEUpFC)-IPEUpFC Vsh
+[-Vl7sh (VOshAp1)AA -Vj/ A (VOsh
sh
'y
[-VOj (VOshM)pi
"
"
[-V
'qi
Vo,
(Vosh
VOi
(VOsh
APEUpFC)APEUpFC Ao1
'Qi),
-
Vi (VO$h,&Pi)Api -V Vi (VOvhAQI)Aqi - VV, (VoshAPEUPFC) APEUpFC A V,
vosh
IA A -VOhAQiAlqi
Aru
-VO ,hh osh
xix
O.
'i
(A.III-20)
AppendixIII
Lp
Vh
=
-V
[-V
]A
Vh (VO.,h APEUPFC), IPEUpFC Vsh
I
+[-Vo, h (VVshAPI)APi -VOsh (VVhAQi)Aqi -VOsh (VVshAPEUPFC)APEUPFC AOsh
[-Voi (VVh API),Ipj voi (VvshAQi)lqi
10
VOj
(VV APEUpFC)APEUPFC Ai
"
vh
[-VVi (VOh AFIk)APi
"
-VVi(VVshAQi)Aqi-VVi(VVshAPEUPFC)APEUPFCI A Vj,
h
APIAAp,
VV
Aru
AQiAAq,
-Vvsh
-vv sh
Vsh
vsh
sh
1
[-V0i
AQi)Iqi
V0i
(V0i
PEUPFC)IPEUpFC
(V0i
V0i
(V0i
A0i
Lp
APPApi
=
-V0i
[-VVi (V0i APP-Zpi VVi ('V0i AQi), lqi VV, (V0, APEUpFC)APEUppC] Vi
+
[-VO.,. (V0i AP,),tp, VOle(V0i AQi)Aqi Vose(VOPEUpFC)ZPEUPFC 1 Aole
+
[-VVse ('V0i
]AVe
Apl)'ZA - VVse(V0i AQi)Aqi - VV (V0i APEUPFC)APEupFC
"
[-VOm ('V0i
APP'ZA - VOsh(V0i AQi)Zqi - VOsh(V0i APEUPFC)'PEupFc A0sh
"
"
[-V
(A. III-22)
Vh (V0i APi)lIpi -V Vh (V0i AQi)-Zqi -V Vh (V0i APEUPFC) APEUpFC A Vsh
1q,
V0i
APt
AApi
AQiA,
-V0i
-Vv
Lu =[ -VOi(VVIAFt),tj7i-VOI(VViAQI), tqi-VOi(VViPEUPFC)APEUPFCI 0
i
],
[-VO,,
(VVi Apl)tPi - VOre(VVI AQi)qi - VO,. (VVj PEUPFC)APEUPFC &0,,
"
&i
"
"
"
[-Vv
(VVi Apl)tPl - VKse(VVj AQi)Aqi - VVe (VVi PEUPFC)APEUPFC A Vse

e
[-VOsh
[-V
(A. III-23)
(VVi API)Api - VOsh(VVj AQi), tqi - VOh (VVi PEUPFC)APEUpFC AOsh
Vh (V ViAPI)APi -VV.
sh
(VVI AQi)-tqi - VVh (VVI PEUPFC)APEUPFC A Vsh
-V ViAPIA"pi -VViAQIAtqi
-V0jLp
[-VOj(V0jAPj),
+[-VVj(VOjpj)Apj
tpj -VOj(VOjQJ)Aqj
(V0jAPEUPFC)APEUpFC]Aoj
-VOj
-VVj(V0jAQj),
qj -VVj(VOj, &PEUPFC)lpEUpFC] Av J
Ose(VOjApJ), zpj-VO(VOj'Qj)qj-VOve(VOJA'EUPFC)APEupFc]Ose
+[-vvse(Vojpj),
-v
ZPJ-vv,
e(VOj'QJ)'j-VV,
(A. III-24)
e(VOjlPEUPFC)APEUpFC]vse
Ap
Oj
itpj -VOJAQjAAqj
(VVJAPEUpFC)APEUpFCj&Oj
m[-VOj(VVjAPj)-Zpj
-VOj
-VOj(VVjAQJ)Aqj
-VVjLij
(VVJAQj)Aqj-Vo.,
AOse
+[-Voe(VVAPj)Ap
-VO
e(VVJAPEUpFC)ApEUPFC
se
5jj
[-VVse
Avse
(V Vi Apj) APi - VVse(VVJAQj)Aqj - VVse(VVJAPEUPFC)APEUPFC
+
VVJ,
&QjAAqj
APjAApj
-VVJ
-
For equadon (3.28): -VAp, Lp
NN
VxAP Ax=-EJp,
(A. III-25)
(x)Ax and
NN
Lp
-VAp j
V.,,,&P
(A.III-26)
ipj (X)AX
xx
AppendixIII
-VAPiLl,
Ose
AIPIA
+V V" MAVse + VO,, APIAOsh+V Vh APIA h
= -IV 0
.11
+V
-VAp j
LU
ApJAOj +V
Oi
V,
(A.III-27)
AplAviAvi
VO APjAOse+V
APjAVse+V
ApjAoj +V
APj A Vj
V,
01
Vi
,
(A.III-28)
NN
For equation (3.29): -VA Lu = -ZVxAQiAx
q,
= -EJq,
(x)Ax and
NN
LU
VxAQjAx
Aq
= -Y,
-V
j
j=1
Lp
=-VAq,
= -Z
j=l
(A. III-29)
Jqj (x)Ax
IV
AQA Vse+V
AQAOse +V
AQMh
+VVh
O
OshAQAOsh
Vse
se
I
+V Oi AQjAOj +V V, AQjAvj
-VAqjL, u=-[Vo
AQjAOse+VV
AQjAVse+V
,,
01
AQjAoj+v
Vi
AQjAVj]
(A-III-30)
(A. III-31)
NF
For equation
LU
APEI
-V
(3.30):
Lu
= -Z
-VAPE
[V
VxPEjAx
i=l
OsePEi A Ose+V VsePEi A Vse+V OshPEi A Osh+V Vsh PEiAVsh
+VO, PEiAOi+VV, PEjAVi+Vo
ij
PEiAOj+VV
(A. III-32)
PEi,&Vj
NF
For equation (3.31): -V APC

=-ZVxPCiAx
_L
, lu
_VAPCjLP = _[VOsePCiAOse +VVsePCiAVse+VOjPCiAOi +VVIPCiAVi
+VojPCjAOj
(A. III-33)
+VVJPCjAVj
NF
For equation
(3.32):
Lp
-VaQci
VxQCiAx
Os
Oi
LP
QCi
QCi
A
Vse
QCi
QCi
A
A
A
Vi
+V
+VV,
aQCi
01
Ve
=
-V,
_[VOse
e+V
+VO QciAoj +VV Qci, &Vj
jjI
xm
(A. III-34)
AppendixIII
Right-hand-side formulation
From 1" order KKT condition equations,(3.17)- (3.26).
From equation(3.25)Vslj Lp =.a - slj; rlj
VS1 L'u =p- SlO ;rlO
Ose
se se
(A.III-35)
VS1 Lp =p-sl
;
rl
V
V
I'se
se se
(A.III-36)
VS1
(A.III-37)
Vsl
(A.III-38)
Lu =, u - sl ;rl
O
O
h
Osh
sh
Lu =p- sIV WV
Vsh
sh
A
From equation(3.26) Vsu Lu

j
+ supruj
Vsut9 Lp =P+SU
OseIruOse
se
(A.III-39)
VSU
Lp =p+su
XU
Vse Vse
Vse
(A.III-40)
VSU Lp =, U+ SU
Oh'2ruoh
Osh
(A.III-41)
vSU
(A.III-42)
Lp =p + su
lruKsqh
Vish
Vsh
(hj
From equation (3.23) V; Lu

rl j
v2rl
V;
Lp =Ose
n)
0;
(A.III-43)
n
VPe'
- SIV se
(A.III-44)
-s'O
(A.III-45)
- SlO se
Lp =rl
Vse
V;rl LU =
Osh
V;
(Oe
(Vse
hTn)
slj
-
+sh
Sh
-=h
nin
L
T
rl vsh P= -(h - sl V sh
From equation(3.24)V; Lp
ruj
(A.III-46)
(hj
+ suj - hrPax
V;ru Lp =-(Ose+SuO -eOylax

Ose
se
(A.III-47)
VXU Lp-(Kse+Su
-Vlax)
V
Vse
se
(A.III-48)
V'ru
Lp =
osh
+yh
+ SUO
sh-
hMX)
(A.III-49)
=I
AppendixIII
(A.III-50)
V;rU
rsh
s
Nh
Nh
NN
Vxhj; ruj
Vxhj; rlj
From equation(3.17)vxLu = vxf(x) 1: VxAPiApi
VxAQ!Aqi
j=l
j=1
i=l
1=1
AP
jTpj
-VO.
IAQPlqj s,
rlOse-VO.
-V OsehOse;
YehOse"Ose
AQjlqj
-V, 9.,.
PEUPFCAPEUPFC
-Vo,.
L. = -V
rseAp"Pi -V; 'se"Q"qi -VIseApj'PJ
I'se U
h
hr
V;,
rurse
-V rse
rse;
se
e'Tlrse
,
-VrseAQj'qJ
-VrsepEUPFC'PEUPFC
Lp=-v
O.,
h
Ap
Ly
=
v q.
-VO Illpi -VO..
*Aqj-V
ApJApi-V
Oh
8.,h
VO h. ;rl,
PEUPFCAPE
UPFC
l9sh
AAA
PEUPFCAPEUPFC-vr,,
AQI-Iqi-V
APAp, -V
rsh
rsh
V' LM=-V
rrAA
hr
h;
r Ir
2ru,
-VhOshOsh
A
Irur,,
-V;,
rh
A
hh
s
v0 LJU= -V API'lp, -vO AQ! Aqi -V O PEUpFCAPEUPFC

0
i
i
,
,
(A.III-51)
(A.III-52)
(A.III-53)
(A.III-54)
(A.III-55)
PEUPFCAPEUpFC
AntApi -VV, AQPTqj-V
L.U = -V
V,
V,
V,
(A.III-56)
PEUPFCAPEUPFC
AQjAqj -V
Vqj L." = -vej Api tpj -V
01
01
(A.III-57)
Vv L. = -Vv
U
jj
PEUPFCAPEUPFC
AQj-tqj -V
APjApj -V
Vi
Vi
(A.III-58)
From equation (3.18) V.Ap,Lp = -AP,

VApj Lp = -API = -(Pgj
+ P+ - Pj, - Pdi
gi
pLINE _ pTRANS - RUPFC

iii
+ P+ - Pjj - Pdj _ p17VE_ pTRANS - pWC

gi
VApj Lp = -APj = -(Pgj
(A.III -59)
(A. III-60)
From equation (3.19) VAq,Lp = -AQ

VAqjLp
VAqj Lp
(Qg,
-AQ
QiUPFC)
QTRANS
QLINE
Qdj
_
- ii
-
(Qgj
-AQJ
Qdj
-Q
-
LINE
nqPFC
nTRANS
_,
=lI
(A.III-61)
(A.III-62)
AppendixIV
Appendix IV
Derivation of power flow equations, constraint equations and controller ratings for
FACTS controller steady state equivalent circuit models, as presented in Chapter 3
and Appendix III.
STATCOM controller model: Derivation of power mismatch equations
Bus I
Ish
"Lei
IPsh+jQsh
Zsh
Vsh I- Osh
Figure AIV-1: STATCOM equivalent circuit model.
where,
is the voltage source from the shunt branch,
Vsh= VshZOsh
branch,
impedance
from
is
Zsh
Ysh
jbsh
the
the
+
shunt
9sh
=I/
=
bus
bsh
bij
the
conductancesand susceptances,
and
are
9sh -=gii
=
Branchcurrent equadon
Ish (i7i -7sh)(gsh +jbsh)
(A. IV-1)
Oil)
Oi - bsh sin Oi +i Egshsin Oi'+ bsh COS
Ish 17(9sh COS
(9sh
[9sh
Osh
Osh
bsh
Osh
bsh
Osh
Vsh
+i
+
COS
sin
sin
COS
-
(A. IV-2)
Branchpower flow constraintequations

Ssh ` ViIsh -Psh+ jQsh
(A. IV-3)
2
(Oi Osh)+ bsh sin (Oi Osh))
Ssh = Vi (9sh - ibsh) - ViVsh(9sh COS
(9sh
(Osh
(Oi
00
bsh
Osh))
ViVsh
+
+j
sin
COS
-
(A. IV-4)
AppendixIV
Psh--'Vilgsh-ViVsh(9shc0s(Oi-Osh)+bsh sin(Oj-Osh))
(A.IV-5)
2
Qsh -Vi bsh- ViVsh(9sh sin(Oi- Osh)- bshcOs(Oi- Osh))
(A.iv-6)
Active power exchanp_e

operating constraint
The operatingconstraintof the STATCOM is the activepower exchangevia the DC link,

PEsh= Re(VhIsh
(VShIS
)= 2
*h
Phgsh
where, Re
-VshVi(9shc0s(Oi-Osh)
-b shsin(Oi-Osh))
(A.IV-7)
ControUer ratin
(Vsh *Yh
(Vsh *Yh
Rh
I. =
Ssh= VshIsh = Re
I. + Im
(e
)2 (jQSR
h +
Ih)2
(A.iv-8)
where,
R
(9sh
(Oi
(0i
2
Osh)
bsh
Osh))
P
Re
VshIsh
VshVi
cOs
sin
=;
=
A
h9sh-
(A.IV-9)
R2
(9sh
Qsh = Im(VshIs*h) = -hbsh + VshVi
lin(Oi -Osh)+bsh cOs(Oi-Osh))
(A. IV-10)
or,
IR
shj lVshIlIshl
(A. IV-1 1)
where,
lIsh I
IIsh I
(A. IV-12)
4h
Vj2+ 2h-2 ViVshc0s(Oi - Osh
(A. IV-13)
Zsh
SSSCcontroller modeb Derivation of power mismatch equations

Bus I
PU+ jou
YseLOsl
+
Zsa
llP--
Bus j
Pil + joil
.44--
viLoi
ip
VJLGJ
xxv
AppendixIV
FigureAIV-2: SSSCequivalentcircuit model.

where,
v,, = v,,,zo,, is the voltagesourcefrom the seriesbranch,
from
branch,
is
impedance
the
zse
Yse
the
jbij
series
gy + =i/
=
branch
bse
by
bjI
the
are
conductancesand susceptances.
9se gy gji and
= =
Branchcurrent equations
(i7i
Iy = - i7se- i7j)(gy + iby)
(A.IV- 14)
Oi)
0j - bii sin01)+ jVi (gii sinOi+ bii COS
ly = Vj(gii COS
(gy
(gy
Ose
by
Ose)
Ose
Ose)
Vse
jVse
+
sin
COS
sin
COS
-by
(gy
(gy
by
Oj
Oj)
Oj)
Oj
by
Vj
jVj
+
sin
COS
sin
COS
-
(A.IV-15)
where, gy 9se = gii and by = bse= bii.

