TH 9523

STUDIES ON STINGLESS BEE, TRIGONA IRIDIPENNIS SMITH WITH SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO FORAGING BEHAVIOUR AND MELISSOPALYNOLOGY AT

DHARWAD, KARNATAKA
Thesis submitted to the

University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
Degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE (Agriculture)
In
Agricultural Entomology
By
C.S. DANARADDI
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ENTOMOLOGY

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, DHARWAD
UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES,
DHARWAD 580 005
AUGUST, 2007
ADVISORY COMMITTEE
DHARWAD
AUGUST, 2007
(SHASHIDHAR VIRAKTAMATH)
MAJOR ADVISOR
Approved by:
Chairman: ________________________
SHASHIDHAR VIRAKTAMATH
Members: 1. _______________________
(K. BASAVANA GOUD)
2. _______________________
(C.P. MALLAPUR)
3. _______________________
(A.R.S BHAT)
CONTENTS
Sl.
No.
Chapter Particulars
CERTIFICATE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF PLATES
LIST OF APPENDIX
1.
INTRODUCTION
2.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
3.
4.
2.1
Nesting habits and nest Characteristics
2.2
Morphometric studies of stingless bees
2.3
Foraging behaviour of Trigona spp.
2.4
Melissopalynological studies
MATERIAL AND METHODS

3.1
Nesting habits and nest structure of T. iridipennis
3.2
Morphometric studies of T. iridipennis
3.3
Foraging behaviour of T. iridipennis
3.4
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
4.1
Nesting habits and nest structure
4.2
Morphometric studies of Trigona iridipennis
4.3
Foraging activity of Trigona iridipennis
4.4
Contd.
5.
6.
DISCUSSION
5.1
Nest characteristics.
5.2
Morphometric studies
5.3
Foraging activity of T. iridipennis
5.4
Pollen and nectar sources
5.5
Future line of work
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES
LIST OF TABLES
Table
No.
Title
1.
Nesting habits of stingless bee, Trigona iridipennis at Dharwad
2.
Internal structure of the nest of stingless bee, Trigona iridipennis at

Dharwad
3.
Morphometrics of the body of stingless bee, Trigona iridipennis
4.
Morphometrics of body appendages of the stingless bee, Trigona

iridipennis
5.
Activity of outgoing foragers during monsoon at Dharwad
6.
Activity of outgoing foragers during winter at Dharwad
7.
Activity of outgoing foragers during summer at Dharwad
8.
Activity of incoming foragers with pollen load during monsoon at

Dharwad
9.
Activity of incoming foragers with pollen load during winter at

Dharwad
10.
Activity of incoming foragers with pollen load during summer at

Dharwad
11.
Activity of incoming foragers without pollen load during monsoon at

Dharwad
12
Activity of incoming foragers without pollen load during winter at

Dharwad
13
Activity of incoming foragers without pollen load during summer at
Dharwad
14
Activity of outgoing foragers during 2006-07 irrespective of season

at Dharwad
15
Activity of incoming foragers with pollen load during 2006-07

irrespective of season at Dharwad
16
Activity of foragers without pollen load during 2006-07 irrespective

of season at Dharwad
17
Melissopalynological analysis of Pollen load of Trigona iridipennis,

at Dharwad
18
Melissopalynological analysis of honey samples of Trigona

iridipennis at UAS, Dharwad
19
Familywise distribution of Pollen and nectar Source of Trigona

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
No.
Title
1.
Activity of outgoing foragers of Trigona iridipennis at different

hours in various seasons
2.
Activity of incoming foragers with pollen load of Trigona

iridipennis at different hours in various seasons
3.
Activity of incoming foragers without pollen load of Trigona

iridipennis at different hours in various seasons
4.
Foraging activity of Trigona iridipennis in different months

5.
Foraging activity of Trigona iridipennis at different hours

LIST OF PLATES
Plate
No.
Title
Nesting sites of Trigona iridipennis in wall cavities at Dharwad
Internal structure of the colony of stingless bees
Different parameters for morphometric studies
General view of meliponiary and single colony used for foraging

activity studies
Nesting sites of Trigona iridipennis in trees at Dharwad
6.
Important pollen grains from honey samples collected by Trigona

iridipennis
LIST OF APPENDIX
Appendix
No.
I.
Title
Monthly meteorological data for the experimental year (2006-07)
of Main Agricultural Research Station, University of Agricultural
Sciences, Dharwad
1. INTRODUCTION
Stingless bees are the smallest of the honey producing bees. They are highly social
insects like honey bees living in permanent colonies, nesting in old walls, logs, crevices and
such other concealed places. But the sting is greatly reduced without an effective tip. Hence,
the defense behaviour is by chasing the intruders by biting, becoming entangled in the
intruders hairs and getting into the nose, ears and eyes. Stingless bees belong to the super
family Apoidea, family Apidae and sub family Meliponinae. Meliponinae consists of two
genera Melipona and Trigona which belong to the tribe Meliponini and Trigonini, respectively.
Meliponinae includes eight genera, having 15 sub-genera and more than 500 species (Wille,
1983).
Trigona is the largest and most widely distributed genus, which includes
130 species under ten sub-genera. Melipona consists of 50 species and is confined to the
neotropics. All Asian and African species of stingless bees belong to the tribe Trigonini. The
various genera in this tribe include Trigona, Plebeia, Tetragona and Nanotrigona (Camargo et
al., 1988).
Genus Trigona is found in the Neotropics from Mexico to Argentina and in the IndoAustralian region from India and Srilanka to Taiwan, east to the Caroline Island, the Solomon
Islands and South throughout Indonesia and New Guinea to about latitude 340S in Australia.
Stingless bee colonies are perennial and usually consist of hundreds or thousands of
workers (Wille, 1983). Stingless bees are found in colonies ranging from a few dozen to
100,000 or more workers and are highly social bees (Michener, 2000). Unlike the other honey
bees of the genus Apis, they construct numerous elliptical cells for storing pollen and honey
by using a special material cerumen made of wax and resin. They can be domesticated and
used for production of honey and wax. Transferring of natural colonies to hives is very easy
compared to other honey bees. They can be reared in hives like Indian bee, Apis cerena Fab,
and the European bee, A. mellifera L. Trigona colonies can survive themselves for years
without artificial feeding and they will not desert their nests for many years.
Beekeeping with stingless bees is called meliponiculture, which has been practiced
for many centuries in various parts of Latin America, where these bees are considered as
very valuable domestic species. They differ from Apis species in biology and foraging
behaviour. The process of feeding the larvae in stingless bees is very different from that of the
honey bees of the genus Apis. The system of larval feeding in stingless bees is called mass
provisioning whereas in Apis spp, the larvae are fed progressively with royal jelly and bee
bread during their growth and development. Stingless bees are generalistic flower visitors.
Melissopalynological studies provide the exact information about the floral resources of these
bees in the vicinity and useful in comparing preferences of flora with other domestic bees.
The potentiality of stingless bees for crop pollination is enhanced by transfer of
colonies into the hives. Hives can be transferred where pollination is needed. Hence, they can
be very well utilized for planned pollination. They are important and effective pollinators of
many crop species. Nine species of crops are confirmed as effectively pollinated by stingless
bees and they make a contribution to the pollination of nearly 60 other crops (Heard, 1988).
Their small size allows them to have access to many kinds of flowers whose openings are too
narrow to permit penetration by other bees and they are common visitors to flowering plants
in the tropics (Heard, 1999).
T. iridipennis Smith is the only species found in India, the wings show iridescence
hence the name iridipennis.
Very little attention has been paid to study the biology, biometrics and foraging
behaviour of T. iridipennis, in India particularly in Karnataka. The work carried out in India and
elsewhere on the bee flora that provide nectar and pollen for T. iridipennis is also limited.
Roopa (2002) and Kuberappa et al (2005) have made some studies on the biology
and foraging behaviour from Southern Karnataka.
However, our knowledge on biology, biometrics, foraging behaviour, nectar and

pollen sources of T. iridipennis from Northern Karnataka is lacking. For the best utilization of
T. iridipennis, for honey production and pollination, this knowledge is absolutely essential.
Hence, to bridge these research gaps, the present studies were made with the following
objectives.
1. To study the nesting habits and nest structure of T. iridipennis.
2. To carry out morphometric studies of T. iridipennis from different parts of Karnataka.
3. To study the foraging behaviour of T. iridipennis in different seasons.
4. To study the pollen and honey sources of T. iridipennis.
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Trigona iridipennis was first originally described from Ceylon by Smith (1954).
The most common species of stingless bee found in India was known by name Melipona
iridipennis Smith. Later this species was transferred to the genus Trigona as Melipona is
restricted only to Neotropics (Michener, 1974). It is distributed in India and Sri Lanka
(Sakagami, 1978).
Stingless bees are taxonomically different from honey bees. The honey bees
(Apinae), bumble bees (Bombinae) and stingless bees (Meliponinae) belong to the family
Apidae. The species coming under Meliponinae are divided into two tribes Trigonini and
Meliponini. All Asian and African stingless bee species belong to the tribe Trigonini. The
various genera in this tribe include Trigona, Plebeia, Tetragona and Nanotrigona. The genus
Melipona consists of about 40 species, medium to large sized bees all of which occur in
Neotropics (Camargo et al., 1988).
The species found in Karnataka (Biesmeijer, 1993) Kerala (Rakhee Mohan and
Devanesan, 1999) and Tamil Nadu have been reported as T. iridipennis (Swaminathan,
2000).
The review of literature pertaining to the nesting habits, nest structure, morphometry,
foraging behaviour, pollen and honey sources of the stingless bee, T. iridipennis is presented
in this chapter.
2.1
Nesting habits and Nest Characteristics
T. gribodei Margretti, nests in cavities of tree trunks and branches. T. staudingeri,