Iji = -1y
(-i7i + i7se+ i7i)(gy + jby)
Fse
Fj)(gy
+jby)l =
=-J(ii (gy
(gy
Oi-by sin01)-jVi
sinOi+by cos0i)
COS
(gy
(gy
Ose)
Ose- bysinOse)+i Vse sinOse+ byCOS
+ Vse COS
(gy
(gjj
Oj
Oj - bjj sinOj) +j Vj
+ Vj
sinOj + bjj COS
COS
Iji = -Vi
(A.IV-16)
(A.IV-17)
Branchpower flow constraintequations

Sy = Viiij
i
(A.IV-18)
2
(gy
(Oi
(Oi
by
Ose)
Py = Vi 9U- Use
+ sin - Ose))
COS (gy
(Oi
(Oi
Oj))
by
Oj)
ViVj
+
COS
sin
-
(A.IV-19)
Qy
2
(gy
(Oi
(Oi
Ose))
by
Ose)
V! bU- Use
COS
sin (gy (Oi Oj) by (Oi Oj))
sin - COS -ViVj
(A.IV-21)
Sit.. -v.i i!.it

VjVse(gij
Pji =V29.
+
cOs(Oj -Ose)+bij sin
y
i
-VjVi(gy
cos(Oj -0i)+ by sin
Qji =-Vj2bjj +VjVse

Vi
-Vj
(A.IV-20)
(gy
sin
(gy
(Oj
sin
(Oj
(Oj
(Oj
-Ose))
(A. IV-22)
-0i))
-Ose)-by
cos(Oj -Ose))
(oj
))
Oi)
by
oi
cos
-
(A. IV-23)
AppendixIV
Active power exchanp_e

operatingconstraint
The operatingconstraintof the SSSCis the activepower exchangevia the DC link,
PEse= Re(17seI!
i 0
where,
[9ij
(01
(Oi
Ose)
Ose)]
rs2egy
l7iKse
Re(17seIj*i)
cOs
sin
=
-bij
[gy
(Oj
(Oi
+ 17il7se cOs - Ose)- bysin - Ose)]
(A.IV-24)
ControUerrating
(pR
(17seIji) (17seIji)
R
SsR
I'seIii
Im
0
Re
+(j
+
=
se)2
e)2
e=
e
(A.IV-25)
where,
(17seIji 2
[gy
(Oi
llil7se
pR
17segy
COS(Oi
sin
=Re
-bij
-Ose)]
-Ose)
se
(A.IV-26)
+'7jrse[gUCOS(Oj-Ose)-bysin(Oj-Ose)]
R2
Qse=Im(rseIji)=-17sebij+17irse[gysin(Oi-Ose)+bYCOS(Oi-Ose)]
(A.IV-27)
"jrse[gysin(Oj-Ose)+bycos(Oj-Ose)]
or,
ISSR 117sellIsel
el
4
(A. IV-28)
where,
(i7i i7se i7i
I=
I
Ise -4IIii
Zse
,
(A.IV-29)
lZse
FVj2
(Oj
(Oi
)
lIseI
(Oi
+ Vs2e
+ Vj2-2 ViVseCOS - Ose)+2 Vj VseCOS - Ose)-2 VIVj COS - Oj
(A.IV-30)
UPFC controller model: Derivation of power mismatch equations

Vsh Vsh-Oshis the voltage source from the shunt branch,
Vs,= vs,zo,, is the voltagesourcefrom the seriesbranch,

is
impedance
from
branch,
Ash
Zsh
Ysh
the
the
shunt
+
9sh
II
is
impedance
from
branch,
Yse
Zse
the
the
iby
series
gy +
II
bus
bsh
bii
the
and
are
conductances
and susceptances,
9sh = gii
=
branch
bse
by
bji
the
and
are
conductancesand susceptances.
9se= gii = gii
= =
=I
AppendixIV
pij + joij
lil
plj + joij
Bus I
VSe
Zse
Bus j Iji
I 'sh
tle-
Vi
Zsh
Re1VShl*stt-Vse'Jl*l -o
V,
Vsh
FigureAIV-3: UPFC equivalentcircuit model.

Branchcurrentequations
Ish (i7i-i7sh)(gsh +jbsh)
(A.IV-31)
(9sh
Egsh
Oi
Oi
bsh
Oi
Ish = Vi
sinOi+ bshCOS
COS sin +i
(A.IV-32)
(9sh
Egsh
Osh
bsh
Osh
bsh
Osh
Osh
Vsh
+
+i
COS
sin
sin
COS
Iy =
(ii
i7se i7j ) (gy + iby )

-
(A.IV-33)
Oi)
Oi - bii sin Oi) + jVi (gii sin Oi + bii COS
Iij = Vi (gii COS
(gy
(9Y
by
Ose)
Ose
Ose
by
Ose)
Vse
Vse
+
COS
sin
sin
COS
-i
(gy
(gy
Oj
by
Oj)
Oj
by
Oj)
Vj
Vj
+
COS
sin
sin
COS
-j
-
(A. IV-34)
where, 9Y = 9se = gii and by = bse = bii.

Iji = -ly
i7j)(gy +jbY)l = (-'F! +'7se + i7j)(gy + jhy)
=-j(i7 i-i7 se Iii = -Vi
(9Y
COs0i-by sin0i)-Ai
(gy
(A.IV-35)
sin0i +by cos0j)
(gy
(gy
Ose)
Ose- by sin Ose)+i Vse
+ Vse
sin Ose+ by COS
COS
(A. IV-36)
(gy
(gjj
0j)
Oj - bjj sin Oj) +j Vj
+ Vj
sin Oj + bjj COS
COS
where, gy = gy
and by = bj.
Branch power flow constraint equations

(A. IV-37)
Ssh= ViIsh Psh+ jQsh
=II
AppendixIV
(9sh
(Oi
(Oi
Osh)
bsh
Psh= Vi'gsh - ViVsh
+
COS sin - Osh))
(A.IV-38)
(9sh
(Oi
(Oi
Osh)
bsh
Qsh= -Vj2bsh- Ush
Osh))
sin COS
-
(A.IV-39)
*
SY = Vily = plj + jQij
(A. IV-40)
(gy
(Oi
(Oi
by
Ose)
Ose))
PY = Vi2gii - Use
+ sin
Cos (gy
(Oi
(Oi
)+
Oj))
Oj
by
Vi
Vj
Cos
sin
-
(A. IV-41)
2
(gy
(0I
(Oi
Ose))
Ose)
by
QU = -Vi bii - ViVse
COS
sin
(gy
(01 Oj))
(Oi Oj) by
Cos sin
-ViVj
-
(A. iv-42)
Sji = Vj Iii = Pji + jQji
(A.IV-43)
(9Y
(Oj
(Oi
Ose))
pji = Vj2gjj + VjVse
COS - Ose)+ by sin
-
(gy
Vj Vi
(Oj Oi) by (Oj 01))

+ sin
Cos -
(gy
(Oj
(Oj
Ose)
bij
Ose))
Qji = -Vj2 bij + Vj Vse
COS
sin
-Vivi
(gy
sin
(Oj
(0j
0j)
by
0j))
Cos
-
(A.IV-44)
(A. IV-45)
Active power balance operating constraint

is
between
UPFC
the
the
the two
power
active
exchange
of
The operating constraint
inverters via the conunon DC link,

PEUPFC -=PEA - PEse = Re(j7shI-s*h Re(i7seJ! i) -.' 0
where, PEA = Re(Fsh Ish
and PEse = Re(FseIii
(A. IV-46)
are the active power exchanges of the
link
DC
to
the
the
respectively.
shuntconverterand
seriesconverter
(i7sh )=V2
Re
I-s*h A 9sh -VshVi(gsh cOs(Oi-Osh)-bsh sin (Oi -Osh))
Re
(7sjji)
2
[gy
(Oi
(Oi
Ose)
by
Ose)]
Vsegy
ViVse
sin
cOs
=
+ VjVse
[gy
(A. IV-47)
(Mv-48)
(Oj Ose)]
(Oj Ose) bij
sin
COs -
Controller Rajing
SOPFC =
where,
4h
R
+ Sse
(A. IV-49)
AppendixIV
ShuntBranch
SR
A
RR jQ;
-VshIsh
-*
'h +
h
R2
pv
ROVshIsh)
A=
(9sh
(Oi
(Oi
VshVi
Osh)
bsh
Osh))
cOs sin
sh9sh
(i7shIsh)
R2
(9sh
(Oi
(01
Qsh = Im
VshVi
Osh)
bsh
Osh))
+
sin
+
cOs
= -Vshbsh
-
(A. IV-50)
(A. IV-51)
Series Branch
R-
S;e =
-*
KseIji
RR
= Pe+ jQ; e
(A.IV-52)
R2
[gy
(Oi
Pse= Re(i7se-Ij*j)
Vsegy
Use
COS(Oi
=
-Ose)-bij sin - Ose)]
[gy
(Oj
(Oj
+ VjVse COS - Ose)- bUsin - Ose)]
(A.IV-53)
(i7seji
)
2
[gy
-*
(Oi
(Oi
Ose)
by
QsR
Im
Vi
Vse
Ose)]
+
+
sin
COS
-ViebY
i
e=
[9ij
(Oj
(Oj
VjVse sin - Ose)+ byCOS - Ose)]
(A.IV-54)
AppendixV
APPENDIXV
List of first and second derivatives for the interior point OPF problem presented in
Chapter 2 and Appendix I.
List of transmission line power flow equations
At bus i
yi = iw-i*= P,+A
(A.V-1)
2gii-ViVj(gycos(Oi-0j)+bijsin(Oi-0j))
Pi Vi
(A.V-2)
2
Q, _V.i bii-ViVj(gijsin(Oi-0j)-bijcos(oi-0j))
(A.V-3)
At busj
gi = i7i
Pj + jQj
PJ=V2j gi V-Vivj[gycos(Oi-0j)-bysin(Oi-0j)]
Qj = -V2bjj
ViVj
+
j
[gy
(Oi Oj) by (Oi Oj)]

+ cos sin -
(A.V-4)
(A.V-5)
Objective function,
Ng
l
C+ P+ +
11 gi gi
Px)
Ng
[Cz
Pi,
(A.V-6)
Transmission line functional constraint

gy
i7i-*
= IY
Q
So= p2
+
y
(A.V-7)
Py =Vi2gli-ViVj(gycos(Ol-0j)+bysin(Oi-0j))
(A.V-8)
2
QU= _V.i bli-ViVj(gysin(Oi-0j)-bijc0s(Oi-0j))
(A.V-9)
List of first derivatives

From equation (2.26):
VI f(x) = C+
gi
f (x) = cg-,
pit
(A.V- 10)
AppendixV
From equations (2.26), (2-37), (2.40) and (2.41):

Vp+h + =1
91P;,
(A.V-12)
Vhpi, pil =1
(A.V-13)
h
Qgi Q9, =1
(A.V-14)
h
V, V,
(A.V-15)
Vtht =I
(A.V-16)
From equations (2.26) and (2.41):

V
Oi
hSi2=2 Py
vi
op.-
Qij
+2
a0i
lj
hSi2=2 Py
V, i
avi
hSo=2 Py
Oj
aplj
(A.V- 17)
oi
T-Y
+2 QU
(A.V- 18)
av!
+2 Qy
aoj
Q-j
(A.V-19)
aoj
LQYIj
ap.
VV hSi2=2 Py
+2 Qy
avj
jv i
(A.V-20)
avj
where,
opli
vivj(gysin(Oi-0j)-bycos(Oi-0j))
=
0.
(A.V-21)
'Qij
=-ViVj(gycos(Oi-0j)+bysin(Oi-0j))
aoj
(A.V-22)
apli
vii
2V gii
(gy
OQY
V,
ii
bii
-2V
-V j
cos(Oi -0j)+
(gy
sin
(Oi
by sin
-0j)-by
(Oi
-0j))
(oi 0i
cos -
aplj
=-aplj
=-ViVj(gysin(Oi-0j)-bycos(Oi-0j))
aoj
aoj
'-y
=-L'ij-=ViVj(gycos(Oi-0j)+bysin(Oi-0j))
aoj
00i
aplj
=
-Vi
avj
(gy
(Oi Oj) by (Oi

sin cos
-
(A. V-24)
(A.V-25)
(A.V-26)
(A.V-27)
=-Vj(gycos(Oi-0j)+bysin(Oi-0j))
avj
aQij
(A. V-23)
'Oj))
(A.V-28)
=I
AppendixV
From equations (2.26), (2.37) - (2.39):

Vp+ API=I
(A.V-29)
AP,= -1
(A.V-30)
AQ =1
Qgi
(A.V-31)
g,
pi,
Active power mismatch equations at bus i

clllk
(gysin(Oi-0j)-bycos
AR ==-VV
ij
0,1
OOj
(Oi
))
Oj
-
pl-=-2Vigii+Vj(gycos(Oi-0j)+bysin(Oi-0j))
V APi=-.
V,
aVj
V01 AR=-apl
ia
ARI
Vi
(Oi 0j))
-
=VV(gysin(Oi-0j)-bycos
ij
Oj
a'pl
(Oi
(Oi
by
Oj))
Oj)
V,
+
sin
cos
gy
=
i(
OVj
(A.V-32)
(A.V-33)
(A. V-34)
(A.V-35)
Reactivepower mismatchequationsat bus i