gribodoei and margretti, built vertical, double combs each consisting of two layers of
horizontal opening in opposite directions, as in Apis. sp (Smith, 1954).
The nests of stingless bees usually consist of an external tube, internal tunnel, resin
dump, waste dumps, wax dumps, food pots for storing pollen and honey, brood and nest
envelopes like involucrum and batumen. Brood cells, honey pots and pollen pots are
arranged in separate clusters. Brood cells and food pots are made of cerumen which is a
mixture of wax and resin. The cells of combs will be in contact with one another, sometimes
connected by small pillars or connectives of soft cerumen .The length of the entrance tube
vary from 6-25 mm long and projected at an angle to the bark in T. gribodei (Pooley and
Michener, 1969)
Some species of stingless bees like T. oyuni Darchen also nest within the ant nests
(Darchen, 1971). Brood combs of T. denoiti Vachal were spirally arranged in single or double
spirals. Spirals rotated either clockwise or anticlockwise (Fletcher and Crewe, 1981). T.
laevicepes (L.) nests in tree cavities (Sakagami et al., 1983). Entrance tube may be as long
as one meter in T. pectaralis (J.) and continued inside the nest cavity along the inner wall of
the entrance (Wille, 1983). The brood cells were arranged in cluster and more crowded with
distinct colour variation depending on their age. Newly constructed cells were brownish and
became straw coloured with the advancement of age. The advancing front was the surface
where new cells were added to brood cluster. Brood cells were vertically elongated and
oriented. The cells were in contact with one another, sometimes connected by small pillars or
connectives of soft cerumen. Studies on the nesting behaviour of nine species of south Asian
stingless bees showed that T. apicalis Smith and T. thoracica Smith arranged brood cells in
combs (Sakagami et al., 1983).
Starr and Sakagami (1987) observed 87 colonies of T. fuscobalteata Cameron, and
T. sapiens Cockrell in bamboo cavities of 0.7 to 3.0 liter volume. The reasons for
congregation of nests in a site were availability of good nesting sites for long duration and
short swarming distance. Trigona carbonaria Smith often nests inside hollows in tree or
wooden pillars of houses (Heard, 1988). T. moorei Schwarz build their nests inside the termite
mound (Sakagami et al., 1989).
The nest has just one entrance tube made of cerumen. The entrance of the nest may
be simple hole, often extended from the nest as an external tube. The length of the entrance
tube varies widely. The entrance usually consists of simple cracks or holes about one cm
wide in a tree trunk in T. hockingsi Corkrell, slender and sticky in
T. moori Schwarz
(Sakagami et al., 1989).
Brood cells of worker and drone cells were similar in size, but the queen cells were
larger (De Bruijin, 1994).
Nests of Plebia poecilochora Moure and Camargo were collected from hollows in
house walls and earth banks. The nest entrance was small with circular hole, surrounded by
dark resin and with no outer tube. The brood cells were arranged in regular horizontal combs
(sometimes in spirals), and not surrounded by an involucrum. Numerous pillars connected the
brood combs to each other, to lateral parts of nest and to the storage pots (Drumond et al.,
1995).
Among the 17 colonies of Melipona capixaba the nest entrance was quite variable,
ranging from a simple to very elaborate structure. Larvae and puparia of Milichiid flies were
found in great numbers inside the nests (Melo, 1996).
The storage pots or food pots are present either above or below or at both sides of
the brood area. Food pots are built one over the other or side by side and when filled they are
sealed. The whole clusters look like a densely packed bunch of grapes. Pollen pots are built
close to the entrance. Honey pots tend to be in the outer part of the nest but often the clusters
will contain both honey and pollen pots (Dollin, 1996).
An inventory conducted in French Guiana on nesting sites of stingless bees revealed
that in eight ant gardens, at the lower part corresponding to the dense root complex including
the nest, a nest of the myrmecophilous stingless bee Paratrigona pannosa was found. These
eight ant gardens consisting of fairly durable and protected sites were all inhabited by one of
the two species of Ponerine ants Pachycondyla goeltri and Odentomachus mayi (Corbara and
Dejean, 1998).
Nest and colony characteristics of 19 colonies of Melipona beecheii in Costa Rica
were studied by Veen and Arce. (1999). Adult population was found to be between 500 and
2500. The presence of queen pupae in the brood and the size of the brood nest were
positively correlated. Adult gynes and males were seldom observed. Brood population was
generally 2-4 times the number of adult bees. Honey stores were often smaller than pollen
stores, and only a few colonies contained more than one litre. The volume of the cavity of the
hives was between 5 and 16 litres.
Nest density of Trigona collina Smith, was generally high in sites located in the Sipilok
forest fragment (mean 8.4 nests/ha). Nest densities in continuous forest were all low
(between 0 and 2.1 nests/ha, mean 0.5 nests/ha).Yearly nest morality was low (13.5 to 155)
over four years of observation (Eltz et al., 2002).
The density of nests formed by species belonging to Meliponini was studied. An
average of 34.88 nests/month was recorded. Four species of bees were identified,
Nanotrigona testaceicornis Lepeletier, (63.93%), Tetragonisca angustula Illiger (24.46%),
Trigona spinipes (6.74%) and Paratomona species (4.87%). Except T. spinipes, all other
species exhibited preference for buildings as substrate for nest foundation. T. spinipes nests
were found only on trees (Sousa et al., 2002). The most common types of nesting sites of
stingless bees are tree cavities, cracks and crevices in old walls or stone walls (Roopa, 2002
and Muthuraman, 2006).
A comparative study of nest distributions of six most abundant species of stingless
bees viz., T. angustula, Nanotrigona punctata (L.), Paratamona helleri Camargo, Scatotrigona
xanthotricha (Moure), Plebia sp. and Scaptotrigona tubiba (Smith) among three habitat types
(structural, recovering and depleted forest) within a fragment was carried out.. The nests of
these species represented, respectively, 31, 12, 9, 7, 6 and 5% of all stingless bee nests
(n=137) found within an area of 11.3 ha. The result revealed that S. xanthotricha and S.
tubiba were found to nest only in tree holes within structured forests, while T. angustula, P.
helleri Camargo, and a new species of Plebia were found in all three habitats, P. helleri was
abundant in depleted forest, where it built partially exposed nests in man made structures,
frequently in association with termites. T. angustula and Plebia sp were the most abundant
species in the recovering forests (Batista et al., 2003).
A total of 275 nests of 12 species of stingless bees (Meliponini) were located. All
nests were closely associated with living (91.55) or dead (0.5%) trees either within pre-formed
cavities in the trunk (cavity nests) or situated in or under the tree base (base nest). Majority of
the species (seven) were cavity nesters, but the majority of nests (81%) were base nests (Eltz
et al., 2003)
The tropical stingless bees are known to use diverse nest sites, and some species
will nest within the nest of other insects including ants and termites. However, Trigona cilipes
(Fabricius), is able to establish its nest within the nest of the social paper wasp Epipona tatua.
The bell- shaped nest with both wasps and bees was found in secondary forest in Peru. T.
cilipes is usually found nesting with Azteca ants (Rasmussen, 2004).
The nesting sites of T. iridipennis were hollows in tree trunks, stone walls, mud walls,
corners of walls and termite mounds. The cavity diameter varied with the type of nesting sites.
Most of colonies had a resinous entrance tube. Inside the colony, food pots and brood cells
were arranged separately. Food pots were larger than brood cells and were sealed when
filled. Brood cells were compactly arranged in clusters. Larval cells were brown whereas
pupal cells were creamy in colour (Gajanan et al., 2005).
Muthuraman (2006) has reported similar structure of the nest of T. irridipennis from
Tamil Nadu.
2.2
Morphometric studies of stingless bees
Devanesan et al. (2003) studied 18 morphometric characters of the stingless bee, T.

iridipennis queen and workers in Kerala. Queen was distinguished from the worker by their
larger size .Queen was golden brown colour and had a pointed abdomen. While workers were
black pigmented with pale yellow colour. The mean body length of workers and queen was
4.07 and 10.07 mm, respectively. The flagellum had ten segments in both workers and queen
and there were five hamuli in both. Mandibles in workers were smaller than that of the
queens. Hind legs of queen was not corbiculated as those in workers.
Araujo et al. (2004) studied the spatial implication of maximum flight distance and
body size in six species of stingless bees viz. Trigona droryana, T. spinipes, Melipona
compressipes fasciculata (Smith), M. quadrifasciata (Lepeletier),
M. marginata
Lepeletier, and T. capitata Smith. Flight distance and generalized wing size were highly
correlated (r=0.938). This indicates that species of Meliponini occupy an effectively larger
area as body size increases.
T. iridipennis bees from hilly zone had the highest body length (5.051 mm) as well as
longest head (1.986 mm) while the lowest body length (4.621 mm) and shortest head (1.886
mm) were recorded for the bees from central dry zone of Karnataka. The bees had 5 hamuli
irrespective of the zones but the extent of hamuli changed with the width of the wing. In the
bees from hilly zone it was wider and was broader (Kuberappa et al., 2005).
2.3
Foraging behaviour of Trigona spp.
Gilbert (1973) made observation on the foraging activity of T. fulviventris GuerinMeneville during dry season. Foraging activity began a few minutes before sunrise
maintaining a high level of activity until 0700 hr (80 departures/min), then it declined to about
20 departures/min at 1000 hr. Pollen carrying activity was greatest in the early morning when
50 percent of returning bees carried pollen.
The foraging behaviour of T. biroi Friese was low during early morning hours in July
but it increased rapidly as time progressed. The density of bees foraging in August was higher
than July and this was due to increase in the size of the colony (Cervanica
et al., 1982).
Studies on the foraging behaviour of T. minangkabau indicated that it had two
components, exploration and exploitation. Observations made on number of foragers entering
and leaving the nest, showed that these bees began foraging by making long exploratory
flights and then switched to short exploitatry flights when a rich source of pollen or nectar was
located. T. minangkabau and T. moorei Schwarz collected nectar almost evenly during day
where as T. itima Cockrell collected most actively around mid day. All the three species
collected pollen most actively in the afternoon. Resin was also collected evenly throughout
the day. The sugar content of nectar carried to the nest increased from 30 per cent in the
morning to 60 per cent in the late after noon. The volume of nectar carried by foraging bees
was constant until about 1600 hr, then it declined slightly (Inoue and Salmah, 1984).
The foraging by T. erythrogastra (Cameron) in Malaysia was continuous and supply
of pollen was throughout the observation period. More activity was observed during AugustNovember and March- May. Foraging began at about 0700 hr and ended shortly after 1800 hr
(Appanch et al., 1986).
In a comparative foraging activity of stingless bee and A. mellifera, stingless bees
appeared to composite for competition by altering their foraging performance and peaks of
intense. Foraging of stingless bees were rare and there was a conspicuous lack of such
peaks when honey bees were also foraging (Roubik and Edward 1986).
Observation on foraging behaviour from January to July 1992, in two species of
stingless bees M. beecheii and T. angustula showed that the species foraged for pollen
mostly in the morning i.e. 93 per cent of M. beecheii from 0500-0800 hr and 75 per cent of T.
angustula from 0800-100 hr. The diurnal and seasonal variation in foraging activity suggest
that there was little competition for pollen between the two species (Biesmeijer et al., 1994).
The daily foraging activity and brood rearing of Trigona. sp were studied in
greenhouse. The results indicated that if sufficient food is available, the bees can be
successfully reared even at a relatively high temperature (>30o C) and humidity, suggesting
that they are potential pollinators of greenhouse crops (Woo- Kunsuk et al., 1996).
Bruijin and Sommeijer. (1997) studied the foraging behaviour of Melipona fasciata
(Latreille), M. beecheii, M. favosa (Fabricius) and T. angustula. The Melipona species had a
larger daily foraging activity period than T. angustula. Pollen foraging pattern of the Melipona
species were different from that of T. angustula. Melipona bees collected pollen earlier in the
day
Roopa (2002) studied seasonal variation in foraging activity of T. iridipennis at
Bangalore. The foragers were active in all the seasons and the foraging activity was found
throughout the day during all the months. But, during December, January and February,
foraging activity started little late than other months. During monsoon two distinct peaks of
outgoing, pollen and nectar foragers were recorded. Major and minor peaks were observed
between 1200-1300 hr and 1600-1700 hr, nectar foraging between 1300-1400 hr and 15001600 hr and resin foragers between 1100-1600 hr. In winter, two peaks were observed
between 1100-1200 hr and 1500-1600 hr. Peak nectar and pollen foragers were recorded
between 1100-1300 hr and 1200-1300 hr. Resin foraging was similar to that of monsoon.
During summer, outgoing bees attained a first peak between 1000-1100 hr and second
between 1500-1600 hr. Major peak of pollen and nectar foragers were recorded between
1000-1200 hr and 1200-1300 hr and second peak between 1400-1500 hr and 1500-1600 hr,
respectively.
.
According to Devanesan et al. (2002) foraging activity of T. iridipennis started at
07.00 hr with a gradual rise in activity reaching its first peak at 12.00 hr. A decline in activity
was observed at 13.00 hr then increased until it reached its second peak at 15.00 hr. There
was almost no activity at 18.00 hr. The maximum number of pollen foragers was observed in
the morning and the nectar foragers at mid day. The average number of incoming foragers
with pollen load was 17.9 compared with nectar collectors (11.5) during the first peak at 12.00
hr. The average number of pollen and nectar foragers was 13.9 and 10.8 respectively, during
the second peak at 15.00 hr.
2.4
Ramalho et al. (1980) reported that the species of the genus Scaptotrigona showed
special preference to Eucalyptus flowers in a locality and they collected both pollen and
nectar mainly from Eucalyptus even though they visited 100 plants.
Pollen loads collected from the bees at the entrance of nest were analysed in two
colonies of T. biori (Friese) and the results showed that the bulk of pollen supply was from
families Arecaceae and Cucurbitaceae. The family Mimosaceae was minor source (Cervanica
and Barile, 1982).
Appanch et al. (1986) reported that T .erythrogastra forages on a wide variety of
plants belonging to atleast 16 families.
Analysis of pollen and honey samples taken once in a fortnight throughout the year
from food pots of two stingless bee colonies in Brazil showed a total of 173 pollen types
belonging to 38 families in which 11 plant species were major food sources.
The families
Myrtaceae, Solanaceae, Melastomataceae and Leguminaceae were well represented in both
pollen and honey samples (Kleinert and Imperatriz, 1987).
Stingless bees visited single floral resources at each trip, which is evidenced by the
pure pollen loads in their corbiculae. In Brazil, 97 per cent of pollen foragers of nine species of
stingless bees visited only one floral resource (Heard, 1988).
Ramanujam et al. (1993) analysed the pollen from honey samples collected from a
colony of T. iridipennis in Hyderabad, India. The honey was found to be of unifloral origin with
Prosopis julifera as the predominant pollen type and Rotala densiflora, Peltophorium
pterocarpum (Dc and Baker) and Cocos nucifera L as important secondary pollen types.
Eucalyptus globosa, Cyanotis sp, Leucaenea leucocephala, Tamarindus indica Dc, Delonix
regia Ref, Azadirachta indica Juss, Lawsonia alba, Ageratum conyzoides and Loranthus
longiflorus constituted minor pollen types. They also analysed 430 pollen loads collected from
T. iridipennis, of which 367 were unifloral, 60 bifloral and only 3 were multifloral.
Biesmeijer et al. (1994) reported on pollen sources of two species of stingless bees
M. beecheii and T. angustula. A total of 56 pollen sources were used by
T.
angustula and 29 by M. beecheii and only 6 by both species.
Vit and Ricciardelli (1994) collected the honey samples from 27 hives of stingless bee
in different locations of Venezeula and pollen spectra were compared for Melipona and
Trigona species. Pollen diversity was higher in Melipona and Trigona. sp. The dominant
pollens were from Anacardiaceae, Antegonum, Cassia, Crotalaria, Mimosa pudica,
Myrtaceae, Solanum sp, Terminalia, Tiliaceae.
Analysis of honey and pollen samples of T. angustula showed a total of 105 pollen
types. The plant species were classified as yielding nectar and pollen, nectar only and pollen
only (Sousa et al., 2002).
Melissopalynological studies of 21 honey samples of T. iridipennis collected from ten
localities of Himachal Pradesh revealed the presence of dominant sporomorphs as Brassica
sp, Adathoda sp, Clematis sp, Mussendra sp and Helianthus sp. Pollen analytical studies also
indicated both unifloral and multifloral types of honey samples (Singh et al., 1989).
Agashe and Rangaswamy (1997) conducted melissopalynological analysis of five
honey samples of T. iridipennis from Karnataka. Psidium guajava and Syzygium cumini were
predominant pollen types in the honey and all the five samples were unifloral.
Mattu et al. (1997) from Himachal Pradesh analysed 30 honey samples of

T. iridipennis and reported the presence of 11 predominant, 24 secondary, 40 important minor
and 23 minor pollen types. Species of Citrus and Eucalyptus were the predominant types.
Sanchez- Chaves and Nieuwstadt. (1997) studied the diversity of pollen sources and
niche overlap of three species of stingless bees, Trigona collina, Scaptotrigona pectoralis and
Tetragonisca angustula. T. collina was aggressive forager, S. pectoralis intermediate and T.
angustula was solitary forager. The important pollen types were identified as Bursera
simaruba, Sapindus sapanaria and a type of Maraceae.
Melissopalynological investigations conducted on 38 samples of honey collected
from A. cerana, A. dorsata, A. florea and T. iridipennis in Pune, Maharastra, India, showed
that T. iridipennis honey had 9 morphotypes. There were no predominant pollen. The
secondary types were Moringa olifera Lamk, P. pterocarpum (Dc and Baker) and Ageratum
conyzoides. The minor pollen types were Amaranthus sp, Cocos nucifera L, Bombax ciba,
Sorghum vulgare, Linn, Mocch, Zea mays L and Ceasalpinacea. A total of 52 pollen types
were identified, Ageratum conyzoides and Amaranthus were common in all the species (Joshi
et al., 1998).
M. beecheii was found to collect more concentrated nectar than M. fasciata. Pollen
analysis showed that nectar sources overlapped considerably and that M. beecheii collected
richer nectar than M. fasciata, even from the same plant species (Biesmeijer et al., 1999).
Viraktamath et al., (1999) made comparative studies on pollen sources of Trigona sp,
A. mellifera and A. cerana at Dharwad. Trigona sp exploited 17 species of plant and the
pollen sources were strictly different from Apis species. P. pterocarpum was the only common
and important source for all the species.
Agashe and Rangaswamy (2000) conducted the melissopalynological studies of
different honey samples and pollen loads of T. iridipennis collected from Western ghat area of
Karnataka. Based upon these studies they identified Sapindus indica, Milletia ovalifloia,
Syzygium caryophllatum, S cumini, S. jambolan, Mallotus phillippensis, Tabubia arjentia, T.
avalenedae, Sclerophylum pentandrum, Hopea whitiyana, Kidia calicina, Ailanthus
malabarica and Ceiba pentandra as pollen sources.
Pick and Blochtein. (2002) analysed pollen loads of Plebeia saiqui Friese, percentage
of the pollen types of the samples was estimated to be 20% Asteraceae, 17% Myrtaceae,
15% Meliaceae and 10% Euphorbiaceae.
Lorenzon et al (2003) reported that, A. mellifera and 12 stingless bee species were
visiting 69 angiosperm species. The plant family heavily foraged was Leguminosae. A.
mellifera visited 32 floral species and stingless bees visited 58 species. Among them T.
spinipes had the largest spectrum of plant species visited
Dejtisakdi et al. (2005) analysed the acetolized pollen from the pollen loads collected
by Trigona collina Smith. Twenty one flowering species served as food plants of the bees
based on the pollen morphology. Pollen load numbers of 3, 16, 18 and 20 were recorded for
Garcinia speciosa, Mimosa pigra, Engelhardtia spicata and Helixanthera species,
respectively.
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS

Studies were carried out to generate information on nesting habits, nest structure,
morphometry, foraging behaviour, pollen and honey sources of the stingless bee, T.
iridipennis at the main campus of the University of Agricultural Sciences (UAS), Dharwad
during 2006-07. The experimental site is located in the transitional tract of Karnataka at 15o
26' N latitude and 75o 07' East longititude and at an altitude of 678 meters above the mean
sea level. The materials used, techniques adopted and observations made are presented in
this chapter.
3.1
Nesting habits and nest structure of T. iridipennis
Colonies of T. iridipennis were searched in and around the UAS campus and the
nesting habits were studied by recording the following observations.
1. Nesting place
2. Number of colonies nested in each place
3. Height from the ground level (mm)
4. Cavity dimension (width, height and length of the cavity) and
5. Length and width of entrance tube
The internal structure of the nest was studied by opening the colonies in the wall
cavities (Plate 1). Observations were made on the following parameters.
1. Dimensions of brood cells, pollen and honey pots (Plate 2)
2. Shape of the cells
3. Colour of the cells
4. Location of the cells in the cavity and
5. Density of cells
3.2
Morphometric studies of T. iridipennis
In order to study morphometry of T. iridipennis, a sample of 20 stingless bees were

collected from each of the following places viz; Bangalore, Dharwad, Sirsi, Bijapur, Shimoga,
Chitradurga, Raichur and Gulbarga.
These bees were collected from foraging sources so as to represent the mean
population of that place. Then the following morphometric parameters were recorded under
the stereoscopic binocular microscope fixed with ocular micrometer in one of the eye pieces
(Plate 3).
1.
Length of body
2.
Width of head including eyes
3.
Width of thorax
4.
Width of abdomen
5.
Length of proboscis
6.
Length of forewing
Outer view of colony in mud wall
Outer view of colony in stone wall
Inner view of colony to show dimensions