V
AQ
gycos(Oi-0j)+bysin(Oi-0j))
J(
=VV
i
Oi i =--Q'
aoj
f
V,
AQ
V01AQ
bil
2Vj
Vj
+
gy sin(Oi -0j)-by
=
-Q-'
a Vj
=--Q-'
=-V. V
j(
aOj
VVi AQ
(Oi Oj
cos -
aQ'
(gy
(Oi
Vi
sin =
aVj
Oj) - by cos
(Oi
(A.V-36)
(A.V-37)
(A.V-38)
Oj))
-
(A.V-39)
(Oi 0A
-
(A.V-40)
Active power mismatchequationsat busj

VO,APj
VV APj
VOjAPj
VV
AP
2P-j
= -ViVj
(gy
a0i
2P-J
aVj
E-j
(gy
Vj
(Oisin
Oj) + by cos
(Oi Oj) by (Oi Oj))

cos - sin -
(gy
(Oi
(Oi
by
Oj))
Oj)
ViVj
+
cos
sin
=
-
(A.V-42)
=-2Vjgii+Vi(gycos(Oj-0i)-bysin(Oj-0i))
(A.V-43)
a0j
apj
j=-aV
j
(A.V-41)
Reactivepower mismatchequationat busj

V
AQj
Oi
(gij
-T-j
= -ViVj
aoj
cos
(Oi
Oj)
by
-
(01 Oj))
sin -
=II
(A.V-44)
AppendixV
V- AQJ =
V,
OQj
=_
avi
LQj-
VA Qj =01
a0j
V
aQj
(
Vj
(Oi Oj) by
(Oi M)
+ cos gy sin -
(g
(Oi
ViVj ycos - Oj
2Vj bj -
AQj =Vi
aVj
(gy
Vi
(01
by sin - Oj
(Oi Oj) by
(Oi Oj))
+ cos sin -
(A.V-45)
(A.V-46)
(A.V-47)
List of second derivatives

From equation(2.37):
Active power mismatchequationsat bus i
VO(VOMi)
iI
P
(gij
(0i
Oj)
0j))
+by
cos(Oi
sin
=
--Ll-ViVj
aojaoj
VO(VV,Api)
=
aojavj -Vj
(gy
(01 Oj)
Oj))
cos(Ol
sin -by
-
P.
(gy
(Oi
(Oi
Oj)
by
0j))
VO,(VOjAPO=-=
ViVj
+
sin
cos
=
-Llaojaoj aojaoj
VO,(VVjAPD=-
=
-Vi
aojavj
(gy
(0i Oj) by (Oi Oj))

sin - cos -
(A.V-48)
(A.V-49)
(A.V-50)
(A.V-51)
VV,(VV,API)
ii
=
-2gii
avjavj
(A.V-52)
VV,(VO Api)
Ij
(Oi 0i
gysin(Ol-0j)-bycos
=Vj
avjaoj
(A.V-53)
=(gycos(Oi-0j)+bysin(Oi-0j))
avjavj
(A.V-54)
VV,(VVJAPi)=-
VO (VO AFII)==-ViVj(gycos(Oi-0j)+bijsin(oi-0j))
jj
aojaoj
(A.V-55)
VOj(VVJAFII)=-
(A.V-56)
Vi(gy sin(Oi-0j)-by cos(Oi-0j))

=
aojavj
VV (VV Apt)==0
jj
avjavj
(A.V-57)
Reactivepower rrismatchequationsat bus i

02Q,
(gy
(01
(Oi
0i
Oj)
VO(VOAQ) =sin
cos
=
-ViVj
-by
II
aojaoj
(A.V-58)
VO(VMAQ) =gycos(Oi-0j)+bysin(Oi-0j))
=Vj
II
aojavj
(A.V-59)
AppendixV
2
VO (VO AQ) =i
ViVj
Vi
VO (VV AQ) =jj
OOjOVj
VV, (VV, AQ)

ii
(gy
(gy
(Oi Oj) by
(0i Oj
sin
cos -
(Oi Oj by in (Oi Oj
+ s
cos -
(gy
VV, (VO AQ)
(Oi Oj) by
(Oi Oj))
+ sin
cos -
-Vi
avjaoj
ij
(gy
VV, (VV AQ)

Ij
(Oi Oj) by
sin
cos
-
(Oi 0A)
-
avjavj
(VO AQ) =-=

jj
VO
(VV AQ) =-=

jj
VO
aojaoj
aojavj
-ViVj
-Vj
(gy
(gy
(Oi Oj) by
cos
sin
-
(Oi Oj
-
(Oi Oj) by
(0i 0j))
+ sin
cos -
(A. V-63)
(A. V-64)
(A. V-65)
(A. V-66)
(A. V-67)
(VV AQ) =-=0

jj
VV
(A. V-61)
(A. V-62)
2bii
avjavj
(A. V-60)
avjavj
Active power mismatch equations at busj.

02pj
VO (VO APj)
= -VjVj
(gy
aojaoj
(01 Oj))
(Oi Oj) by
sin
cos -
a2pj=-Vj(gijsin(Oi-0j)+bycos(Oi-0j))
(A. V-68)
(A. V-69)
VO,(VV, APj)=-OOiaV
VOj (VOj APj) =-
(V Vj Api)
VO,
a2 Li
= VjVj
(gijcos(Oi
a0imi
-0j)-bysin(Oi
-0j))
a2p.
=-J
=-Vi(gysin(Ol-0j)+bycos(Oi-0j))
aojavj
VVj (VOj APj)
= Vj
(gy
avjaoj
VVj(VVjAPj)=-
02p.
"=
(A. V-71)
(A. V-72)
=0
VV,
(VV,
APj)=-aVjaVj
02p.
j
(A. V-70)
(gi
j
avjavj
(Oi Oj) by
+ cos
sin
-
(Oi 0i
-
(Oi Oj) by
(01 Oj))
cos sin
-
(A. V-73)
(A. V-74)
AppendixV
02p.
VOj (VOj APj) =-
(Vvj APj)
VOj
(gy
-= -ViVj
(Oi Oj
cos -
aojaoj
a2p.
=-J
=Vi(g#sin(Oi-0j)+bycos
aojavj
(Oi
by sin
Oj
-
(A.V-75)
(0i Oj
-
(A.V-76)
a2Pi
VV (VV AP = -.
=0
j)
jjj
9V
j,
V av,
V,.
(A.V -77)
Reactivepower mismatch equations at busj.

VO (VO AQj) =
2
2- Qj
=
(gy
ViVj
aojaoj
a2Qj
VO (VV,AQj) =-=
-Vj
ii
aojavj
(VO
AQJ)
=-=
VO
Ij
aojaoj
VO (VV AQj) =-=
ij
VV,(VV,AQj)
ii
VV,(VO AQj)
VV,(VV AQj)
ij
Vo, (Voj AQj)
VO (VV AQj)
jj
VV (VV AQj)
jj
aojavj
avjavj
(gy
-ViVj
-Vi
(Oi Oj) by
+ cos(Oi 0j))
sin -
(A.V-78)
(Oi Oj) by (Oi Oj))

cos sin -
(A.V-79)
(gy
(gy
(Oi Oj) by
(Oi Oj))
+ cos sin -
(Oi Oj) by (Oi Oj))

cos sin -
aviao
i-
(gij
Vj
cos(Oi-0j)-bysin(Oi-0j))
(Oi Oj) by
+ cos(Oi- Oj))
= -(gy sin -
avjavj
aojaoj
(A.V-81)
(A.V-82)
(A.V-80)
(gy
ViVj
(Oi Oj) by (Oi 0j))

+ cos sin -
(A.V-83)
(A.V-84)
(A.V-85)
(gy
(Oi
(Oi
cos - Oj) - by sin - Oj))
= Vi
(A.V-86)
= 2bj
(A.V-87)
aojavj
OVjaVj
Transmission line functional constraint, from equation(2.37),

2
Lpy-Lplj-+ 11py
VO(VOhS2)=2
py
1
OOj
a0i
OQ,
qQ,
j
j
02QU
QU
, TO-i
TO-i, -
aOiaOi
50im
xxxvi
(A.V-88)
AppendixV
V0 (V V,hS
iI/
i2
tj
I
2p
2
Lplj-LpyQj
Qj
Ij
2
+ py _!
+
+ C?
U
Doi avj
aojavj Doi avj
aojavj
V0 (V0 hSy 2
Lpy- Dplj
Doi aoj
+ py
au aij
aojaoj
DP
'P1
Lj
lj
Vo (VV hSi2)=2
+p
y+
j
Doi avj
aojavj
Doi aoj
a2QY
+Qu
aojaoj
Day aij
a2Qij
Qu
+
Doi avj
aoiavi
(A.V-89)
(A.V-90)
(A.V-91)
where,
MY
(gy
V
sin(Oi-0j)-by
=
iVj
-oi
(oi 0j))
Cos -
(A. V-92)
02P,
(glj
vivj
cos(Oi
sin(Oi
=
-0j)+by
-0j))
aojaoj
(A.V-93)
02Pl
(oi oj
=Vj(gysin(Ol-0j)-bycos
aojavj
(A.V-94)
=-Vivj(gijcos(Oi-0j)+bijsin(Oi-0j))
aojaoj
(A.V-95)
(gy
(Oi
(01
Oj))
Oj)
Vi
by
cos
sin
=
aojavj
(A.V-96)
aQij
(gy (Oi Oj) by (Oi Oj))
+
sin
cos
=
_vivj
Doi
(A.V-97)
a2Q
(0I oj
=ViVj(gijsin(Oi-0j)-bycos
aojaoj
(A.V-98)
a2Q,
=-Vj(gycos(Ol-0j)+bysin(Ol-0j))
aojavj
(A.V-99)
=
-ViVj
aojaoj
(gy
(gy
(Oi Oj) by
Oj))
sin cos(Oi
-
(A.V-100)
(Oi Oj) + by (Oi Oj))

cos sin -
(A.V-101)
P-ljP-y
aij ay
Qu
VV,(VV,hSY2 2
py -Lpy-+
+
+
iiI
avj avj
avjavj avj avj
avjavj
(A.V-102)
P-yP-lj
T-ij T-Y
VV (Vo hSY
QU
+pa
+
+
2)=2
iaaya
j
avjaoj
V, oj
V,
ia0j aV, oj
(A.V -103)
=
-Vi
aojavj
X=l
AppendixV
LP'yjPllj
VV,(VV hS2) =2+a-+ py
ij
apv,
ia vj
Qij
ij
aviavj avi avj
02QV
+2y
TV,
aj
(A.V -104)
where,
aplj
(Oi
(Oi
2Vj gii - Vj gy cos - Oj) + by sin - Oj))
=
avj
02P1
avjavj
-Vj
(gy
(gy
(Oi Oj)
(oi 0j))
sin -by cos -
(A.V-107)
(Oi Oj) by (Oi Oj))

+ sin cos -
(A.V-108)
(Oi
= -2Vj bii - Vj gy sin - Oj) - by cos(oi 0j))
-
(A.V-109)
avjavj
avj
(A.V-106)
2gii
avjaoj
LQ'j-
(A.V-105)
a2o
avjavj
(A.V-110)
-24-i
avjaoj
(gij
Vj
(gy
avjavj
(Oi Oj by in (Oi Oj
+ s
cos -
(A.V-1 11)
(0I 0A)
(Oi Oj) by
sin cos -
(A.V- 112)
["P-O`lj
aij
aij
apli
Qu
2
+
+
pyaojaoj aoj aoj
+
aoj
Voj (Voj hSi2
Pllj
ap
apj
Vo (VV hSY2 2
07Javj
jjj
+ P#
Q-ijQ-ij
+
aojavj aoj avj
+Qy
(A.V-1 13)
(A.V- 114)
where,
apj
-Oj =-ViVj(gysin(Ol-0j)+bycos(Oi-0j))
(gy
ViVj
=
aojaoj
=
-Vi
aojavj
aQi
= VjVj
aoj
(gy
(gy
(A.V-1 15)
(01 Oj) by (Oi Oj))

+ sin cos -
(Oi Oj) by (oi oj ))

sin cos -
cos(Oi -0j)+bij
sin
(Oi
(A.V-116)
(A.V-1 17)
(A.V-118)
-0j))
X=il
AppendixV
= VVj
(gy
1
aojaoj
sin
(Oi
-0j)-
by sin
= Vi(gy cos(Oi -0j)+
aojavj
VVj (VVjhS#
(oi oj
-
by cos
(Oi
-0j))
"
"plj
QU
QU
lavj
ap
20
avj avj avj
(A.V-119)
(A.V-120)
(A.V-121)
where,
apl
=-Vi(gycos(Oi-0j)+bUsin(Oi-0j))
avj
(A.V-123)
=0
avjavj
OQ'
avi
(A.V-122)
=-Vi(gysin(Oi-0j)-bycos
(oi- 0i
(A.V-124)
(A.V-125)
=0
avjavj
List of transmission line power flow equations with transformer tap-ratio control at
bus i
Transmissionline power flow from bus i with transformertap-ratiocontrol at bus i.
TR
TR
P + j%
(A.V-126)
pTR = Vt2gy-ViVjt[gycos(Ol-0j)+bUsin(Oi-0j)]
(A.V-127)
--TR*
qTR
vil
y=
y_
QTR
ViVjt
=
_Vi2t2by
0
[gy
(Oi Oj
(Oi Oj) by
cos sin
-
(A.V-128)
Transmission line power flow from busj with transformer tap-ratio control at bus i.
STR - F. 7TR* = pTR + jQR
ji -rji
(A.V-129)
pTR-V2g---ViVjt
ji -jYI
(A.V-130)
J1
JS
gycos(Oj-0j)-bysin(Oi-0j)]
TR
Q
ViVjt[gij
+
ji -iY_V2b.
(Oi Oj) by
(0i
Oj
+
cos
sin
-
(A.V-131)
First derivative
From equations (2.26), (2.37), (2.40) and (2.41):
Vtht =I
(A.V-132)
AppendixV
From equadons (2.26), (2.37) - (2.39):