Plate 1. Nesting sites of Trigona iridipennis in wall cavities at Dharwad
Queen
Plate 2. Internal structure of the colony of stingless bees
Body Length
Length of proboscis
Length and width of wing
Hamuli
Length and width of leg parts
Plate 3. Different parameters for morphometric studies
Plate 4. General view of meliponiary and single colony used for foraging activity
studies
7.
Length of femur
8.
Length of tibia
9.
Length of metatarsus
10.
Width of forewing
11.
Width of femur
12.
Width of tibia
13.
Width of metatarsus
14.
Inter ocellar distance
15.
Number of hamuli
The morphometric data were subjected for statistical analysis (One- Way ANOVA
method) to study the extent of variation in the population of T. iridipennis in Karnataka.
3.3
Foraging behaviour of T. iridipennis
For this study, three colonies of T. iridipennis of uniform strength was maintained in
earthen pots from the UAS meliponiary were selected (Plate 4). The foraging activity in terms
of the number of foragers leaving their hives, number of foragers returning to their hives with
pollen load and without pollen load was recorded for a period of five minutes at two hourly
intervals from 0600 to 1800 hrs.
These observations were recorded at weekly interval from June 2006 to May 2007.
The data obtained was pooled season wise viz., monsoon (June to September), winter
(October to January) and summer (February to May) and also monthwise.
Then the
data were analysed by using factorial analysis.
3.4
Melissopalynological studies of, T. iridipennis
Pollen Sources
For studying the pollen sources, three colonies of T. iridipennis used for studying
foraging behaviour were selected. From each of these colonies five foragers returning with
pollen load were captured at peak foraging hour (10 to 12 noon).
The pollen loads were
collected by using fine brush and preserved in glacial acetic acid. The pollen grains were
subjected to the acetolysis (Erdtman 1952), and identification of pollen was made with the
help of the specialist at Central Bee Research and Training Institute, Pune.
Nectar source For studying the nectar sources, the honey samples were collected from the
same three colonies of stingless bees at monthly interval throughout the year from June 2006
to May 2007. The collected honey samples were subjected to the acetolysis (Louveaux et al.,
1970). The pollen grains in these honey samples were identified with the help of the specialist
at Central Bee Research and Training Institute, Pune. Based on the frequency of pollen
grains present in various honey samples, the nectar sources were grouped as follows (Moore
and Webb, 1987) and the pollen spectra were constructed as,
1. Predominant source (> 45%)
2. Secondary source (16-45%)
3. Important minor source (3-15%)
4. Minor source (<3%)
4. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The results of the investigations carried on study of stingless bee, Trigona iridipennis
at Dharwad are presented under the following headings in this chapter.
4.1
Nesting habits and nest structure
A total of 17 stingless bee colonies were studied for the nesting habits in Dharwad
(Table 1). Of these, five were found nesting in tree cavities at the mean height of 222.6 mm
from the ground (Plate 5). As many as 12 colonies were observed nesting in wall cavities at
the mean height of 192.57 mm. Among nesting sites, wall cavities offered excellent place for
T .iridipennis. At one place, aggregation of two colonies was noticed on a single wall.
The entrance of the colony was made up of resin and the newly built entrance was
soft, later turned darker and became rigid due to maturation. In six colonies nested in wall
cavities, a distinct entrance tube was absent. Colonies nested in wall cavities had the cavity
length which ranged from 47.00 to 325.00 mm with a mean of 165.05 mm. The width of the
cavity ranged from 50.00 to 190.00 mm with a mean of 132.65 mm while the height ranged
from 110.00 to 207.00 mm with a mean of 143.30 mm. The dimensions of the cavity of the
colonies nested in trees could not be measured. The colonies nesting in tree cavities had the
entrance hole with a width which ranged from 3.50 to 6.00 mm with a mean of 5.08 mm. The
length of the entrance tube ranged from 90.00 to 121.00 mm with a mean of 108.80 mm.
Similarly the width of the entrance tube in the wall cavities ranged from 2.00 to 6.00 mm with
a mean of 3.32 mm while the length ranged from 56.00 to 145.00 mm with a mean of 96.55
mm.
All the colonies consisted of food storage zone and brood zone (Plate 4) internally.
Food Pots
The food storage zone was divided into pollen zone and honey zone. The honey and
pollen were stored in separate pots, but these pots were often intermixed. The various
dimensions pertaining to food pots and brood cells are presented in (Table 2).
Pollen Pots
The pollen pots were oval and made up of soft cerumen which were dark brown in
colour and usually were observed at the periphery of the colony. The length and width of
pollen pots varied from 6.04 to 8.63 mm and 3.45 to 6.14 mm with a mean of 7.26 and 4.49
mm, respectively. The density of pollen pots ranged from 11 to 18 cells with a mean of 14.90
cells/cubic inch. The pollen pots were compactly filled with pollen pellets and closed. Only few
pots were found open which were used for storing incoming pollen. The pollen stored was
little wet with sour taste.
Honey Pots
The honey pots were oval, dark brown and slightly larger than the pollen pots and
located at the inner periphery of the colony and some were often intermixed with pollen pots.
The length and width of honey pots ranged from 6.94 to 8.69 mm and 3.64 to 6.03 mm with a
mean of 7.73 and 5.04 mm, respectively. Density of honey pots ranged from 2.90 to 4.90
cells/ cubic inch with a mean of 3.53 cells/ cubic inch. Like pollen pots, honey pots were also
sealed after ripening of honey.
Brood cells
Brood cells were smaller than food pots. They were oval, brownish in colour and
appeared like jowar grains and were arranged in a net work of narrow vertical pillars with
horizontal connectives. These brood cells were found at the center of the colony and were
arranged in cluster with a space which facilitated easy movement of bees within the cluster.
They
were
surrounded
by
the
honey
and
pollen
pots.
T able 1: Nesting habits of stingless bee, Trigona iridipennis at Dharwad
Cavity dimensions
Nesting
place
No. of
colonies
observed
Height from
the
ground(mm)
Width(mm)
Height(mm)
Length(mm)
Entrance
tube
width(mm)
Entrance
tube
length(mm)
5.08 1.13
108.80
11.14
222.6 44.47
Tree Cavity
---------
---------
---------
(3.5 to 6.0)
165.05
96.88
3.32 1.39
(171.0 to 291.0)
192.57 93.32
Wall Cavity
12
(50.0 to 411.0)
Figures in the parentheses are the range values
132.65
46.60
(50.0 to 190.0)
143.30
49.09
(110.0 to
207.0)
(47.0 to 325.0)
(2.0to 6.0)
(90.0 to121.0)
96.55
29.12
(56.0
145.0)
to
Table 2: Internal structure of the nest of stingless bee, Trigona iridipennis at Dharwad
Parameters
Brood cells
Pollen pots
Honey pots
2.14 0.33
7.26 0.33
7.73 0.34
(1.36 to 2.83)
(6.04 to 8.63)
(6.94 to 8.69)
1.70 0.20
4.49 0.39
5.04 0.30
(1.06 to 2.21)
(3.45 to 6.14)
(3.64 to 6.03)
2) Shape
Oval
Oval
Oval
3) Colour
Brownish
Dark brown
Dark brown
Center
Periphery
Inner Periphery
20.10 6.17
14.9 2.46
3.53 0.55
(12 to 33)
(11 to 18)
(2.9 to 4.9 )
1) Dimensions
a) Length
b) Width
4) Location
5) Density(Cells/Cubic inch)
Figures in the parentheses are the range values
Colony in the cavity of tamarind tree
Closeup view of tree cavity
Inside view of tree cavity
Colony in Jamun tree cavity
Plate 5. Nesting sites of Trigona iridipennis in trees at Dharwad
Table 3: Morphometrics of the body of stingless bee, Trigona iridipennis
Length of body
(mm)
Width of head
including eye
(mm)
Width of thorax
(mm)
Width of abdomen
(mm)
Bangalore
4.10
1.52
1.61
1.51
Dharwad
4.07
1.59
1.61
1.47
Sirsi
3.98
1.53
1.50
1.40
Bijapur
3.98
1.53
1.52
1.39
Shimoga
3.93
1.56
1.44
1.34
Chitradurga
4.1
1.59
1.42
1.30
Raichur
4.07
1.61
1.4
1.32
Gulbarga
4.12
1.59
1.38
1.27
SEm
0.88
0.39
0.61
0.63
CD at 5 %
NS
NS
NS
NS
Sample source/ Parameter
Table 4: Morphometrics of body appendages of the stingless bee, Trigona iridipennis

Sample
source/Parameter
Length of
proboscis (mm)
Length of
forewing
(mm)
Length of femur
Length of tibia
(mm)
(mm)
Length of
metatarsus (mm)
Bangalore
1.30
3.54
0.90
1.32
0.46
Dharwad
1.35
3.78
0.93
1.39
0.48
Sirsi
1.33
3.65
0.9
1.39
0.46
Bijapur
1.37
3.59
0.86
1.34
0.47
Shimoga
1.34
3.62
0.89
1.35
0.50
Chitradurga
1.38
3.66
0.90
1.37
0.49
Raichur
1.41
3.69
0.92
1.33
0.49
Gulbarga
1.40
3.67
0.92
1.33
0.52
SEm
0.23
0.77
0.38
0.34
0.24
CD at 5 %
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
Table 4 (Contd,)
Sample
source/Parameter
Width of
forewing
(mm)
Width of
femur (mm)
Width of tibia
(mm)
Width of
metatarsus
(mm)
Inter ocellar
distance (mm)
No. of hamuli
Bangalore
1.17
0.23
0.49
0.27
0.37
Dharwad
1.41
0.23
0.47
0.28
0.37
Sirsi
1.32
0.26
0.48
0.28
0.37
Bijapur
1.36
0.25
0.48
0.29
0.37
Shimoga
1.33
0.24
0.48
0.27
0.38
Chitradurga
1.37
0.26
0.47
0.29
0.38
Raichur
1.36
0.26
0.50
0.30
0.39
Gulbarga
1.34
0.23
0.49
0.31
0.39
SEm
0.65
0.18
0.23
0.19
0.17
0.02
CD at 5 %
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
The cells containing eggs and larvae were brownish, while pupal cells were creamy
white in colour. The brood cells measured from 1.36 to 2.83 mm in length and 1.06 to 2.21
mm in width with a mean of 2.14 and 1.70 mm, respectively. Density of brood cells ranged
from 12 to 33 cells with a mean of 20.10 cells/ cubic inch.
4.2
Morphometric studies of Trigona iridipennis
Various morphological parameters of T.iridipennis measured during the present

investigations are presented in Table 3 and 4. Body length of worker bees collected from
different places ranged from 3.93 mm from Shimoga to 4.12 mm from Gulgurga.
The width of the head including eyes ranged from 1.52 (Bangalore) to 1.61 mm
(Raichur). Similarly the width of thorax and abdomen varied from 1.38 (Gulburga) to 1.61 mm
(Bangalore and Dharwad) and 1.27 (Gulburga) to 1.51 mm (Bangalore), respectively.
However, these variations in length and width of the body were not statistically significant.
The proboscis length of the bees collected from different places varied from 1.30 mm
(Bangalore) to 1.41 mm (Raichur) which was statistically at par with each other.
Forewing length of worker bees ranged from 3.54 (Bangalore) to 3.78 mm (Dharwad).
The width varied from 1.17 (Bangalore) to 1.37 mm (Chitradurga). But these variations were
non significant.
The length of femur of the bees collected from different places though ranged from
0.86 (Bijapur) to 0.93 mm (Dharwad) it did not vary statistically.
Similarly the width of femur which ranged from 0.23 (Bangalore, Dharwad and
Gulbarga) to 0.26 mm (Sirsi, Chitradurga) was also statistically at par.
The length of tibia varied from 1.32 (Bangalore) to 1.39 mm (Dharwad, Sirsi) and the
width varied from 0.47 (Dharwad, Chitradurga) to 0.50 mm (Raichur). However, this variation
in tibial length was not significant.
The length of metatarsus collected from different places ranged from 0.46
(Bangalore) to 0.52 mm (Gulburga).Similarly the width of metatarsus varied from 0.27
(Bangalore, Shimoga) to 0.31 mm (Gulburga). However, the length and width of metatarsus
were not significantly different statistically.
The inter ocellar distance which ranged from 0.37 (Bangalore) to 0.39 mm (Raichur
and Gulburga) did not show any statistical difference within the bees collected from different
places.
All the bees collected from different places in Karnataka had five hamuli.
4.3
Foraging activity of Trigona iridipennis
Foraging activity of stingless bee, T. iridipennis was studied during different seasons
viz., monsoon, winter and summer from June-2006 to May-2007 at UAS, Dharwad.
Foraging activity during monsoon (June to September)
Outgoing foragers during monsoon
The foraging activity was observed throughout the day in all the months of monsoon
(Table 5). Lowest number of outgoing bees (2.58 bees/ 5 min) was observed at 0600 hr. The
activity gradually increased reaching the highest peak of 19.33 bees/ 5 min at 1200 hr.
Thereafter, the foragers declined to the level of 4.26 bees/ 5 min at 1800 hr.
When the foraging activity was considered monthwise a mean of 12.40 bees/ 5 min
was observed in the month of June which declined to 3.17 bees/ 5 min during July month. In
Table 5: Activity of outgoing foragers during monsoon at Dharwad

Mean number of bees/ 5 minutes/ colony
Months /Hours
Mean
0600
0800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
June
1.92
7.75
18.17
24.00
16.42
14.50
4.08
12.40 (3.40
e
)
July
1.67
5.33
5.83
4.17
2.17
0.67
2.33
3.17 (1.84 d)
August
2.92
9.17
12.17
12.98
7.83
5.67
3.53
7.75 (2.79c)
September
3.83
9.33
16.83
36.17
29.42
18.83
7.11
17.36 (3.98
a
)
2.58
(1.73 e)
7.90
(2.88 d)
13.25
(3.64 ab)
19.33
(4.19 a)
13.96
(3.50 bc)
9.92
(2.94 cd)
4.26
(2.12 e)
Mean
Factors
SEm
Months (M)
0.085
0.245
0.113
0.324
0.227
0.648
Time (T)
MxT
CD at 5%
Means in the column/row followed by same alphabets do not differ significantly by DMRT at 5%
Figures in the parentheses are x +0.5 transformed values
Table 6: Activity of outgoing foragers during winter at Dharwad

Months /Hours
Mean
0600
0800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
October
4.53
13.73
28.13
44.67
39.87
29.60
9.47
24.29 (4.69 a)
November
1.50
11.67
34.33
42.58
42.75
26.08
9.42
24.05 (4.60 a)
December
1.23
9.93
29.67
43.27
37.73
24.40
7.40
21.95 (4.36 a)
January
1.08
11.92
26.58
43.42
34.17
19.83
9.58
20.94 (4.29 a)
2.09
(1.54 d)
11.81
(3.48 c)
29.68
(5.47 b)
43.48
(6.60 a)
38.63
(6.22 a)
24.98
(5.02 b)
8.97
(3.06 c)
Mean
Factors
MxT
SEm
CD at 5%
Months (M)
0.086
NS
Time (T)
0.114
0.328
0.229
0.656
Table 7: Activity of outgoing foragers during summer at Dharwad

Months /Hours
February
March
April
May
Mean
Mean
0600
0800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
10.50
20.00
33.42
40.50
26.08
25.50
17.33
24.76 (4.92
a
)
8.25
19.08
37.33
29.67
22.08
22.25
7.33
20.86 (4.48
b
)
5.80
13.93
35.80
28.27
21.47
14.40
6.20
5.42
13.17
37.58
27.17
20.33
14.17
5.58
7.49
(2.78 e)
16.55
(4.11 d)
36.03
(6.04 a)
31.40
(5.63 b)
22.49
(4.79 c)
18.08
(4.39 d)
9.11
(3.02 e)
Factors
SEm
Months (M)
0.048
0.137
Time (T)
0.063
0.181
MxT
0.127
0.363
17.98 (4.12 c)
17.63 (4.06
c
)
CD at 5%
Table 8: Activity of incoming foragers with pollen load during monsoon at Dharwad
Months /Hours
Mean
0600
0800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
June
0.67
2.42
8.42
10.83
6.75
6.63
1.18
5.27 (2.25 a)
July
0.00
1.33
2.50
1.17
1.00
0.00
0.33
0.90 (1.13 d)
August
1.00
2.52
3.50
2.53
1.93
1.17
1.87
2.07 (1.58 c)
September
1.00
1.82
3.67
5.92
5.33
3.87
1.93
3.36 (1.90 b)
0.67
(1.05 e)
2.02
(1.57 cd)
4.52
(2.18 a)
5.11
(2.23 a)
3.75
(1.96 ab)
2.92
(1.69 bc)
1.33
(1.31 de)
Mean
Factors
SEm
CD at 5%
Months (M)
0.051
0.146
Time (T)
0.067
0.193
MxT
0.135
0.387
Table 9: Activity of incoming foragers with pollen load during winter at Dharwad
Months /Hours
Mean
0600
0800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
October
1.00
2.13
6.00
10.22
8.28
6.78
1.60
5.15 (2.24 ab)
November
0.33
1.36
8.75
14.33
11.83
9.58
1.42
6.80 (2.45 a)
December
0.00
1.37
3.87
10.33
9.67
6.67
1.33
4.75 (2.08 b)
January
0.00
1.08
2.25
6.92
3.17
2.62
1.58
2.52 (1.63 c)
0.33
(0.88 e)
1.49
(1.40 d)
5.22
(2.31 c)
10.45
(3.27 a)
8.24
(2.86 ab)
6.41
(2.57 bc)
1.48
(1.40 d)
Mean
Factors
SEm
CD at 5%
Months (M)
0.064
0.183
Time (T)
0.084
0.242
MxT
0.169
0.485
Table 10: Activity of incoming foragers with pollen load during summer at Dharwad
Months /Hours
Mean
0600
0800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
February
2.50
11.67
19.92
20.58
13.00
10.83
3.00
11.64 (3.32 a)
March
1.53
3.58
16.42
16.00
12.58
11.25
4.58
9.42 (2.99 b)
April
1.80
4.67
18.40
13.93
10.13
7.00
2.60
8.36 (2.81 b)
May
1.68
5.92
19.33
13.42
10.92
5.42
2.35
8.43 (2.81 b)
1.88
(1.53 g)
6.46
(2.58 e)
18.52
(4.36 a)
15.98
(4.04 b)
11.66
(3.48 c)
8.63
(2.99 d)
3.13
(1.89 f)
Mean
Factors
SEm
Months (M)
0.039
0.112
Time (T)
0.052
0.149
MxT
0.104
0.298
CD at 5%
August, the mean number of outgoing foragers increased to 7.75 bees/ 5 min which further
increased to highest level of 17.36 bees/ 5 min in September.
Outgoing foragers during winter
The foraging activity was observed throughout the day in all the months of winter
(Table 6). Considerably the lowest number of outgoing bees (2.09 bees/ 5 min) was observed
early in the morning at 0600 hr but later the activity gradually increased to 29.68 bees/ 5 min
by 1000 hr. The highest peak was noticed during 1200 hr and 1400 hr with mean number of
outgoing bees of 43.48 and 38.63 bees/ 5 min respectively. The foraging activity slightly
declined to 24.98 bees/ 5 min at 1600 hr and then to 8.97 bees/ 5 min at 1800 hr.
The foraging activity varied from 20.94 to 24.29 bees/ 5 min in various months of
winter season which however was not statistically different.
Outgoing foragers during summer
The foraging activity was observed throughout the day in all the months of summer
(Table 7). Lowest number of outgoing bees was observed in the morning at 0600 hr with 7.49
bees/ 5 min and evening at 1800 hr with 9.11 bees/ 5 min which were on par with each other.
The peak activity was noticed at 1000 hr with 36.03 bees/ 5 min.
When the foraging activity was considered monthwise, the activity was found highest
with 24.76 bees/ 5 min in February, then it declined to 20.86 bees/ 5 min during March. In the
month of April and May the activity further declined to 17.98 bees/ 5 min and 17.63 bees/ 5
min respectively, which were at par with each other.
Incoming foragers with pollen loads during monsoon
Activity of incoming foragers with pollen loads during monsoon is presented in Table
8. Lowest number of pollen foragers of 0.67 bees/ 5 min and 1.33 bees/ 5 min were observed
during early morning 0600 hr and late evening 1800 hr respectively. The activity gradually
increased reaching the higher levels at 1000 hr (4.52 bees/ 5 min), 1200 hr with (5.11 bees/ 5
min) and 1400 hr with (3.75 bees/ 5 min).
When the pollen foraging activity was considered monthwise, highest foragers (5.27
bees/ 5 min) was observed in June which declined to the lowest level of 0.90 bees/ 5 min
during July. Thereafter the activity increased in the month of September with mean of 3.36
bees/ 5min.
Incoming foragers with pollen loads during winter
The foraging activity was observed throughout the day in all the months of winter
season (Table 9). Lowest number of bees with pollen load (0.33 bees/ 5 min) was observed at
0600 hr. The activity gradually increased reaching the highest peak (10.45 bees/ 5 min) at
1200 hr. Thereafter, the activity declined to the level of 1.48 bees/ 5min at 1800 hr.
considerably higher pollen foraging activity (5.15 to 6.80 bees/ 5 min) was observed in
October and November. The activity declined to 4.75 and 2.52 bees/ 5 min during the month
of December and January respectively.
Incoming foragers with pollen loads during summer
Pollen foraging activity was observed throughout the day in all the months of summer
season (Table 10).Lowest number of bees with pollen load (1.88 bees/ 5 min) was observed
at 0600 hr. The activity gradually increased reaching the highest peak of 18.52 bees/ 5 min at
1000 hr. Thereafter, the foragers declined slowly to the level of 3.13 bees/ 5min at the end of
the day. When the foraging activity was considered monthwise, a highest of 11.64 bees/ 5
min was observed in February month. Lower foraging activity was observed (8.36 to 9.42
bees/ 5 min) from March to May which did not vary statistically.
Incoming
foragers
without
pollen
load
during
monsoon
Table 11: Activity of incoming foragers without pollen load during monsoon at Dharwad
Months /Hours
Mean
0600
0800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
June
1.92
4.58
13.92
16.25
17.17
13.33
10.25
11.06 (3.26 a)
July
0.00
2.00
2.33
1.50
1.67
0.00
2.33
1.40 (1.31c)
August
1.00
3.30
5.92
10.73
6.75
4.70
4.40
5.26 (2.31b)
September
2.10
4.25
9.58
24.17
21.92
12.25
7.40
11.67 (3.27 a)
1.25
(1.27 e)
3.53
(1.97 d)
7.94
(2.79 bc)
13.16
(3.45 a)
11.88
(3.26 ab)
7.57
(2.56 c)
6.10
(2.46 cd)
Mean
Factors
SEm
Months (M)
CD at 5%
0.079
0.226
Time (T)
0.105
0.299
MxT
0.210
0.599
Table 12: Activity of incoming foragers without pollen load during winter at Dharwad
Months /Hours
Mean
0600
0800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
October
1.80
6.47
14.80
24.33
20.53
18.93
7.80
13.52 (3.53 a)
November
1.00
20.50
17.17
22.67
24.08
16.25
11.83
16.21(3.80 a)
December
0.33
3.25
11.00
16.80
15.73
11.87
10.27
9.89 (3.02 a)
January
0.00
4.58
10.42
20.33
14.67
11.92
10.50
10.35 (3.07 a)
0.78
(1.08 d)
8.70
(2.65 c)
13.35
(3.70 ab)
21.03
(4.61 a)
18.75
(4.35 a)
14.74
(3.87 ab)
10.10
(3.23 bc)
Mean
Factors
SEm
CD at 5%
Months (M)
0.152
NS
Time (T)
0.201
0.575
MxT
0.403
1.151
Table 13: Activity of incoming foragers without pollen load during summer at Dharwad
Months /Hours
Mean
0600
0800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
February
8.00
10.83
15.58
19.75
13.75
15.17
14.50
13.94 (3.76 a)
March
4.67
11.08
18.00
16.42
12.75
15.08
12.17
12.88 (3.60
ab
)
April
3.40
10.13
23.07
16.93
16.53
10.40
8.07
12.65 (3.51 b)
May
1.92
5.92
13.92
16.25
17.17
13.33
10.25
11.25 (3.31 c)
4.50
(2.17 e)
9.49
(3.14 d)
17.64
(4.24 a)
17.34
(4.22 a)
15.05
(3.93 b)
13.50
(3.73 b)
11.25
(3.41 c)
Mean
Factors
Months (M)
0.040
0.115
Time (T)
0.053
0.152
MxT
0.107
0.305
SEm
CD at 5%
Table 14: Activity of outgoing foragers during 2006-07 irrespective of season at Dharwad
Months /Hours
Mean
0600
0800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
June
1.92
7.75
18.17
24.00
16.42
14.50
4.08
12.40 (3.40 f)
July
1.67
5.33
5.83
4.17
2.17
0.67
2.33
3.17 (1.84 h)
August
2.92
9.17
12.17
12.98
7.83
5.67
3.53
7.75 (2.79 g)
September
3.83
9.33
16.83
36.17
29.42
18.83
7.11
17.36 (3.98 e)
October
4.53
13.73
28.13
44.67
39.87
29.60
9.47
24.29 (4.69 ab)
November
1.50
11.67
34.33
42.58
42.75
26.08
9.42
24.05 (4.60 abc)
21.95 (4.36
December
bcde
1.23
9.93
29.67
43.27
37.73
24.40
7.40
)
January
1.08
11.92
26.58
43.42
34.17
19.83
9.58
20.94 (4.29 cde)
February
10.50
20.00
33.42
40.50
26.08
25.50
17.33
24.76 (4.92 a)
March
8.25
19.08
37.33
29.67
22.08
22.25
7.33
20.86 (4.48 bcd)
April
5.80
13.93
35.80
28.27
21.47
14.40
6.20
17.98 (4.12 de)
May
5.42
13.17
37.58
27.17
20.33
14.17
5.58
17.63 (4.06 e)
4.05
12.08
26.32
31.40
25.03
17.99
7.45
Mean
(2.02 f)
(3.49 d)
(5.05 b)
(5.47 a)
(4.84 b)
(4.12 c)
(2.74 e)
Factors
SEm
CD at 5%
Months (M)
0.072
0.203
Time (T)
0.055
0.155
MxT
0.192
0.538
The foraging activity was observed throughout the day in all the months of monsoon
season (Table 11). Lowest number of incoming bees without pollen load (1.25 bees/ 5 min)
was observed early in the morning (0600 hr). The activity gradually increased reaching the
highest peak of 13.16 bees/ 5 min at 1200 hr. But at the end of the day (1800 hr) it declined to
the lowest level of 6.10 bees/ 5 min. The foraging activity was higher in June (11.06 bees/ 5
min) and September (11.67 bees/ 5 min) followed by August (5.26 bees/ 5 min) and July with
(1.40 bees/ 5 min).
Incoming foragers without pollen load during winter
The incoming bees without pollen load were observed throughout the day in all the
months of winter season (Table 12). In the beginning of the day (0600 hr), lowest number of
bees without pollen load (0.78 bees/ 5 min) was observed which gradually increased reaching
the highest peak of 21.03 bees/ 5 min by noon (1200 hr). Thereafter the activity declined to
the level of 10.10 bees/ 5 min at the end of the day (1800 hr). Foraging activity when
considered monthwise, varied from 9.89 to 16.21 bees/ 5 min from October to January which
however was at par with each other statistically.
Incoming foragers without pollen load during summer
The foraging activity was observed throughout the day in all the months of summer
season (Table 13). Lowest number of bees without pollen load (4.50 bees/ 5 min) was
observed at 0600 hr. Considerably higher activity of 17.64 and 17.34 bees/ 5 min was
recorded at 1000 and 1200 hr. However, the activity declined to the level of 11.25 bees/ 5 min
at the end of the day 1800 hr. When the foraging activity was considered monthwise higher
activity was noticed in February and March with 13.94 and 12.88 bees/ 5 min, which declined
gradually with lowest number of bees without pollen load (11.25 bees/ 5 min) during the
month of May.
Outgoing foragers during 2006-07 irrespective of seasons
The activity of outgoing foragers irrespective of season is presented in Table 14.
Outgoing foraging activity when compared irrespective of seasons showed that significantly
highest (31.40 bees/ 5 min) outgoing foragers observed at 1200 hr followed by 1000 (26.32
bees/ 5 min) and (25.03 bees/ 5 min) at 1400 hr. The activity was significantly lowest at 0600
hr with mean of 4.05 bees/ 5 min. Maximum activity (24.76 bees/ 5 min) was observed in the
month of February which was on par with activity in October (24.29 bees/ 5min) and
November (24.05 bees/ 5min). Significantly lowest activity of 3.17 bees/ 5 min was recorded
in the month of July.
Incoming foragers with pollen loads irrespective of seasons
When the activity of bees with pollen load was compared irrespective of season,
significantly highest bees with pollen load (10.52 bees/ 5 min) was observed at 1200 hr
followed by 1000 hr with mean of 9.42 bees/ 5 min. The activity was significantly lowest at
0600 hr with mean of (0.96 bees/ 5 min). Maximum activity (11.64 bees/ 5 min) was observed
in the month of February which was followed by March, April and May with a mean 9.42,
8.36bees/5 min and 8.43bees/5 min, respectively. Significantly lowest activity of 0.90
bees/5min was recorded in the month of July (Table 15).
Incoming foragers without pollen load irrespective of seasons
Activity of bees without pollen load was compared irrespective of seasons and the
result showed that significantly highest bees without pollen load (17.18 bees/ 5 min) was
observed at 1200 hr which was at par with 1400 hr with 15.23 bees/ 5 min
(Table 16). The activity was significantly lowest during early in the morning 0600 hr with mean
of 2.18 bees/ 5min. Maximum activity (16.21 bees/ 5 min) was observed in the month of
November which was on par with the activity recorded in October, February, March, April and
May (11.25 to 13.94 bees/ 5 min). Significantly lowest activity of 1.40 bees/ 5 min was
recorded in the month of July.
Table 15: Activity of incoming foragers with pollen load during 2006-07 irrespective of season at Dharwad
Months /Hours
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
January
February
March
April
May
Mean