VOi AP,
OpTR
Doi
-vjvjt(gy
(oi
sin(Oi- Oj) - by Cos - 0A
(A.V-133)
LPTR
(gy
2
(Oi
(Oi
i
Oj)
by
Vjt
Oj))
V ARi=_
t
+
+
cos
sin
gii
=
-2Vj
V,
a vj
(A.V-134)
PTR
(Oi
Oj)-by
V APi = -LiViVjt(gy
sin
cos(Oi
=
-0j))
Oj
aoj
(A.V-135)
PTR
(gy
(Oi
(Oi
Oj)
by
Oj))
V APi = -LiVit
+
cos
sin
=
Vi
a vj
(A.V-136)
R
V APIT=-LpiT =-2V2tgy
+ViVj(gycos(Oi-0j)+bijsin(Oi-0j))
i
t,
ati
(A.V-137)
LQTR
i
V AQj =- _
V,iv jt(gycos(ol-0j)+bysin(Oi-0j))
=
0,
aoj
(A.V-138)
TR
V
AQI=-Q=2Vil2bii+Vjt(gysin(Oi-0j)-bycos
V,
avj
VAQ
01
VAQ
Vi
V AQ
t,
(oi 0A)
-
LQL'
(gy
(Oi
(Oi
in
Oj
Oj
by
Vi
Vj
t
+
s
cos
=aoj
T
R
LQa vj
TR
N-'
ati
(g
(Oi
Oj
= Vit ysin
-
(oi
by cos - oj
(gy
(01
(Oi
by
0i
in
Oj)
Vj2
Vi
Vj
tbii
+
cos
s
=2
-
(A.V-139)
(A.V-140)
(A.V-141)
(A.V-142)
Vol APj
TR
Lpj
Doi
VV AP
TR
Lpj
Vjt(gycos(Oi-0j)-bysin(Oi-0j))
OV
i
(A.V-144)
Voj Api
LpTR
j
aoj
(A.V-145)
VVjt(gysin(Oi-0j)+bycos(Oi-0j))
Vi Vjt(gysin(Oi-0j)+bycos(Oi-0j))
R
PT
VV APj=-Lj=-2Vjgjj+Vit(gycos(Oi-0j)-bysin(Oi-0j))
a vj
j
LpTR
j
(gy
Vti APjT =--i
V,Vj
cos(Oi-0j) -by sin(Oi-0j))
=
ati
XL
(A.V-143)
(A.V-146)
(A.V-14'
AppendixV
Oi
JQTR
j
cos(Oi-0j)-by
iVjt(gy
-=
-V
aoi
AQj
QTR
jV AQj =_ _=_V
V,
a V,
i
VA Qj
01
jt
(gy
sin(Oi-0j))
(A.V-148)
(01 Oj) by
(Oi Oj))
+ cos
sin -
(AN -149)
TR
T
R
Q_j
Q_j
(g
(Oi
ViVj t ycos - Oj
=
=
aOj
a0i
by sin (Oi - Oj
(A.V-150)
VA Qj
Vi
j!
a Vj
(Oi
)+
(Oi
bjj
2Vj
in
Oj
by
Vj
Oj
t(gys
cos
-
aQTR
j
V AQjT==-ViVj(gysin(Oi-0j)+bycos(oi-0j))
t,
ati
(A.V-151)
(A.V-152)
Transfonner non-functional constraint

(A.V-153)
Vt, It, =I, Vti (Vti It, )=0

Transformer, list of second derivatives, from equation (2.37):
VOj(Vol APD=-
VO (VV,Api) =11a
=
-vivit
aojaoj
=-Vjt
OjaVj
VO (VO Api) =ij

aojaoj
Voi (V vi APD=-
Vol (Vt, A.Pj)
V Vi(V ViApt
VV,(Vo Mi)=-
(gy
gysin(Oi-0j)-b#cos
-Vit
(gy
Mati
aVja Vj
= -2t2 gii
02pTR
(0i 0A
(Oi Oj )
sin -by cos -
(gy
= -ViVj
(Oi Oj ))
-
(gy
(Oj
(Oi
vjvjt
cos - Oj) -by sin - Oj))
aojaoj
aojavj
(Oj Oj) by (Oi Oj))

+ sin cos -
(Oi 0j))
(Oi Oj) by
cos sin -
(A.V-154)
(A.V-155)
(A.V-1 56)
(A.V-157)
(A.V-158)
(A.V-159)
(Oi Oj)
(Oi 0j))
jt(gy sin -by cos -
a2pTR
VV (VV A.Pi) =gycos(Oj-0j)+bysin(Oi-0j))

=t
j
avjavj
XLI
(A.V-160)
(A.V-161)
Appendix V
TR
02p.
l =-4Vitgij+Vj
VV (Vt Api) =ia
ViOti
VO (VO Apt) =-=
jj
VO (Vt, Api)
j
-ViVj
aojaoj
Voj (Vv, AFD=-a
(gy
02pTR
(gy
Vit
Oja=
(gy
VjVj
aojatj
(A.V-162)
(Oi Oj) by (Oi Oj))

+ sin cos -
(A.V-163)
(Oi Oj) by
(Oi 0A)
sin - cos -
(A.V- 164)
(Oi Oj) by (Oi

cos
sin 0A)
-
(A.V-1 65)
(A.V-1 66)
VV (VV API) 0
jj
VV (Vt Api)
ji
Vt, (Vt, AFII)
(gy
Vj
a Vj ati
(Oj Oj) by (Oi Oj))

+ sin cos -
(A.V-167)
(A.V -168)
-2V2g,
i
atiati
Reactivepower mismatch equations a.t bus i

VO (Voi AQ) =i
VO (V V,AQ) =-=
= -ViVjt
(gy
aojaoj
(Oi Oj) by (Oi Oj))

cos sin -
(Oj
Vjt gy cos - Oj) + by sin(Oi OA
-
00javi
TR
a2
a2QTR
VO (Vol AQ) =- '
=ViVjt(gysin(Oi-0j)-bijcos(Ol-0j))
=Q!
(A.V-169)
(A.V-170)
(A.V-171)
aojaoj aojaoj
2 TR
(0i
(gy
)+
(Oi
Ri,
Vit
VO (VV AQ) =-a
cos - Oj by sin - Oj
j
i
=
aojavj
(A.V-172)
(gy
VjVj
(A.V-173)
VO (Vt AQ)
ji
VV,(VV,AQ)
Miati
(A.V-174)
= 212by
avjavj
TR
a2
VV,(VO AQI)=-L-Q=-Vjt
avjaoj
Vv, (Vv, AQi)=-2:
(A.V-175)
(Oi Oj
-
(A.V-176)
2Q'-=t
TR
avjavj
VV,(Vt AQ)
ii
(01 Oj) by (Oi Oj))

+ sin cos -
gysin(Oi-0j)-bycOs
=4Vitbij+Vj gysin(Ol-0j)-bycos
Oviati
XLII
(01Oj
-
(A.V-177)
AppendixV
2 TR
VO (VO AQ) =-1
jj
(VV AQ) =jja
VO
(Vt AQ)
jia
VO
-ViVjl(gysin(Oi-0j)-bycos
aojaoj
OjaVj
Ojati
VV (VV AQ)
jj
= -ViVj
(A. V-179)
(gy
(A. V-1 80)
(Oi Oj) by
(Oi Oj))
+ sin
cos -
(A. V-181)
(gy
VI
avjatj
Vti t,
(Oi Oj) by
sin
cos
-
(0i Oj
-
(A. V- 182)
(A. V-183)
2V2
i.
atA
(A. V-178)
(V AQj)
Transformer,
=-Vit
avjavj
VV (Vt AQ)
jj
(0i 0i
-
second derivatives

Active power mismatch equations at busj.
2pTR
a
VO (VO APj) =-
=-Vivjt(gi
OOjaOj
2pTR
a
(gy
VO (V V,APj) =-j
aojavj
-Vjl
2pTR
ajj
VO (VO AIJ
ij
ViVA
50ja0i
aojaoj
(gij
-Vit
aoja
02pTR
VVI (VVj APj)
.i.
aOi
ati
(gy
= -ViVj
(Oi Oj))
(Oi Oj) by
+ cos sin
-
(
Fj, =Vj
avjaoj
VV, (VVJAPj)=-
avia
=t
(A. V- 186)
(A. V-187)
(A. V- 188)
(A. V-189)
(01 Oj
+by cos
gy sin
-
a2pTR
sin(Oi -0j))
(Oi Oj))
(Oi Oj) by
+ cos sin
-
a2pTR
I
=0
avjavj
02pTR
VV, (VOj APj)
(A. V-185)
gy cos(Oi -0j)-by
(VV APj)
VO (Vt APj)
i
i
(01 Oj) by
(Oi 0A
+ cos sin
-
a2pTR
02pTR
VO
ij
j cos(Oi-0j)-bysin(Oi-0j))
(A. V-1 84)
(gy
(Oi 0i
-
(01 Oj))
(Oi Oj) by
cos sin
-
XLIII
(A. V-190)
(A. V-191)
AppendixV
a2pTR
Ji
=Vj(gycos(Oi-0j)-bysin(Oi-0j))
aviat
VV, (Vt APj)
2
TR
a P.
(gy
VOj (VOj APj) =-i
it
iv
-V
00jaTj
VO (VV APj) =-
(gy
Vit
jj
aojavj
by sin (Oi - Oj
(Oi Oj by
+ cos
sin
-
(0i- 0j))
(g
(0i
Vi
Vj
01
Oj
by
+ cos =
ij sin( -
(Vt, APj)
VOj
aojatj
2
TR
a P.
j
VV (VV APj)
jj
avjavj
VVj(VtjAPj)
Vtj (Vtj APj) =-
(Oi Oj
cos -
(A.V-192)
(gy
Vi
(A.V-194)
(A.V-195)
(A.V-196)
-2gy
avjatj
a2pTR
J
0j))
(A. V-193)
(Oi
Oj))
cos(Oi - Oj) - by sin
-
(A.V-197)
(A.V-198)
=0
atiati
Reactivepower mismatchequationsat busj.

02QTR
(Oi
(0i
VO(VOAQJ)=-j=
ViVjt(gy sin - Oj) + bycos - Oj))
00ja0l
(A.V-199)
2
TR
aQ.
VO(VV,AQj) =-1
=-vjt(gycos(Oi-0j)-bijsin(Oi-0j))
aojavj
(A.V-200)
TR
a2QTR 02Q
VO(VO AQj) =-i=J
gysin(Oi-0j)+bjjcos(Oj-0j))
=-ViVjt
OOjOOj aojaoj
(A.V-201)
2 TR
VO(VV AQJ)=-aQ -i -=-Vit gycos(Oi-0j)-bysin(Oi-0j))
aojavj
(A.V-202)
02QTR
J
=-ViVj(gycos(Ol-0j)-bysin(Oi-0j))
(A.V-203)
VO(Vt &Qj)
VV,(VV,AQj) =-
2 TR
J
(A.V-204)
=0
aVjaVj
2 TR
VVI(VOjAQj) =-J-=
Q.
Vjt(gycos(Oj-0j)-bysin(Ol-0j))
avjaoj
XLIV
(A.V-205)
AppendixV
2 TR
VV, (VV AQj)
ja
VV, (Vt AQj)
vj
= -1
(gy
(Oi Oj) by
(oi 0i
sin
+ cos -
a2QTR
J
=-Vj(gysin(Oi-0j)+bycos(Oj-0j))
a Viati
(A. V-206)
(A. V-207)
2
TR
aQ.
(Oi
(oi
Oj)
by
voj (Voj AQJ) =0j))
+
cos
-1 -= ViVjt gy sin
aojaoj
(A. V-208)
2
TR
aQ.
VO (VV AQJ) =-', -=Vit
jj
aojavj
(A. V-209)
Voj (vt"&Qj)
VV (VV AQj)
jj
VV (Vt AQj)
j
v t, (V t, Am
a2QTR
j=
aojatj
avjavj
gycos(Oi-0j)-bysin(Oi-0j))
(gy
(Oi
ViVj
cos - Oj
(Oi
by sin
Oj
-
(A. V-21 0)
(A. V-21 1)
2by
a2QTR
J
=-Vi(gysin(Oi-0j)+bqcos(Oi-0j))
avjatj
a2QTR
j
=o
aatiati
(A. V-212)
(A. V-213)
XLV ,
AppendixVI
APPENDIXVI
List of UPFC FACTS controller power flow equations and first and second order
derivatives for the interior point OPF problem, as presented in Chapter 3 and
Appendix IV.
At bus (shuntbranchof the UPFC is connectedto bus i)

NF
j7
i 7y'v
2:
j=sh, se,j
=
[h
(7i
'i
i7sh)+ j7se(ii
i7se i7j)]*
-
[h
'i
Tse
+
=
=pi",
wherej =A
+jQip"
and se.
pyPFC = psh +p e
(A.VI-2)
OUPFC=Qh+ Qse
(A.VI-3)
P+
pg,
+
-p'&P"=
gi
UPFC
TRANS
Pdj _RLINE
-P,
-P
i
QUPFC
QTRANS
AQ = Qgj Qdj QLIXE
_
i
(A.VI-4)
(A.VI-5)
where,
NF
UPFC
p,
=
(A.VI-6)
pUPFC
i*j, j=sh,se
UPFC
Q,
=
(A.VI-7)
QqPFC
y
i*jj=sh, se
UPFC
Pj
-0i)]
-ViVsh[gshCOS(Osh
-0i)-bsh sin(Osh
(A-VI-8)
-00]
-0i)-by sin(Ose
-ViVse[gy COS(Ose
UPFC
(Osh Oi)]
Qi
ViVsh[9sh sin(Osh- 00 + bshCOS
-
+ViVse[gysin(Ose-0i)+bijc0s(Ose-0i)]
XLVI
(A.VI-9)
AppendixVI
At busj.: (shuntbranchof the UPFC is connectedto bus i)

NF
[i=se,
gUPFC
i7
i7UPFC
y
f
j
Vi
(A.VI-10)
[j7se
(7j i7se Fi)]*
Fj
i7i-Ij*i
pWC
jQUPFC
+
jj
UPFC
P
= pse
(A.VI -11)
UPFC
se
(?
=
(A.VI -12)
Q)
TRANS I)VPFC
LINE
APj = Pgj + P+ - Pjj - Pdj - Pj
_P
gi
(A.VI-13)
UPFC
LINE
Q
nTRANS
AQj = Qgj - Qdj - Q
_,lej
(A.VI-14)
where,
NF
pWC
pITFC
J1
(A. VI-15)
fjqPFC
(A. VI-16)
j*i, i=se
NF
UPFC
Q)
Y,
j*i, i=se
-jl
VjVse(gij
pUPFC
COS(Ose
=
-0j)-bysin(Ose-0j))
i
(A. VI-17)
UPFC
Qi
=-VjVse(9ysin(0se-0j)+by
(A. VI-18)
COS(0s"-0j))
List of first derivatives

From equations (2.26), (2.37), (2.40) and (2.41)
hq =I
Vq
se se
(A.VI-19)
VK hK,
(A.VI-20)
se
se
Vosh hOsh
(A.VI-21)
VV
(A.VI-22)
shhVsh
Active power mismatch equation at bus i

apUPFC
i
Vo AR =-I
00se
se
apse
'=
00se
-ViVse
[gy
(Ose
(Ose
00]
by
01)
+
COS
sin
-
apyPFC
apse
[gy
(Ose
!
(Ose
01)]
Oi)
by
V VseApk
V!
sin
COS
-=-i=I
OVse
avse
XLVII
(A.VI-23)
(A.VI-24)
AppendixVI
VoshAiP'=
apsh
[9sh (Osh
(Osh
sin
COS
=
-ViVsh
-00+bsh
-0i)]
00sh
00sh
2E!
Vv A A-P
Vol AP,
=-
OVA
aoj
[9sh
(Osh
(Osh
Vi
Oi)
bsh
00]
COS
sin
-
-
OVA
Vsh [9sh sin(Osh- 01)+ bshcOs(Osh- 0I)]
(A.VI-25)
(A.VI-26)
(ANI-27)
[gy
(Ose
(Ose
Oi)
by
00]
+ Vse
+
sin
COS
Vv, AP,
[9sh
(Osh
(Osh
00
bsh
Vsh
Oi)]
COS sin
-
a vj
(A.VI-28)
[gy
(Ose
(Ose
Oi)
by
Oi)]
+ Vse
Cos
sin
-
Vo AP,
j
VV AP,=j
Oj
L9
=0
(A.VI-29)
clV,
=0
(A.VI-30)
Reactivepower mismatchequationsat bus i

aQUPFC
oQp
[9ij
i
(Ose
I`
Oi)
VOseAo___
Oi)]
COS(Ose
sin
=-by
-ViVse
00se
00se
VVseAQi
VoshAQ
oQi
'se
[gy (Ose Oi) by (Ose Oi)]
+ COS sin
= -Vi
t9Vse
OVse
OQVPFC oQsh
[9sh COS
(Osh 01) bshsin(Osh Oi)]
-ViVsh
00sh
00sh
VPFC
oQsh
aQ
[9sh
(Osh
i
i=
(Osh
00
bsh
VK, "Qi = _i
Oi)]
+
sin
COS
=_
-Vi
OVA
OVA
'h
VoiAQ =-
ooj
[9shCOS
(Osh
(Osh
00
bsh
ViVsh
Oi)]
sin
=
-
(A.VI-31)
(A-VI-32)
(A-VI-33)
(A-VI-34)
(A.VI-35)
[gy
(Ose
(Ose
Use
oi)
by
Oi)]
+
COS sin
VV,AQ
a vj
-Vsh
[9sh
(Osh
(Osh
00
bsh
+
sin
COS - 01)]
-
(A.VI-36)
[gy
(Ose
(Ose
00
bY
Vse
00]
+
sin
COS
Vo AQ
ja
DQUPFC
i
-0
oj
(A.VI-37)
VV AQ
j
VPFC
OQ
tl
=0
ovi
(A.VI-38)
XLVIII
AppendixVI
Active power mismatchequationsat busj

"Pise
V0,
eAPj
VjVse[gy sin(Ose-0j)+by
=
aOse
00se
P--e
j
VVseAPi=-
avse
VO, Api =h
9vse
a0sh
V KshApi =-
aVsh
[gy
= -Vj
COS(& -0j)
COS(& -0j)]
-by sin
(Ose
-0j)]
(A. VI-39)
(A. VI-40)
=0
(A. VI-41)
=0
(A. VI-42)
VO, APj=-
apVPFC
J
00i
VV, APj
apVPFC
i
0 Vj
Voj APj
,OpVPFC
j
a0j
apse
J1
vse[gysin(Ose-Oj)+bUCOS(ose-0j)]
=_V
j
FOse-
(A. VI-45)
opNFC
1
qpse
j= 1
aVj
_F
_
Vj
(A-VI46)
VVJ APj =-
=0
(A. 'VI-43)
=0
(A. VI-44)
Reactive power mismatch
[gy
-Vse
equations
at busj
aQjse
VoseAQj =-
VV
AQj =-j=
jse
Vosh AQj
V Vh AQj=-
00
aQVPFC
Vi
ae
qPFC
OQ
j
a0sh
qPFC
OQ
J
vv, AQj=-
qPFC
OQ
J
a0j
qPFC
OQ
J
a Vj
[gii
(Ose Oj) by
(Ose Oj)]
COS
sin
-
(A. VI-47)
se
Vj
=
5 _Vse
LIKse
LIVsh
VO, AQj=-
= Vi Vse
00se
(Ose Oj) by
(Ose Oj)]
COS
sin
-
[gy
(Ose Oj) by
(Ose
+
sin
COS
Oj)]
(A. V148)
=0
(A. VI-49)
=0
(A. VI-50)
=0
(A. VI-51)
=0
(A.VI-52)
XLIX
AppendixVI
UPFC
Voj AQj
-Q)ooj
vvj AQj
OQe
"'
=__ ao
j
- -V J V.se
aQ
"ise
Vi
a vj
[gy
(Ose
(Ose Oj)
COS -0j)]
-by sin
[gy
(Ose
Oj)]
bij
Oj)
Vse
+
COS(Oe
sin
-
(A. VI-53)
(A.VI-54)
FACTS controller, list of second derivatives

a2pyPFC
(VO
VO
Apt)= -i
90sea0se
e
se
,
.,
2pse
a
(A.VI-55)
90se
aOse,
vK
(V0
'&P0
.e
se
Vosh
(VO.
'&P') =-
(V
V Vsh OseAPO =-
(vomi)
Vo
,
(VOse
Vo,
AIX1) =-
V vj
(V0je Ap0
VK,
se
(Vrse
Ap1) =-
Vosh(V'7se
Ap')=-
(Ose
(Ose
Oi)
by
Oi)]
sin
COS -
=- aOseOv = -Vi
L90seavse
se
[gy
(Ose
(Ose
Oi)
by
00]
+
COS
sin
-
(A.VI-56)
=0
(A.VI-57)
=0
00seOVsh
(A.VI-58)
00seOOsh
=ViVse[gUCOS(Ose-0i)-bysin(Ose-0i)]
ao ao.
se i
00 ao.i
se
0
(VO
VV
Ap
,
se
-ViVse
[gy
=
-Vse
00seM i
00seaVi
00seOOj
00seOVj
[9ij
(Ose
(Ose
Oi)
by
Oi)]
+
COS
sin
-
(A.VI-59)
(A.VI-60)
=0
(A.VI-61)
=0
(A.VI-62)
(A.VI-63)
=0
Orsearse
(A.VI-64)
=0
OrseaOsh
(VV,,
Api) =,VK.
=0
A
LIVseOVsh
(A.VI-65)
AppendixVI
(VVse
O=
voi
Ap
(VVse
0=V V,
A-P
(VV"'Api)=
Vo,
V Vj
(V
V,
.
)=AA
2
UPFC
aR
2pe
a
OVseLlOi
OKseLM
[gy
Vi
[9Y
Ovseavi
L9KseMi
(Ose
(Ose
Oi)
by
Oi)]
+
sin
cOs
-
(Ose
(Ose
00
by
Oi)]
cOs
sin
-
(A. VI-68)
=0
eVseaVj
(A-VI-69)
(A.VI-70)
2psh
[9sh
(Osh
(Osh
Vsh
00
bsh
Oi)]
cOs
sin
-V!
-
MAMA
Api)
(Vosh
voi
APO
(Voh
VVI
Mi) =-
(A.VI-67)
2p,UPFC
i=0
aVseclOj
UPFC
a2
p
(VO.,
L
VO,
APO =-,
h
h
NANA
(VOA
Vvsh
(A.VI-66)
MAMA
MAMA
=-Vi[gshsin(Osh-0i)+bshc0s(Osh-0i)]
(A-VI-71)
2psh
2
a pUPFC
[9sh
ViVsh
cOs(Osh-00-bsh
50sha 01 =
a0shaOi
=
=-Vsh
aOshaVi
C90shaVi
[9sh
(Osh
sin
-0i)]
(Osh
(Osh
Oi)
bsh
00]
sin
+
cOs
-
(A-VI-72)
(A. VI-73)
(VO.,
voj
APO =h
=0
aOshaOj
(A. VI-74)
(VOsh
V vj
Ap
i)=-
=0
(A-VI-75)
(V
V Vsh VshApi) =-
(VVsApi)=voi
(VV
Vv,
APi)
,h
(Vvsh
voj
Api)
(Vvsh
0
V vj
Ap
aOshaVj
aVsh
Vsh
L9
aVAM
=- aVshaOi =
ovshavi
(A-VI-76)
[9sh
VI
(Osh
(Osh
00
bsh
Oi)]
sin
+
cOs
-
- VshaVi =[gsh cOs(Osh-0i)-bsh
eVshaOj
sin(Osh -00]
(A. VI-77)
(A. VI-78)
(A. VI-79)
(A. VI-80)
'OVshaVj
LI
AppendixVI
(V0,
V0,
AP,I)--
,,
2pUPFC
(VO,
VV,
APi)=+
(VO,
V0,
APi) =-
(VO,
VVJ
APi)
=-
(VV,
VV,
API)
(VV,
Voj
APi)
[9sh
(Osh
(Osh
00
bsh
00]
COS sin
-
'
00ja0j
---ViVsh
[gy
Vivse
(Ose
(Ose
00
by
Oi)]
COS sin
-
aoiaVi
[9sh
Vse
=Vsh[gshsin(Osh-0i)+bshc0s(Osh-0i)]
aoiao j
aojavj
Voj
AP0=-
(V0j,
VV,
&P0=-
VVJ(VV, APi)=-
(A. VI-82)
(Ose
(Ose
00
bsh
Oi)]
+
sin
COS
-
=0
(A. VI-83)
=0
(A. VI-84)
(A. VI-85)
(A. VI-86)
avjavj
avjaoj
(A.VI-87)
VVj(VV,,
&P0=-avjavj =0
(V0,
(A. VI-81)
=0
(A.VI-88)
=0
00j 0Vj
(A.VI-89)
=0
(A.VI-90)
aojaoj
OV
j0Vj
Reactive power mismatch equations at bus i

Nse
VOse
AQ0 ===ViVse[gijsin(Ose-0i)+bijc0s(Ose-0i)]
0&60se
L90seaOse
(A.VI-91)
(VOse
VVse
AQ0 =
==-Vi[gyc0s(Ose-0i)-bysin(Ose-0i)]
00seavse
00seavse
(A.VI-92)
(VOse
Vosh
AQ) =
=0
a0seMsh
(A.VI-93)
(VO.,
VVsh
ALi) =
e
=0
00selOVsh
(A.VI-94)
Lli
AppendixVI
Vol
Vv,
2 UPFC
2nse
Qi'
lei
[gy
(Ose
+bij
sin
COS(Ose
=
-ViVse
-61)
-01)]
=-a
aOseOOI
a0seaOi
(VO,,,,
&Qi)
2 UPFC
se
02 Q;,
00seMi
=-Vse[gUCOS(Ose-0i)-bysin(Ose-0i)]
ooseovi
0 Qi'
(VO,,,
&Qi)
(A.VI-95)
(A.VI-96)
(VOse
VOJ
AQ) =-
aoseaoj
=0
(A.VI-97)
(VOse
VVJ
AQ) =-
=0
00seOVj
(A.VI-98)
(VV
VKse
AQi) =se
=0
43vseOvse
(A-VI-99)
(VO.,
vo.
&Qi) =vh
00seOOsh =0
(A.VI-100)
(VOse
VKsh
AQ) =-
=0
(A.VI-101)
190seOVsh
(VVse
VOi
AQ) =-
OvseM
(Ose
(Ose
00
by
00]
COS sin
-
(A.VI-102)
(VVse
V V,
AQ0 =-
(Ose
(Ose
Oi)
bij
Oi)]
sin
+
COS
=
=
-[gy
- OVsdVi
Ovseavi
(A.VI-103)
=-
=0
OvseOOj
(A.VI-104)
AQ) =-
=0
OVseOVi
(A.VI-105)
(VVse"Q)
VOJ
(VV
VVJ
vo,
(V
h
=-
a2QUPFC
0 hQ
5
MAMA
a2Qish
=- MAMA
vv,
(Vo
h
=
LIKse00i
[9ij
Vi
A
AQi
(A.VI-106)
ViVsh[gshsin(Osh-0i)+bshcOS(Osh-0i)]
a2QUPFC
00shMsh
a2Qish
=-- 00shaVsh = -VI
(A.VI-107)
[9sh
(Osh
(Osh
00
bsh
00]
COS sin
-
LIII
AppendixVI
2 UPFC
0 2i
Vo, (vo,, Ao)
aoshooi
(A. VI-108)
02 Q'
=-ViVsh[gshsin(Osh-0i)+bshcOS(Osh-0i)]
00shOOi
2Q'UPFC
(Vo,,
VV,
AQ)
00shOVi
(A.VI-109)
02Qish
=
-Vsh
00shOVi
(Voioo)
Voj
[9sh
(Osh
Oi)]
sin
-
cOs(Osh-0j)-bsh
(A.Vl-l 10)
=0
=- 00sh,
30J
(VO,,
vvj
&Qi)
=0
L90shOVJ
(A.VI-1 11)
=0
OVAOVsh
(A.VI-112)
(Vvsh
voi
AQ) =
[9sh
(Osh
(Osh
Vi
01)
bsh
Oi)]
cOs
==
sin
MshaOi
OVAM
(A.VI-I 13)
(vv",
VVI
&Qi) =
(Osh
(Osh
00
bsh
01)]
+
cOs
=- OVshOVi
= -[gsh sin
-
(A.Vl-l 14)
(Vv
VKA
sh'&Q)
(VVsh
voj
AQ)
V vj
(Vvsh&Qi)
OVAM
=0
ovshooj
(A.VI-1 15)
=0
OVshaVj
(A.VI-116)
2 UPFC
Voi (Voi,&Qi)
Qi'
a Qi
aojaoj
aojaoj
[9sh
(Osh
(Osh Oi)]
ViVsh
00
bsh
COS
sin
+
=
(A.VI-I 17)
[gy
(Ose Oi)]
+ V!Vse sin(Ose- Oi) + by COS
Vv,
(VoiAQj)
[9sh
Vsh
=
aojavj
COS(Osh
aojavj
(Osh
00
bsh
00]
sin
-
(A.VI-1 18)
[9ij
(Ose
(Ose
Vse
Oi)
by
Oi)]
+
cOs sin
-
(VO,
Voj
AQi) =-
=0
oojaoj
(A.VI-I 19)
(vo,
vvj
AQj)=-
=0
(A.VI-120)
aojavj
LIV
AppendixVI
(vv,
Vv,
Ao)
=-
=o
avjaoj
(A.VI-121)
(vv,
voj
Ao) =-
avjaoj
=o
(A.VI-122)
avjavj
=o
(A.VI-123)
=o
(A.VI-124)
(VVQi)
Vvj
=-
2Q'UPFC
(VO,
Voj
AQ)
VVJ(VOJAQi
aojaoj
02QUPFC
i=0
aoj avj
(VVJAQi
VVJ
avj avj
(A.VI-125)
(A.VI-126)
=0
Active power mismatchequationsat busj.