0600
0800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
0.67
0.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.33
0.00
0.00
2.50
1.53
1.80
1.68
2.42
1.33
2.52
1.82
2.13
1.36
1.37
1.08
11.67
3.58
4.67
5.92
8.42
2.50
3.50
3.67
6.00
8.75
3.87
2.25
19.92
16.42
18.40
19.33
10.83
1.17
2.53
5.92
10.22
14.33
10.33
6.92
20.58
16.00
13.93
13.42
6.75
1.00
1.93
5.33
8.28
11.83
9.67
3.17
13.00
12.58
10.13
10.92
6.63
0.00
1.17
3.87
6.78
9.58
6.67
2.62
10.83
11.25
7.00
5.42
1.18
0.33
1.87
1.93
1.60
1.42
1.33
1.58
3.00
4.58
2.60
2.35
0.96
(1.15 g )
3.32
9.42
e
(1.85 )
(2.95 b)
Factors
10.52
7.88
5.98
a
c
(3.18 )
(2.77 )
(2.41 d)
SEm
CD at 5%
Months (M)
0.047
0.134
Time (T)
0.036
0.102
MxT
0.126
0.354
Mean
5.27 (2.25cd)
0.90 (1.13 g)
2.07 (1.58 f)
3.36 (1.90 e)
5.15 (2.24 cd)
6.80 (2.45 c)
4.75 (2.08 de)
2.52 (1.63 f)
11.64 (3.32 a)
9.42 (2.99 b)
8.36 (2.81 b)
8.43 (2.81 b)
1.98
(1.53 f)
4.4
Analysis of pollen loads

Melissopalynological investigations of 180 pollen loads of T. iridipennis at Dharwad
indicated that the bees were found to forage on 36 plant species belonging to 24 families for
pollen (Table 17). These included six field crops, four vegetables, eight fruits and plantation
crops, two ornamentals, seven weeds and six tree species and one grass. Stingless bee
foragers collected the pollen from the field crops like Zea mays L, Helianthus annuus L and
Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench. Fruits and plantation crops included were Cocos nucifera L,
Punica granatum L, Mangifera indica L, and Citrus sp. Vegetables included were Moringa
oleifera Lamk, Allium cepa L, Cucumis sativus L and Dloichos lablab L. Ornamentals
included were Gallardia sp and Aster sp. Weeds were Tridax procumbens L, Mimosa pudica
L and Alternanthera sessalis (L.) D.C. Tree species were Peltophorum ferrugenium, Acacia
arabica W and Eucalyptus globosa. Among the grass was Sida. sp.
In addition, these bees were found to collect the honey dew secreted by aphids in a
Camel foot (Bauhinia purpurea) tree and also resin from periwinkle (Vinca rosea).
Among the field crops recorded as sources of pollen, two species each belong to
Poaceae and Asteraceae one species each of Euphorbiacae and Brassicaceae. Vegetable
crops recorded were four different species belong to Moringaceae, Liliaceae, Cucurbitaceae
and Papilionaceae families. Among the fruit and plantation crops eight different species were
of families Arecaceae, Punicaceae, Myrtaceae, Musaceae, Caricaceae, Cesalpinaceae,
Anacardiaceae and Rutaceae. Among the ornamental crops recorded two species each were
of Asteraceae family.
Among the weeds, two species belong to Amaranthaceae, one species each of
Asteraceae, Papavaraceae, Mimoseae and Convulalaceae and Malvaceae.
Among the tree species, six different species belonged to family Cesalpinieae,
Verbanaceae, Lythraceae, Meliaceae, Fabaceae and Myrtaceae. The grass recorded was
from family Poaceae.
Nectar sources
were conducted on 36 honey samples collected from
colonies of T. iridipennis at monthly interval from June 2006 to May 2007 and data is
presented in Table 18. The nectar sources were identified by studying pollen grains (Plate 6).
Peltophorum ferrugenium formed predominant source of nectar throughout the study
period (June to May). Cocos nucifera L. formed the secondary source in June while from July
to November besides C. nucifera, Alternanthera sessalis (L.) D. C. also formed the secondary
source. From December to May, Moringa olifera Lamk served as an additional secondary
source for the stingless bees. Gallardia. sp, Acacia arabica W, Zea mays L. Citrus. sp, Aster.
sp, Eucalyptus globasa, Mangifera indica L, Psidium guajava L, Dolichos lablab L, Carica
papaya L and Tamarindus indica D. C. formed important minor sources.
The minor sources were Sida. sp, Sorghum bicolor L., Psidium guajava L., Argemone
mexicana L., Allium cepa L., Mimosa pudica L., Helianthus annuus L., Azadirachta indica
Juss., Tridax procumbens L., Bombox ceba and Musa paradisica L.
Table 17: Melissopalynological analysis of pollen load of Trigona

iridipennis, at Dharwad
Sl.
No
Common
Name
Scientific name
Local Name
Family
I. Field Crops
1.
Maize
Zea mays L.
Mekkejola
Poaceae
2.
Sorghum
Sorghum bicolor
(L.) Moench.
Jola
Poaceae
3.
Niger
Guizotia aiyssinica
Cass.
Gurellu
Asteraceae
4.
Castor
Ricinus communis
L.
Audala
Euphorbiaceae
5.
Sunflower
Helianthus annuus
L.
Suryakanti
Asteraceae
6.
Mustard
Brassica. sp
Sasive
Brassicaceae
II. Fruits and Plantation Crops

1.
Coconut
Cocos nucifera L.
Thengu
Arecaceae
2.
Pomegranate
Punica granatum
L.
Dalimbe
Punicaceae
3.
Guava
Psidium guajava L. Perala
Myrtaceae
4.
Banana
Musa paradisica L.
Bale
Musaceae
5.
Papaya
Carica papaya L.
papali
Caricaceae
6.
Tamarind
Tamarindus indica
L.
Hunsae
Caesalpinaceae
7.
Mango
Mangifera indica L. Mavu
Anacardiaceae
8.
Citrus
Citrus .sp
Rutaceae
Nimbu
III. Vegetable Crops