Vo
(Vo'eApj)=
,e
02pUPFC
-j 00seLlOse
2pse
j
-OsdOse =VjVse[gUCOS(Ose-0j)-bysin(Ose-0j)]
(VoseApj)=VVse
Vi
=
00seOvse
L90seOvse
(vo-,
vosh
Vv
Apj) = --
(vo. Api)
=
"h
(vo
)=Vo,
Apj
(vo.
V vi
Api)
voj
Nse
Ap
[gy
sin(Ose-Oj)+bijr-OS(Ose-0j)]
2pUPFC
j0
(A. VI-127)
(A. VI-128)
(A. VI-129)
190seaOsh
(A.VI-130)
=0
aOseaVsh
=o
90i
aOse,
(A.VI-131)
=o
190seDVi
(A.VI-133)
a2pUPFC
j
7)
c90se190j
(A. VI-134)
2pse
aj
2
c90se190j
-VjVse
[gy
COS(Ose
-0j)-bij
LV
sin(Ose -OJ)]
AppendixVI
V vj
(vo.
Apjh-
(VV
VVye
Api)
2pUPFC
jj
2pse
2
j Ose,
9Vj
190seaVj
vse[gysin(Ose-0j)+bijcOs(Ose-OJ)]
(A. VI-135)
=o
9vseDvse
(A.VI-136)
=o
IDVsei90sh
(A.VI-137)
(vvse
Vv.
Api) ==o
$h
IDVseaVsh
(A.VI-138)
(,
voi vvseApj)=-
=o
aVseL'Oi
(A.VI-139)
=o
LlVseL9Vi
(A.VI-140)
(vvse
vosh
Api) = -
(vvse
V v,
Apjh-
(VVse'
voj
pi) =-
Kse
V vj
Api) =-
eVse0j
[gy
(Ose 01) bij

(Ose OJ)]
+ COS Sin
-
eVsea0i
-Vj
avset3vi
(Ose
-[gy COS -0j)-b
Dvsevj
(Ose OJ)]
Sin
(A.VI-141)
(A.VI-142)
(VOA
'VOsh
Api) ==o
20sht90sh
(A.VI-143)
(VOA
VKsh
&p
,
=o
aOshDVsh
(A.VI-144)
=o
aOshD0i
(A.VI-145)
=0
(A.VI-146)
(VOA
Vo,
Ap
(V0sh
V vt
Apj)=-
('Vosh
voj
Api)
V vj
VKI
(VoshAp*-
ih(Vvsh
Apj)=-
00shaVi
=o
(A.VI-147)
=o
OWVJ
(A.VI-148)
ICOWOJ
(A.VI-149)
=o
IDVshDVsh
LVI
AppendixVI
2pUPFC
aj
(vv"opj)
voi
IDVAM
(VV
VVI
APj)
,,,
(VVh'&Pj)=voj
V vj
(VVh'&Pj)
=-
(A.VI-150)
=0
=0
aVshaVi
(A.VI-151)
=0
aVshaOj
(A.VI-152)
=0
aVshaVj
(A.VI-153)
(Voi,
Vo,
&Pj) =-
=0
aojaoj
(A.VI-154)
(Voi,
VVI
&Pj) =-
(A.VI-155)
(A.VI-156)
(A.VI-157)
(A-VI-158)
(A.VI-159)
(A.VI-160)
aojavj
(VO,
Voj
APj) =-
Vvj
(Voi
aojaoj
Apj) =-
aojavj
Vv, (vv"&Pj)
avjavj
(VV,
Voj
APj)
vvj
Voj
(vv"&Pj)
(Voj
VVJ
vvj
avjaoj
(Voj
(Vvj
avjavj
A.Pj)
A.Pj)
Apj) =-
aojaoj
=-Dojaoj
aojavj
=-
avjavj
=0
=VjVse[gyc0s(ose-0j)-bysin(Ose-0j)]
[gy
(Ose oj bij
Os
Oj
+
sin
c0s(
= -Vse
e-
aojavj
(A-VI-161)
(A-VI-162)
(A-VI-163)
LVII
AppendixVI
Reactivepower mismatchequationsat busj.

UPFC
a2Qj
(V0
VO
se
=
se"Qj)
190seaOse
a2Qse
[gy
-OJ)]
=-- 00seaOse
-VjVse sin(0,e-0j) +by c0s(Ose
N
VV
AQj)
se se
vo.,
=Vj[gycos(Ose-0j)-bijsin(Ose-OJ)]
9vse
90se,
(A.VI-164)
(A.VI-165)
190se'9Vse
(V, AQj)
h
9.,
=
(A.VI-1 66)
=o
LIOseaOsh
(vose
AQj) vv,
=0
h
i90seaVsh
(A.VI-167)
(vose
voi
Qj) =-
(A.VI-168)
Icoseaoi
vvi(vose"Qi)-
vo
(A.VI-169)
=o
00seL9Vi
92QUPFC
j
00
O
,Dse i
)
Vose Qj
=0
(A.VI-170)
a2Qse
VjVse[gij
sin(Ose-OJ)+bU COS(Ose
-OJ)]
=
=-- cOse,
90i
,
(V0
VV
AQj)=00seaVj
i
se
(A:
VI-171)
=Vse[gijcOs(Ose-0j)-bUsin(Ose-OJ)]
9V
C0
1 seI J
(Vv
vo
AQj)=j
se
IDVsea0i
,vosh
VV
sh
(vv, AQj)
=,
Kse AQJ)
Voi(VvseQJ)=(vVseAQj)Vv,
aO
DV
I se j
=Vi[gycos(Ose-0j)-bijsin(Ose-OJ)]
(A.VI-172)
=0
(A.VI-173)
(A:VI-174)
LIVse00sh
c9Vset9Vsh
(A.VI-175)
0
C9VseaVi
(A.VI-176)
9vi
Dvse,
LVIII
AppendixVI
2QUPFC
vvj
vajv, AQj
VOsh
DV
a
Vj
I se
2Qse
a=
j
[gy
(Ose Oj) bij
(Ose Oj)]
+ cos
sin
=- i
VseVj
('VO'hAQj)=-
=o
(A.VI-178)
=o
190shaVsh
(A.VI-179)
=0
(A.VI-180)
=o
c90shVi
(A.VI-181)
c90sh190sh
(V
Vvsh
OhQJ) -
VOJ(VO,
hAQj)=-
NA
)=V Vi
AQi
(A.VI-177)
190sheOi
Voj(VOhAQj)=c90shaOj
(VOA
VVJ
AQj)
190shaVj
=o
(A.VI-182)
=o
(A.VI-183)
(VV,.
Vv
AQj)
=sh
19VshaVsh
(v,
voi
AQj)
,'
=o
L9Vsha0i
(A.VI-185)
VV'("VshQ')=-
=o
IDVAIDVi
(A.VI-186)
Voj(VvshAQj)=-
=o
aVshaOj
(A.VI-187)
=o
aVshI9Vj
(A.VI-188)
Vvj
("V"AQ')=-
(vo,
Vo,
AQj) =(vo,
Vvi
AQj) =(vo,
voj
AQj) =-
(A.VI-184)
=o
=o
aojaoj
(A.VI-189)
=o
ciojavi
(A.VI-190)
=o
aojaoj
(A.VI-191)
LIX
AppendixVI
vvj (voiAQj)
a2QjUPFC
aojavj
Vv, (vv,AQj)
(vv,
voj
AQj)
=o
avievi
(A.VI-193)
=o
(A.VI-194)
=o
(A.VI-195)
avjaoj
(vv,
vvj
Qj)
(A.VI-192)
avjavj
UPFC
a2Q
Vol vo Qj)
aojaoj
1,
(A.VI-196)
a2Qse
-. aoj aoj = -VjVse
V vj
(vo"&Qj)=-,
[9U
Sin(Ose-0j) + by c0s(Ose-OJ)]
UPFC
12Q
20vi
(A.VI-197)
121
a Qj
aojavj
(VVJAQj
VVJ
= -Vse[gy cos(Ose-0j)-by
(Ose
sin
-0j)]
(A.VI-198)
=0
aojaoj
List of FACTS controller active power constraint equations

The operating constraint of the UPFC is the active power exchange between the two
inverters via the common DC link, as presentedin Appendix IV.
*)Fs
PEUPFC PEi --PEsh PEse =--Re( h I-A
where, PEA= Re(j7shIsh
Re(i7seI-j*i
(A.IV-46)
and PEse =Re(i7seI-j*i) are the active power exchanges of the
shunt converter and the seriesconverter to the DC link respectively.

(i7shIsh )=V2
[9sh
(Osh
-*
bsh
Oi)
01)]
PEA = Re
VshVi
+
sin
c0s(Osh
sh9sh
PEse =Re
(i7seIfl)=
Vs2egy-ViVse[gy cOs(Ose-01)+bijs in (Ose-01)]

+ VjVse
[gy
(Ose Oj)]
(Ose Oj) by
+ sin
COs
-
LX
(A. IV-7)
(A. IV-24)
AppendixVI
First differentials of the UPFC operating constraint

OPE,
VOsePEUpFC
= -ViVse
00
se
[gy
+ VjVse
[gy
apEse
VV PEUPFC
se
00]
sin(Ose-0i) -4j COS(Ose
-
(A.VI-199)
(Ose Oj) 4j
Oj)]
sin
COS(&
-
[gy
Vi
(Ose
(Ose
Oi)
bj
Oi)]
+ sin
COS -
+
=
-2Vsegy
Ovse
[gy
VjVse
COS(Ose
-0j)+4j
(A.VI-200)
sin(Ose -0j)]
apEsh
[9sh
(Osh
(Osh
Oi)
bsh
VOi)]
VOsh
PEUPFC
COS
sin
shVi
00sh
(A.VI-201)
apES4
2Vshgsh-Vi[gsh COS(Osh
VVshPEUPFC
sin(Osh-0i)]
-00+bsh
OVA
(A.VI-202)
afEse
LIPEsh
Vo,PEUpFC =
aoj
Doi
(A.VI-203)
apEse
[9ij
(Ose
(Ose
Oi)]
00
by
COS
sin
-ViVse
aoj
(A.VI-204)
apEsh
-VshVi
aoj
[9sh
(Osh
Oi)
Oi)]
COS(Osh
sin
-bsh
-
affsh
VV,PEUpFC =
a vj
OpEse
= -Vsh
avj
apEsh
-Vsh
avj
Vo PEUpFC
ja
[gy
Offse
a vj
(A.VI-206)
(Ose
(Ose
00]
Oi)
by
+ sin
COS -
[9sh
(Osh
(Osh
bsh
Oi)]
00
+
sin
COS
-
OfEse
oj
apEse
a vj
(A-VI-207)
(A.VI-208)
(A.VI-209)
OPEse
[gy
(Ose
(Ose
01)
bij
00]
Vj
Vse
COS
sin
=
aoj
VV PEUpFC
ja
(A.VI-205)
affse
(A-VI-210)
(A.VI-211)
vj
[9Y
COS(& -Oj)+bU sin(Ose-0j)]
Vsh
(A. VI-212)
List of second differentials of the UPFC operating constraint

VOse
(VOse
(A.VI-213)
PEUpFC),4- 00seclOse
im
AppendixVI
=i
00seMse
[gy
(Ose
(Ose
V,Vse
Oi)
by
Oi)]
COS + sin
-
(A.VI-214)
[gy
(Oe
(Ose
VjVse
Oj)]
COS - 0j) + bj sin
(VOse
VVse
PEUPFC) 00seOVse
(A.VI-215)
a2PEse
[gy
(Ose
(Ose
Oi)
by
Vi
Oi)]
sin
COS
00seOVse
[gy
(Ose
(oe
Oj)
bij
Vj
Oj)]
sin
COS
-
(A.VI-216)
a2PEse
02pEUPFC 02PEA
=0
=
_
00seOOsh 00seOOsh 00seOOsh
(A.VI-217)
02pEUPFC a2PEA
PEse
=
=0
-02
00seMsh 00seOVsh OsdVsh
(A.VI-218)
PEse
(VOse
Vo,
PEUpFC) =_a2
aoseao.i
(A.VI-219)
=-VjVse[9yCOS(0se
-0i)+bySin(0se-0i)]
00seOOi
(A.VI-220)
(VOse
PEUPFC)
VV,
a2 PEse
(A.VI-221)
ao av.
se i
[gy
(Ose
(Ose
Oi)
Vse
by
Oi)]
sin
COS
=
a0setlVi
(VOse
voj
PEUpFC)
00seL
l Oj
= VjVse
[9ij
02 PEse
(A.VI-223)
aOseaOj
cOs(Ose-0j)+bij
sin(Ose-0j)]
a2PEse
(VOse
V vj
PEUPFC) =aOseaVj
=
-Vse
aOseOVj
[9ij
(VV,
Vv,
PEUPFC)
se
se
(A.VI-222)
(A. VI-224)
(A.VI-225)
(Ose Oj) bij

(Ose Oj)]
sin
COS -
(A.VI-226)
(A.VI-227)
ovseovse
02PESe
2gy
=
ovseovse
(A.VI-228)
imi
AppendixVI
(V
Vo,
PEUpFC)
V.
=0
h
OVseOOshOVseNsh
se
Vv
(V
sh
.
VsePEUpFC)
(V
Vo,
V PEUpFC)
se
02PEse
OvseM
V V,
(v
[gy
= -Vi
=0
OVsdVsh OVsdVsh
a2 PEse
OVseM
(Ose
(Ose
01)
by
Oi)]
sin
COS
-
(A. VI-235)
COS(Ose
-00 +bij sin(Ose-0i)]
avs,
ei9Oj
= Vj
1gy
sin(Ose-0j)-by
VVJ(VV, PEUpFC)=se
a2PEse.
=
OVseOVj
[gy
vv
a2 PEA
To-7-aV
00shh A
h
(VOh
V0j
PEUPFC) NAM
V V,
COS(& -0j)]
)=
OjhPEUPFC
NAM
(A. VI-237)
(A. VI-238)
(A. VI-239)
by
COS(Ose
sin(Ose-0i)]
-00+
(V0jhPEUPFC)
(V
(A. VI-236)
OVseOVj
(VOA
VOsh
PEUpFC) =
MAMA
(A. VI-233)
(A. VI-234)
(VV
Voj
PEUpFC) =aVseOOj
Se
02PEse
(A.VI-230)
(A. VI-231)
02PEse
VsepEUPFC)= Ovsdvi
=
-[gy
Ovsdvi
(A.VI-229)
[9sh
(Osh
(Osh
Oi)
bsh
VshVi
Oi)]
+
COS
sin
(A. VI-240)
Vi[gshsin(Osh -0i)-bshCOS(0sh-0i)]
(A. VI-241)
= -VshVi
[9sh
(Osh
(Osh
Oi)
bsh
Oi)]
+
COS sin
-
[9sh
(Osh
(Osh
01)
bsh
01)]
Vsh
sin
COS
=
-
(A. VI-242)
(A. VI-243)
(Vojh
Voj
PEUpFC) =
=0
00shaOj 00shaOj
(A.VI-244)
(VOA
V vj
PEUPFC) =
(A.VI-245)
- 00shVj =0
t9OshaVj
imil
AppendixVI
(VV
vv
PEUpFC)
29sh
=
AA
VshMsh
(V
V0j
VshPEUPFC)
t9VA00i
(VVsh
V V,
PEUPFC)
-Vi
[9sh
(A.VI-246)
(Osh
(Osh
bsh
Oi)]
Oi)
sin
cOs
-
-[9shCOS(Osh
-0i)+bshsin(0sh-00]
WshaVi
(VVsh
voj
PEUPFC) -=
=0
OVshclOj OVshaOj
(v
V vj
0
VshPEUpFC) = OVshOVjc9VA30i
D2PEA
(,
)
V 0, Voi PEUPFC =,
aojooj
02pE,
S"
cgoiaoi
[9ij
(Osh
(Osh
Oi)]
Oi)
by
ViVsh
+
sin
COs
=
-
aojaoj
V V,
(Vo, PEUpFC)
02PEse
aojavj
= -Vse
a2PEA
= -Vsh
[gy
02 PEA
=
aojavj
02PEse
aojavj aqavj
(Osh
(Osh
Oi)]
Oi)
bsh
COS
sin
-
02PEA
(Vo,
Voj
PEUpFC) =
a2 PEse
02 PEA
D2PEse
Vvj
V V,
(V
PEUPFC =
oi
V,PEUpFC
V V,
(V
Vj PEUpFC) =
(A.VI-253)
(A.VI-255)
(A. VI-256)
=0
(A.VI-258)
=0
(A.VI-259)
02PEse
avjavj avjavj
a2PEA
(V
Voj
V,PEUpFC) =
avjaoj
(A.VI-252)
(A.VI-257)
aojavj aojavj
D2PEA
(A.VI-250)
=0
aojaoj aojaoj
(V
(A.VI-249)
(A.VI-254)
(Ose
(Ose
00]
by
Oi)
cOs
sin
-
[9sh
(A.VI-248)
(A.VI-251)
02PEse
[gy
(Ose
(Ose
by
00]
Oi)
Use
+
sin
Cos
=
aojaoj
02 PEA
(A.VI-247)
a2PEse
=0
avjaoj
- avjavj =0
ovjavj
(A.VI-260)
(A.VI-261)
AppendixVI
Voj
(Voj
PEUpFC) -
a2PEse
-VjVse
aojaoj
Voj
(Voj
a2PEse
[gy
PEUpFC)
(A.VI-262)
aojaoj
(Ose
COS -01)+ by sin(Ose-01)]
(A.VI-264)
aojaoj
= vse[gysin(Ose-0j)-bUCOS(Ose-0j)]
aojavj
V Vj
(V
(A. VI-263)
Vj PEUPFC) avjavj - avjavj =o
(A.VI-265)
(A.VI-266)
I-W
AppendixVII
Appendix VII
Fonnulation for shunt bus sensitivity and series branch sensitivity, and shunt bus
STATCOM
installation
in
presented
midpoint
results,
compared
with
as
sensitivity
Chapter 5.
Lagrangeequation
(ln(sui)
(ln(sli)
L(x) = f(x) -p
+ ln(suj))
+ ln(slj)) -p
Aql
WApi
AQWAP,
-
hi-sli-himin
rli
-;
_; rlj
(hj
)-
WAqJ
(x)
APj
A
Qj
llpj
;rUi
(hl
hjmin)
sIJ
_; ruj
_
_
max
hi'
- sui -
(hj
(2.25) and (5.1)
hJmax
suj
_
_
function,
objective
with
Ng
N
AX) =F
C+ P+
91 gil+[Czp
(2.1)
Shunt bus sensitivity:

Shunt bus sensitivity, first order differential with respect to Q.
OLW
Sh=
I
OQj
(A.VII-1)
OL(x)
aAQi(x)
=
OQ OAQ(X) OQ
OL(x)
aAQi(X)
OL(X)
=
-Aqj
OQj
aQi
(A.VII-2)
by,
is
AQI(x)
the
mismatch
power
given
reactive
where,
AQ W= Qgj - Qdj-Q
1hus
OAQ(x)
=_1
aQ
(A.VII-3)
and
OL(X)
OQj
(A.VII-4)
Seriesbranch sensitivity:
Seriesbranchsensitivity,first order differentialwith respectto Xy
.
AppendixVII
S.
aL(X)
axu
cIL(x)
axu
(A.VII-5)
aL(x) clAPI(x)
Qi(x)
M (x) A
9Qi(x) UY
DAP,
(x) exy
aAQj(x)
aL(x)
aL(x) LIAPYX)
+
(x) OXY
i9Apj(x) exy
LDAQj
(A.VII-6)
where,
eApl(X)
pl(x) agij
93pl(x) tIgil
+aA"gii "X
=,
ax
agil
axy
a3P,(x) bbil
(A.VII-7)
eApi (x) %
_EY1%lIxii
agy
C9Ni
Qi(x)
(x) c9git DA
aAG(x) 9AQi
UY
Dxij
9git
t99ij
exy
(A.VII-8)
%
abi
Qi(x)
1+ LIAQi(X)
tDA
+
iX-ij
eXy
aby
c9bii
Dgil
UY
+
(x)
ggij
Pj
19,
+
UY
UY
Llgy
aApi (X) a9ii
eApi (X)
(A.VII-9)
(x) 94j
Dpj(x) a4.i + LCAPj
eAQj (X)
Obii eXy
"ki
eAQj (X) agil
DAQj(X) (,gy
=
OXY
a9ii
axii
agy
lIxii
exy
(A.VII-10)
aAQj (x) bbii DAQj (x) ahy

+
+
abij
OXij
eXij
clbil
First derivatives of Lagrange equation with respect to power mismatch (APi,AQI,APj,AQj)

equalsthe dual variable parametersOL(x)
(A.VII-1 1)
(X)-P*
0,P,
U(x)
(A.VII-12)
_=
_A
OAQi(x) qj
aL(x)
APJ
_=_
aApj W
(A.VII-13)
OL(X)-=-A
aaQj(X)
(A.VII-14)
qj
1xvii
AppendixVII
Power mismatch equations and derivatives widi respect to lin e admittance variables gii, bij,
g.#, b.#, gy and 4j.
AP,W
Pg, - Pdj - Ts'
(A.VII-15)
AQW
Qgj - Qdj-Q
(A.VII-16)
APj W
Pgj - Pdj - Pj
(A.VII-17)
AQjW
Qgj - Qdj - Qj
(A.VII-18)
Where power injection equationsPi, Qj, Pj and Qj are:

-Pi = -vi
2gii
[gy
ViVj
(Oi Oj) + by (Oi Oj)]

sin cos -
[gy
(0i
(Oi
by
OA
Oj)
bil
ViVj
cos
+
sin
-Qi =V2
i
ViVj
_pj = _V2gj
j+
[gy
(Oj Oi) by (Oj Oi)]

+ sin
cos -
[gy
(Oj
Oi
in
bjj
Vi
Vj
+
s
-Qi =V2
j
(Oj
by cos - Oi
(A.VII-19)
(A.VII-20)
(A.VII-21)
(A.VII-22)
Derivatives of power injections with respect to line admittance variables gii, 4-i, g.#,
gy and by.
(X)
IDA4
= _V2
i
(A.VII-23)
(x).
DAP,
(oi
= Vi Vi cos - oi)
(A.VII-4)
OAP,
(x).
(Oi
Oj)
in
Vj
Vi
s
=
-
(A.VII-25)
CIAQi(x) V2
=
(A.VII -26)
aAQi(X)
(Oi
Oj)
in
V,
Vj
s
=
agy
(ANII-27)
aAQi(x)
(A.VII-28)
aga
tIgy
1141
(oi
= _V,Vi cos -,0j)
aApj (X)
ag.v
aApj W=
11gy
(A. VII-29)
Ii
(0i
Vi Vi Cos - 00
(A.VII-30)
LXVIII
AppendixVII
aApj(X)
Ily -, x il-'(oj-oi)
(A.VII-31)
DAQj(X) V2
= i
ab.
(A.VII-32)
Qj (x)
LIA
(Oj
in
Vi
Oi)
= Vj s
i19ii
(A.VII-33)
eAQj(x)
a4i
(oj
= _Vi Vi cos - oi)
(A.VII-34)
Line admittance variables gii 4-i

,
gy
bj
gy and 4j
derivatives with respect to
transmission line impedance Xy .

agy
agli clgjj
=
My
axij
bjj
a4-j
My
-2RijXij
2
(R2
X2
+
y
Y)
abj
2
X2ij - Ij
(A.VII-35)
(A.VII-36)
axy axy axy
+A yI
The control variable Xy is an implicit variableof the objective function f(x) through the
Lagrangeequation L(x). Sensitivity of a transmission line
af(X) SY
=
lIxii
Sy
jpi
_,
(A.VII-37)
[_V2
Ag-"
)]
(Oi
(Oi
Oj
in
Vi
Vj
Oj
+[
+ V,iv jc0s
s
CIXy
[
(01
Aqj
Oj
in
Vi
Vj
s
-
A
pi
- llqj
1[_V2ViVj
j+
[ViVj
sin
(Oj
Lgy-
(Oi
+[ Vj2 - ViVj cos - Oj
axy
cos(Oj -0i)]Lgj-+[ViVj
axy
2-y
Oi)]
-
axy,
abl.'
axii,
(Oj Oi)] ab#
sin
Ey-.
I
IXY
(oj
+[j V2
i-V, iv Cos _oi)]bjj
axy
(A.VII-38)
AppendixVII
Shunt bus sensitivity and midpoint STATCOM installation results

N. It aimsto test the changein
Shuntbus sensitivityis measuredat systembuses,i=1,2,
...,
the objectivefunction f(x) due to changein reactivepower injectedor absorbedat bus i,
For midpoint installationof a STATCOM thercactive power injection is in the middle of
the line, thereforeshuntbus sensitivityis not a suitableindicator.TablesA5-1 andAS-2 show
no correlations between sensitivity and % RTC results.
Table A5-1: 14 bus system,top three sensitivityand % RTC when STATCOM installedat
midpoint of transmissionEnes.
1
FullRange
M Wk
16%
55%
94%
21314
Bus numbers with
highes sensit vity
2"'
12
14
14
ist
13
13
13
P
14
12
12
Locations
i-j and corresponding
% reduction
10
In total cost
ud
ist
M: 1-2
M: 1-2
M: 1-2
3rd
2
93%
71%
38%
M: 2-5
M: 2-5
M: 2-5
33%
12%
9%
M: 2-4
M: 2-4
M: 2-4
30%
11%
8%
Table A5-2: 30 bus system,top three sensitivityand % RTC when STATCOM installedat
midpoint of transmissionlines.
1
MWFORange
k
16%
55%
94%
21314
Bus numbers with
big estsensi 'vity
ist
3
26
26
2"'
26
3
3
3F
30
24
23
1
61
71
51
891
10
Locations i-j and corresponding % reductions In total cost
ist
M: 2-6 1 77%
90%
M: 1-2
48%
A 1-2
LXX
nd
rd
2
M: 2-4
M: 2-6
M: 2-6
3
76%
15%
10%
M: 1-2
M: 2-4
M: 2-4
72%
7%
3% j
AppendixVIII
A-PPENDIXVIII
Input system data; 4 bus system, IEEE 14bus and 30 bus systems.
4 bus system input data, as used in Chapter 2.
TableAVIII. I: 4 bus systemtransmissionline data(no transformerson system)
Line
no.
1
2
3
4
Bus 1
Busj
1
1
4
4
2
3
3
2
Resistance
Rij (p.u.)
0.02
0.03
0.02
0.03
Reactance Susceptance Power transfer

X1,(P.U.)
B, (p-u-)
HmitSli'"(p.
u.)
0.08
0.00
5.00
0.12
0.00
5.00
0.10
0.00
6.00
1
1
0.12
0.00
6.00
Tap
ratio
1
1
1
Table AVIII. 2: 4 bus system bus and demand data

P demand (p.u.)
5.00
3.00
1.000
0.00
Bus type
0
2
1
2
Bus no.
1
2
3
4
Q demand (p.u.)
1.00
0.86
0.30
0.00
* BusType: (0) swingbus, (1) generatorbus (PV bus),and (2) load bus (PQ bus).
Table AVIII. 3: 4 bus svstem generator data
Generator
busno.
I
1
3
c+
gi
(P-U-)
20
20
Ci
i
(P-U)
10
10
Initial
value PgO
(P-U-)
Max
Pg
(P-U-)
Min
Initial
Pg
value QgO
(P-U-)
(P-U-)
5.00
4.00
7.00
7.00
1.00
1.00
1.93
0.70
4.5
4.5
IEEE 14bus system input data, as used in Chapters 2,3,4,5 and 6.