1.
Drumstick
Moringa oleifera
Lamk.
Nugge
Moringaceae
2.
Onion
Allium cepa L.
Erulli
Liliaceae
3.
Cucumber
Cucumis sativus L.
Sauthikai
Cucurbitaceae
4.
Beans
Dolichos lablab L.
Beans
Papilionaceae
IV. Ornamental crops

1.
Gallardia
Gallardia . sp
Gallardia
Asteraceae
2.
Marigold
Aster . sp
Chendu
Asteraceae
Contd.....
V. Weeds
1.
Tridax
Tridax procumbens
L.
Sanna
sevanthi
Asteraceae
2.
Mexican
poppy
Argemone
mexicana L.
Datturi
Papavaraceae
3.
Amaranthus
Amaranthus viridis
L.
Rajgir
Amaranthaceae
4.
Alternethera
Alternanthera
sessalis(L.)
Sarkari mullu
Amaranthaceae
5.
Touch me not
Mimosa pudica L.
Muttidare
muni
Mimoseae
6.
7.
Comelina. sp
Sida
Commelina
bengalensis Sida.
sp
Egali
Sida
Convulalaceae
Malvaceae
VI. Trees
1.
Copper pod
tree
Peltophorum
ferrugenium
Bettada
hunese
Caesalpinieae
2.
Teak
Tectona grandis
Tegu
Verbinaceae
3.
Camel foot
Bauhinia purpurea
Basavanpada
Lythraceae
4.
Neem
Azadirachta indica
Juss.
Bevu
Meliaceae
s5.
Babul
Acacia arabica W.
Karijali
Fabaceae
6.
Eucalyptus
Eucalyptus globosa
Nilagiri
Myrtaceae
VII. Grassess
1.
Bamboo
Bombax ciba
Bideru
Poaceae
Table 18: Melissopalynological analysis of honey samples of Trigona iridipennis at UAS, Dharwad
Month/Period
Predominant Pollen
type (45% and above)
June
Peltophorum
ferrugenium
July
P. ferrugenium
August
September
October
November
P.
P.
P.
P.
December
Secondary pollen type (1645%)
Important minor type

(3-15%)
Minor Pollen type

(<3%)
Cocos nucifera,
Gallardia. sp
C. nucifera, Alternanthera
sessalis
C. nucifera, A. sessalis
Acacia arabica, Gallardia.

sp
Zea mays
Cucurbita. sp
Aster .sp, Gallardia. sp
Eucalyptus globosa
P. ferrugenium
C. nucifera, A. sessalis, Moringa

oleifera
E. globosa, Gallardia. sp
January
P. ferrugenium
C. nucifera, A. sessalis, M.
oleifera
Mangifera indica,
February
P. ferrugenium
oleifera
M. indica, Punica
granatum, Dolichos lablab
Sorghum bicolor
Psidium guajava
Argemon mexicana
Allium cepa,
Helianthus annuus
A. cepa, Mimosa
pudica,
H. annuus
Azadirachta indica,
Tridax procumbens
March
P. ferrugenium
oleifera
P. granatum, D. lablab
T. procumbens
April
P. ferrugenium
oleifera
P. granatum, D. lablab
Bombox ceba,
M. pudica
May
P. ferrugenium
oleifera
Carica papaya,
Tamarindus indica, P.
granatum
Musa paradisica,
M. pudica
ferrugenium
ferrugenium
ferrugenium
ferrugenium
Sida. sp
Sida. sp
-------
Citrus sp.
Commelina indica
Sida sp.
Acacia arabica
Cocos nucifera
Crassica sp.
Commelina bengalensis
Peltophorum ferrugenium
Moringa oleifera
Punica granatum
Azadirachta indica
Psidium guajava
Plate 6. Important pollen grains from honey samples collected by Trigona iridipennis
5. DISCUSSION
5.1
Nest characteristics
The natural nesting sites of T. iridipennis are hollows of tree trunks, old pipes and
termite mounds. These bees prefer closed structures for nesting and they never nest in open
conditions. T. iridipennis is adapted to nest in very narrow spaces, as the brood cells are in
clusters which can be accumulated well in narrow cavities.
In the present studies also, T. iridipennis was found nesting in tree cavities and wall
cavities at Dharwad. These findings endorse the earlier reports of Roopa (2002) and Gajanan
et al (2005) from Bangalore. Similar nesting sites are also reported by Muthuraman (2006) at
Tamil Nadu.
In the present study aggregation of two colonies were found in wall cavities. However
aggregation of colonies on trees was not observed. Starr and Sakagami (1987) reported that
aggregation of colonies of T. fuscobalteata and T. sapiens Cockerell were found in bamboo
cavities. The reasons for aggregation of nests in a site were availability of nesting sites for
long duration and short swarming distance.
The cavity dimensions of the nest of T. iridipennis was 132.65 x 143.30x 165.05 mm
in width, height and length, respectively (Table 1). Roopa (2002) reported a nest width
ranging from 210.00 to 375.00 mm at Bangalore. The volume of the nests of
T.
fuscobalteata and T. sapiens varied from 0.70 to 3.00 litres (Starr and Sakagami, 1987).
Similar observations were also reported by Gajanan et al (2005).
The entrance tube in the colonies nested in wall cavities measured a mean length
and width of 96.55 and 3.32 mm while those nested in tree cavities was 108.80 and 5.08 mm,
respectively (Table 1). These findings endorse the reports of Roopa (2002), Gajanan et al
(2005). However in T. gribodei the entrance tube was shorter (6-25 mm) as reported by
(Pooley and Michener, 1969). The length of the entrance tube appears to be a species
specific character and also may depend on the type of nesting site. The colonies of T.
iridipennis kept in earthen pots in the present study had shorter (50 mm) entrance tube.
The food storage zone was divided into pollen zone and honey zone. Pollen zone
was usually more than honey zone, which indicates the surplus availability of pollen in the
study area. Pollen pots were closed when they were full. New pots were built adjacent to
them and some times they were intermingled. Similar observations were made by Dollin
(1996) who reported that the cluster of the food pots resembled bunch of grapes and
contained honey and pollen pots. The honey pots of stingless bee are larger than pollen pots
and like pollen pots, honey pots were also sealed. Brood cells, pollen pots and honey pots
were oval in shape and brownish and dark brown in colour, respectively.
The length and width of brood cells, pollen and honey pots of T. iridipennis at
Dharwad were 2.14 x 1.70 mm, 7.26 x 4.49 mm and 7.73 x 5.04 mm, respectively. The
density of the cells was 20.10, 14.90 and 3.53 cells/ cubic inch, respectively (Table 2).
These findings corroborate the reports of Roopa (2002), Gajanan et al (2005) and
Muthuraman (2006).
5.2
Morphometric studies
The stingless bees collected from different places of Karnataka though varied in
morphometric parameters of body (Table 3) and appendages (Table 4) but these variations
were not statistically significant. This possibly indicates that T. iridipennis occurs throughout
Karnataka. Since the samples were drawn only from selected places, the present study does
not throw any light on the composition of species of stingless bees or subspecies of T.
iridipennis. Body length of T. iridipennis in Karnataka was similar to the length of bees
reported from Kerala (Devanesan et al, 2003). However, Kuberappa et al (2005) had reported
that the bees from hilly zones were bigger while from central dry zone were smaller. They
attributed this variation to the diversity in floral resources available in these areas.
In the present study, 5 hamuli were observed in all the bees collected from different
parts of Karnataka, which also corroborate the findings of Devanesan et al., (2003), and
Kuberappa et al., (2005).
5.3
Foraging activity of T. iridipennis
The foraging behaviour of T. iridipennis during monsoon, winter and summer though
significantly varied at different hours of the day in different months of the season, the trend of
the activity was remarkably similar (Table 5 to 16). The activity was significantly low at the
beginning of the day (0600 hr) and gradually increased attaining the peaks generally at 1000
and 1200 hr and again declining to the lowest level at the evening hours 1800 hr (Fig 1 to 3).
In the monsoon season, significantly higher outgoing, pollen foragers and incoming foragers
were observed during September (17.36 bees/5 min), June (5.27 bees/5 min) and June to
September (11.06 to 11.67 bees/5 min), respectively.
The lower activity during July and August was attributed to the high rainfall and more
number of rainy days (18 and 17, respectively) at Dharwad. In winter season, higher activity
was noticed in all the months. However in summer highest outgoing, pollen foragers and
incoming foragers without pollen was recorded in February (24.76, 11.64 and 13.94 bees/5
min), respectively.
When the foraging activity was considered irrespective of the seasons, significantly
higher activity was recorded generally during October, November and February to May (Fig
4).Similarly the activity of outgoing foragers, incoming foragers with and without pollen
peaked at 1200 hr (Table 14 to 16 and Fig 5). Devanesan et al., (2002) recorded two peak
activity of T. iridipennis at 1200 and 1500 hr from Kerala. Similarly Roopa (2002) recorded
two peaks of outgoing bees during 1200 to 1300 and 1600 to 1700 hr, pollen foragers during
1000 to 1100 and 1300 to 1400 and nectar foragers during 1300 to 1400 and 1500 to 1600 hr
at Bangalore. The variations in these findings are obviously due to difference in colony
conditions, climatic factors and foraging sources in these places.
5.4 Pollen and nectar sources

Melissopalynological studies of pollen loads showed that T. iridipennis collected
pollen from 36 plant species. Pick and Blochtein (2002) also reported that Myrtaceae,
Asteraceae and Euphorbiaceae formed 17, 20 and 10 per cent of pollen grains in the pollen
loads of Plebia saiqui. The pollen sources from field crops, fruit and plantation crops,
vegetables, ornamentals, weeds, tree species and grasses endorse the findings of
Viraktamath et al, (1999) and Roopa (2002).
Analysis of honey samples revealed the presence of pollen grains of
P.
ferrugenium (>45 %) and C. nucifera (16-45 %) throughout the year which was attributed to
the flowering of these trees for about 10 and 12 months, respectively at Dharwad.
A. sessalis and M. oleifera were the other two secondary pollen types during their
respective flowering periods. Important minor types and minor pollen types varied in different
months. However, Roopa (2002) reported P. ferrugenium as the predominant source of
honey for T. iridipennis only in the month of March at Bangalore. She reported Bauhinia
purpurea, C. nucifera, Eucalyptus globosa, M. oleifera, Mangifera indica, P. ferrugenium,
Antegonon leptopus, Syzygium cumini and Callestemon lanceolus during August, October,
November to December, December to February, March, April, May and July, respectively as
predominant sources. This variation is obviously due to difference in flowering pattern and
density of flowering plant species in these locations.
Among the plant species which were visited for pollen and nectar by the stingless
bee, T. iridipennis at Dharwad, the maximum species belonged to the family Poaceae and
Asteraceae followed by Caesalpinaceae, Amaranthaceae, Myrtaceae and other families
(Table
19).
Monsoon
Winter
Summer
50
45
40
Number of foragers
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0600
0800
1000
1200
1400
1600
Hours
Fig. 1 : Activity of outgoing foragers of Trigona iridipennis at different hours in various seasons
Fig. 1 : Activity of outgoing foragers of Trigona iridipennis at different hours in various seasons
1800
Monsoon
Winter
Summer
20
18
16
Number of foragers
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0600
0800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
Hours
Fig. 2 : Activity of incoming foragers with pollen load of Trigona iridipennis at different hours in various seasons
Fig. 2 : Activity of incoming foragers with pollen load of Trigona iridipennis at different hours in various seasons
Monsoon
Winter
Summer
25
Number of foragers
20
15
10
0
0600
0800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
Hours
Fig. 3 : Activity of incoming foragers without pollen load of Trigona iridipennis at different hours in various seasons
Fig. 3 : Activity of incoming foragers without pollen load of Trigona iridipennis at different hours in various seasons
Outgoing
With pollen load
Without pollen loadi
30
Number of foragers
25
20
15
10
0
June
July
August
September
October
November December
January
February
March
April
Months
Fig. 4 : Foraging activity of Trigona iridipennis in different months irrespective of season at Dharwad
Fig. 4 : Foraging activity of Trigona iridipennisin different months irrespective of season at Dharwad
May
Outgoing bees
With pollen load
Without pollen load
35
30
Number of foragers
25
20
15
10
0
0600
0800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
Hours
Fig. 5 : Foraging activity of Trigona iridipennis at different hours irrespective of season at Dharwad
Fig. 5 : Foraging activity of Trigona iridipennis at different hours irrespective of season at Dharwad
Table 19: Familywise distribution of pollen and nectar source of