TableAVIIIA 14 bus systemtransmissionline and transfonnerdata
Line
no.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8T
9T
IOT
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Bus I
Busj
1
1
2
2
2
3
4
4
4
5
6
6
6
7
7
9
9
10
12
13
2
5
3
4
5
4
5
7
9
6
11
12
13
8
9
10
14
11
13
14
Resistance
Rif (P.U.)
0.01938
0.05403
0.04699
0.05811
0.05695
0.06701
0.01335
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.09498
0.12291
0.06615
0.00000
0.00000
0.03181
0.12711
0.08205
0.22092
0.17093
Reactance Susceptance
B, (p. u.)
P.U.)
0.05917
0.02640
0.02460
0.22304
0.02190
0.19797
0.01870
0.17632
0.01700
0.17388
0.17103
0.01730
0.04211
0.00640
0.20912
0.00000
0.55618
0.00000
0.00000
0.25202
0.00000
0.19890
0.00000
0.25581
0.00000
0.13027
0.00000
0.17615
0.00000
0.11001
0.00000
0.08450
0.00000
0.27038
0.00000
0.19207
0.00000
0.19988
0.00000
0.34802
Max
Qg
(P-U-)
Power transfer
limit Sil" (p.u.)
1.50
1.50
1.30
1.30
0.90
0.65
1.30
0.65
0.65
0.65
0.65
0.65
0.32
0.32
0.65
0.16
0.32
0.16
0.65
0.16
Min
Qg
(P-U-)
-1.0
1.0
.
TaP
ratio
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0.978
0.969
0.932
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
AppendixVIII
TableAVIII. 5: 14 bus svstembus and demanddata

Bus no.
1 _
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Bus
type*
0
1
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
P demand (1).u.)
0.000
0.217
0.942
0.478
0.076
0.112
0.000
0.000
0.295
0.090
0.035
0.061
0.135
0.149
Q demand (p.u.)
0.000
0.127
0.190
-0.039
0.016
0.075
0.000
0.000
0.166
0.058
0.018
0.016
0.058
0.050
* BusType: (0) swingbus, (1)generatorbus (PV bus),and (2)load bus (PQ bus).
TableABIII. 6: 14 bus systemReneratordata
Generator
bus no.
I
1
2
3
6
8
gi
(P-U-)
cgi
(P-U)
20
20
20
20
20
10
10
10
10
10
C+
Initial
Max
Min
Initial
Max
Min
value
Pgo
Pg
(P-U-)
Pg
(P-U-)
Qg
(P-U-)
Qg
(P-U-)
(P-U-)
1.74
0.40
0.15
0.15
0.15
4.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
value
QgO
(P-U-)
0.00
0.00
0.10
0.00
0.00
1.50
0.5
0.40
0.24
0.24
-1.00
-0.40
0.00
-0.06
-0.06
IEEE 30 bus system input data, as used in Chapters 3,4,5 and 6.

TableAVIII. 7: 30 bus svstemtranstnissionline and transformerdata
Line
no.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
-9
10
IIT
12T
13
14
15T
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
Bus 1
1
1
2
3
2
2
4
5
6
6
6
6
9
9
4
12
12
12
12
14
16
15
18
19
Busj
2
3
4
4
5
6
6
7
7
8
9
10
11
10
12
13
14
is
16
15
17
18
19
20
Resistance
R11(p.u.)
0.0192
0.0452
0.0570
0.0132
0.0472
0.0581
0.0119
0.0460
0.0267
0.0120
0.0100
0.0100
0.0000
0.0000
0.0100
0.0000
0.1231
0.0662
0.0945
0.2210
0.08240.1070
0.0639
0.0340
Reactance Susceptance Power transfer

XH(p.u.)
B. (p.u.)
Slimar(P.U.)
-Mmit 1.30
0.0575
0.0528
0.1852
0.0408
1.30
0.1737
0.0368
0.65
0.0379
0.0084
1.30
0.1983
0.0418
1.30
0.1763
0.0374
0.65
0.0414
0.0090
0.90
0.1160
0.0204
0.70'
0.0820
0.0170
1.30
0.0420
0.0090
0.32
0.2080
0.0000
0.65
0.5560
0.0000
0.32'
0.2080
0.0000
0.65
0.1100
0.0000
0.65
0.2560
0.0000
0.65
0.1400
0.0000
0.65
0.2559
0.0000
0.32
0.1304
0.0000
0.32
0.0000
0.1987
0.32
0.0000
0.16
0.1997
0.1932
0.0000
0.16'
0.2185
0.0000
0.16
0.1292
0.0000
0.16
0.0680
0.0000
0.32
LMI
Tap
ratio
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1.01530.9629
1
1
1.012T
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
AppendixVIII
TableAVIII. 7: continued.
Line
no.
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36T
37
38
39
40
41
Bus i
Busj
10
10
10
10
21
15
22
23
24
25
25
28
27
27
29
8
6
20
17
21
22
22
23
24
24
25
26
27
27
29
30
30
28
28
Resistance
RI, (p.u.)
0.0936
0.0324
0.0348
0.0727
0.0116
0.1000
0.1150
0.1320
0.1885
0.2544
0.1093
0.0100
0.2198
0.3202
0.2399
0.0636
0.0169
Reactance Susceptance
B, (p.u.)
0.2090
0.0000
0.0845
0.0000
0.0749
0.0000
0.1499
0.0000
0.0236
0.0000
0.2020
0.0000
0.1790
0.0000
0.2700
0.0000
0.3292
0.0000
0.3800
0.0000
0.2087
0.0000
0.3960
0.0000
0.4153
0.0000
0.6027
0.0000
0.4533
0.0000
0.2000
0.0428
0.0599
0.0130
Power transfer
limit Sil" (p.u.)
0.32
0.32
0.32
0.32
0.32
0.16
0.16
0.16
0.16
0.16
0.16
0.65
0.16
0.16
0.16
0.32
0.32
TableAVIII. 8: 30 bus svstembus and demanddata

Bus no.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
II
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
Bus type*
0
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
P demand (p.u.)
0.0000
0.2170
0.0240
0.0760
0.9420
0.0000
0.2280
0.3000
0.0000
0.0580
0.0000
0.1120
0.0000
0.0620
0.0820
0.0350
0.0900
0.0320
0.0950
0.0220
0.1750
0.0000
0.0320
0.0870
0.0000
0.0350
0.0000
0.0000
0.0240
0.1060
Q demand (p.u.)
0.000
0.127
0.012
0.016
0.190
0.000
0.109
0.300
0.000
0.020
0.000
0.075
0.000
0.016
0.025
0.018
0.058
0.009
0.034
0.007
0.112
0.000
0.016
0.087
0.000
0.023
0.000
0.000
0.009
0.019
0.0000
bus (PV bus),
* BusType: (0) swingbus, (1)genetator
and (2)
LMII
0.000
load bus (PQ bus).
Tap
ratio
1
1
1
1
0.9581
1
1
1
1
1
Appendix VIII
data
TableAVIII-9: 30 bus svstemLrenerator
Generator
busno.
I
Max
Pg
(P-U-)
Min
Pg
(P-U-)
Initial
value QgO
(P-U-)
Max
Qg
(P-U-)
Min
Qg
(P-U-)
10
10
10
10
10
10
1.770
0.460
0.190
0.170
0.122
0.122
2.00
0.80
0.50
0.37
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.2
0.15
0.10
0.10
0.12
0.0279
0.0247
0.2257
0.3484
0.3078
0.3783
3.00
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.50
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.15
0.15
0.10
0.15
cg-i
C+
9,
(P-U-)
20
20
20
20
20
20
1
2
5
8
11
13
(P-U)
Initial
value PgO
(P-U-)
IEEE 30 bus system setup

TableAVIII. 10:30 bus SvstemsI. II and III comDarisonwith STATCOM and UPFC
Systemnumber
Systemdescription (across)
Total system values (down)
(units: p.u.)
Nd
Demand Ep
i
di
Ng
Scheduledgeneration PO
91
No
congestion
H
Congestion
noFACTS
70% Load
Rise
111a
STATCOM at
Bus3
70% Load
Rise
1111b
UPFC at
Line 1-2
70% Load
Rise
2.83
4.19
4.19
4.19
2.83
4.97
4.97
4.97
0.092
0.954
1.146
0.486
0.000
0.939
1.120
0.411
2.93
4.99
5.00
5.05
0.09
0.17
0.18
0.23
3.2%
3.4%
3.7%
4.7%
0.00
0.16
0.16
0.16
N/A
N/A
B(ii)/2
B(ii)/2
Ng
Generation Increase
&P+
91
Ng
Generation decrease ZAP-
Generation output
91
N
P
OUT
i
Loss PLOSS
Ng
% Plossw. r. t.
0
P
gi
A Excess PEX
CESS
9
Result type /Condition
Total cost f(x) $/h
% Cost reduction wrt System 11
% Cost due to PLOSS
1.84
28.46
34.11
13.83
N/A
100%
N/A
67%
-20%
67%
51%
70%

% Cost due to PEXCESS
0%
None
33%
N/A
PFXCESS
33%
N/A
PFXCESS
30%
N/A
PEXCESS
< PLOSS
1-2,2-6,9-10,
12-13,12-15,
25-27
83.5
< PLOSS
1-2,1-3,6-8,
12-13,12-15
Congestedlines
None
< PLOSS
1-2,2-6,6-8,
12-15
FACTS Controller rating WA
N/A
N/A
82.2

Congestion Management USING FACTS DEVICES

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Congestion Management USING FACTS DEVICES

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University of Warwick institutional repository: http://go.warwick.ac.

A Thesis submitted for partial fulfilment of the requirements

University of Warwick, School of Engineering

Bilateral electricity market model and the

FACTS controllers and the interior point

Numericalresults:Initial test systemswith FACIS controllers

Daily demand and annual cost savings using

Sensitivity based three-step method for locating

costs for congestion management

Formulation of interior point OPF in hybrid coordinate

Derivation of power mismatch equations, constraint

I would also like to expressmy appreciationto my co-supervisorProfessorKeith Godfrey

AREVA T&D, Stafford,February.

HVDC technologiesfor the developmentof Future Power Systems",in Pmcee&ngs

Predictionof future electricitysystems

Four UPFC Orientations:(a)Orientation1 (01),

lines, I: ij and J: ij, simulated at A feasible locations.

area % RSC with

area % RSC with

FullRange for STATCOM

30 bus system average area % RSC with

30 bus system average area % RSC with

Overviewof con-unoncompensationmethodsand FACTS controllers[Zhanget al.

4 bus systemwith congestion:Changesat eachgenerator.

Summaryof additionalelementsmodelledon systemwhen FAM controllersare

4 bus,SystemI, II andIII comparisonwith STATCOM at buses2 and4.

IEEE 14 bus systemat 50% Load Risewith UPFC installedat congestedlines7-8

IEEE 14 bus system,summaryof STATCOM resultsinstalledat M:ij.

IEEE 30 bus system,all STATCOM locationsandpositionsLij, J:ij andU-ij.

IEEE 30 bus system,summaryof STATCOM resultsat Lij and J:ij.

IEEE 30 bus system,summaryof STATCOM resultsinstalledat M:ij.

IEEE 14 bus systemlisting all UPFClocationsand four orientations.

IEEE 14 bus system,summaryof UPFC Orientation1 results.

IEEE 30 bus system,all UPFC orientationsandcorresponding% RSC-

IEEE 30 bus system,summary of UPFC Orientation 1 results.

IEEE 14 bus system,shunt sensitivity at different % Mwi

Estimation of STATCOM and UPFC equipment and infrastructure cost from

Estimation of $/MVA from CEC report (1999).

Comparison of % equipment and % infrastructure cost proportions from two

Summary of possible benefits from installing VSC based FACTS controllers

List of acronyms and abbreviations

Companies and Organisations

InternationalCouncilon LargeElectric Systems

Chapter 1: 1.1 Background introduction

Figure 1.1: Prediction of future electricity systems[Sasse(2006)].

Congestion management has become an increasingly important subject for transtniission

Guardian (2006)] compared to the 1990 baseline by 2050.

Chapter1: 1.2Ihe congestionproblem

presented.Chapter3 introducesthe FACTS controller modelsand describesthe additional

1.2The congestion problem

Chapter1: 1.2The congestionproblem

contingencies.Congestionis associatedwith a specifiedpoint in time." Subsections1.2-11.2.4givesa descriptionof eachconstraint.

Policy constraintsrefer to the bilateral contractsheld between the generatingcompardes

1.2.3 Operational constraints

Non-contracted flows of electricity are called loop-flows. Ihey are unscheduledflows of

Wheeling or third party wheeling

Power system security and power quality

Interruptions in electricity supply can causeinconvenienceto domestic customers,and

Chapter1: 1.4Electridty marketmodels

1.4 Electricity market models

considerationto systemconstraintsto avoid congestionand pay for transmissionlosses.A

Chapter1: 1.4Electridty marketmodels

transparent.Quantitiesof electricityand pricesput forward asbids and offers are available

Chapter1: 1.5Electricitymarketsof GreatBritain