Sl. No.
5.5
Family
Trigona
No.
1.
Poaceae
2.
Asteraceae
3.
Caesalpinaceae
4.
Amaranthaceae
5.
Myrtaceae
6.
Fabaceae
7.
Malvaceae
8.
Euphorbiaceae
9.
Arecaceae
10.
Punicaceae
11.
Brassicaceae
12.
Moraceae
13.
Coriaceae
14.
Anacardiaceae
15.
Rutaceae
16.
Moringaceae
17.
Liliaceae
18.
Cucurbitaceae
19.
Leguminosae
20.
Papaveraceae
21.
Mimoseae
22.
Verbenaceae
23.
Lythraceae
24.
Meliaceae
Future line of Work
1.
Studies on nesting habits, nest structure should be carried out in large scale in
different places.
2.
Extensive study has to be made on morphometrics in order to derive conclusions on

composition of species and subspecies among the stingless bee in Karnataka.
3.
Floral calendars should be prepared based on the detailed melissopalynological
studies.
6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Studies were carried out on the nesting habits, nest structure, morphometry, foraging
behaviour and pollen and nectar sources of Trigona iridipennis, Smith at Dharwad during
2006-07.
T. iridipennis nested in wall cavities (12 colonies) and tree cavities (5 colonies) at
Dharwad. These colonies were located at the mean height of 192.57and 222.6 mm from the
ground level, respectively. The mean cavity size in colonies nested in wall cavities was
132.65 x 143.30x 165.05 mm. The mean length and width of the entrance tube was 96.55 and
3.32 mm in wall cavities and 108.80 and 5.08 mm in tree cavities. The brood cells were
arranged in clusters and surrounded by pollen and honey pots. The mean dimensions of
brood cells, pollen and honey pots were 2.14 x 1.70 mm, 7.26 x 4.49 mm and 7.73 x 5.04 mm
in length and width, respectively.
The bees collected from different parts of Karnataka varied in the various
morphometrical parameters, but the variations were not significant indicating the occurrence
of T. iridipennis throughout Karnataka. Similarly five hamuli were observed in all the bees.
The foraging behaviour of outgoing bees, pollen foragers and incoming bees without
pollen load varied significantly at different hours of the day and month of the season.
However, the trend of the activity remained similar. Only one peak of foraging activity
between 1000 and 1200 hr was recorded during all the seasons. When the foraging activity
irrespective of season was considered, the peak outgoing bees, pollen foragers and incoming
bees without pollen occurred at 1200 hr (31.40 bees/5 min), 1200 hr (10.52 bees/5 min) and
1200 and 1400 hr (17.18 and 15.23 bees/5 min), respectively.
The activity of outgoing
bees was higher in October and November, while that of pollen foragers was noticed in
February. Similarly in October, November and February to May higher activity of incoming
bees without pollen was recorded.
Melissopalynological studies revealed that a total of 36 plant species served as pollen
source for T. iridipennis at Dharwad. They constituted six field crops, four vegetable crops,
eight fruit and plantation crops, two ornamental plants, seven weeds and six tree species and
one grass.
Pollen analysis from honey samples revealed that Peltophorum ferrugenium was
predominant pollen source. Cocos nucifera L., Alternanthera sessalis (L.) D. C. and Moringa
oleifera Lamk. were the secondary sources. Important minor pollen sources were Gallardia.
sp, Acacia arabica W., Zea mays L., Citrus. sp, Aster. sp, Eucalyptus globosa, Mangifera
indica L., Psidium guajava L., Dolichos lablab L., Carica papaya L. and Tamarindus indica
D.C.
The minor sources were Sida. sp, Sorghum bicolor L., Psidium guajava L., Argemon
mexicana L., Allium cepa L., Mimosa pudica L., Helianthus annuus L., Azadirachta indica
Juss, Tridax procumbens L., Bombox ceba, Musa paradisica L.
Important findings
Nesting habits and nest structure of the stingless bee, Trigona iridipennis Smith has
been studied.
Morphometrical studies revealed that T. iridipennis occurs throughout Karnataka.
The foraging activity of T. iridipennis has been studied throughout the year and the
peak activity of outgoing bees, pollen foragers and incoming bees without pollen load
occurred during 1000 to 1200 hr.
Melissopalynological studies revealed that a total of 36 plant species served as pollen
source for T. iridipennis at Dharwad. They constituted six field crops, four vegetable
crops, eight fruit and plantation crops, two ornamental plants, seven weeds and six
tree species and one grass.
Pollen analysis from honey samples revealed that P. ferrugenium was predominant
pollen source. C. nucifera, A. sessalis and M. oleifera were the secondary sources.
Important minor pollen sources were Gallardia. sp, Acacia arabica, Zea mays, Citrus.
sp, Aster. sp, Eucalyptus globosa, Mangifera indica, Psidium guajava, Dolichos
lablab, Carica papaya and Tamarindus indica.
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Appendix _I : Monthly meteorological data for the experimental year (200607) of Main Agricultural Research Station, University of Agricultural
Sciences, Dharwad
Temperature (0C)
Months
Relative
humidity (%)
Number of
rainy days
Mean max.
Mean min.
June 2006
29.5
20.6
78
14
July -2006
26.6
20.4
87
18
August -2006
26.3
19.6
85
17
September -2006
29.2
19.2
77
10
October -2006
30.0
19.1
67
November -2006
29.2
18.1
70
December -2006
29.1
12.8
61
January - 2007
30.4
14.0
52
February 2007
31.9
15.7
62
March - 2007
35.3
19.7
45
April - 2007
37.1
20.3
49
May - 2007
35.1
20.9
61
June 2007
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STUDIES ON STINGLESS BEE, TRIGONA IRIDIPENNIS

SMITH WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO FORAGING
BEHAVIOUR AND MELISSOPALYNOLOGY AT DHARWAD,
KARNATAKA
C. S. DANARADDI
2007 Dr. SHASHIDHAR VIRAKTAMATH

Major Advisor
ABSTRACT
Studies were carried out at Dharwad during 2006-07 revealed that Trigona iridipennis
Smith nested in wall (12 colonies) and tree cavities (5 colonies). These colonies were located at the
mean height of 192.57and 222.6 mm from the ground level, respectively. The cavity size in walls
was 132.65 x 143.30x 165.05 mm. The length and width of the entrance tube was 96.55 and 3.32
mm in wall cavities and 108.80 and 5.08 mm in tree cavities. The dimensions of brood cells, pollen
and honey pots were 2.14 x 1.70 mm, 7.26 x 4.49 mm and 7.73 x 5.04 mm in length and width,
respectively.
The bees collected from different parts of Karnataka varied in morphometrical parameters,
but the variations were not significant.
A peak of foraging activity between 1000 and 1200 hr was recorded during all the seasons.
When the foraging activity irrespective of season was considered, the peak outgoing bees, pollen
foragers and incoming bees without pollen occurred at 1200 hr (31.40, 10.52 and 17.18 bees/5 min,
respectively). The activity of outgoing bees was higher in October and November, while that of
pollen foragers was noticed in February. Similarly in October, November and from February to May,
higher activity of incoming bees without pollen was recorded.
The pollen sources constituted six field crops, four vegetable crops, eight fruit and
plantation crops, two ornamental plants, seven weeds and six tree species and one grass.
Analysis of honey revealed that Peltophorum ferrugenium was predominant nectar source.
Cocos nucifera L., Alternanthera sessalis (L.) D. C. and Moringa olifera Lamk. were the secondary
sources. Important minor sources were Gallardia. sp, Acacia arabica W., Zea mays L., Citrus. sp,
Aster. sp, Eucalyptus globasa, Mangifera indica L., Psidium guajava L., Dolichos lablab L., Carica
papaya L. and Tamarindus indica D.C.

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STUDIES ON STINGLESS BEE, TRIGONA IRIDIPENNIS SMITH WITH SPECIAL

REFERENCE TO FORAGING BEHAVIOUR AND MELISSOPALYNOLOGY AT

Thesis submitted to the

MASTER OF SCIENCE (Agriculture)

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ENTOMOLOGY

Nesting habits and nest Characteristics

Morphometric studies of stingless bees

Foraging behaviour of Trigona spp.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Nesting habits and nest structure of T. iridipennis

Morphometric studies of T. iridipennis

Foraging behaviour of T. iridipennis

Nesting habits and nest structure

Morphometric studies of Trigona iridipennis

Foraging activity of Trigona iridipennis

Foraging activity of T. iridipennis

Pollen and nectar sources

Future line of work

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Nesting habits of stingless bee, Trigona iridipennis at Dharwad

Internal structure of the nest of stingless bee, Trigona iridipennis at

Morphometrics of the body of stingless bee, Trigona iridipennis

Morphometrics of body appendages of the stingless bee, Trigona

Activity of outgoing foragers during monsoon at Dharwad

Activity of outgoing foragers during winter at Dharwad

Activity of outgoing foragers during summer at Dharwad

Activity of incoming foragers with pollen load during monsoon at

Activity of incoming foragers with pollen load during winter at

Activity of incoming foragers with pollen load during summer at

Activity of incoming foragers without pollen load during monsoon at

Activity of incoming foragers without pollen load during winter at

Activity of incoming foragers without pollen load during summer at

Activity of outgoing foragers during 2006-07 irrespective of season

Activity of incoming foragers with pollen load during 2006-07

Activity of foragers without pollen load during 2006-07 irrespective

Melissopalynological analysis of Pollen load of Trigona iridipennis,

Melissopalynological analysis of honey samples of Trigona

Familywise distribution of Pollen and nectar Source of Trigona

Activity of outgoing foragers of Trigona iridipennis at different

Activity of incoming foragers with pollen load of Trigona

Activity of incoming foragers without pollen load of Trigona

Foraging activity of Trigona iridipennis in different months

Foraging activity of Trigona iridipennis at different hours

Nesting sites of Trigona iridipennis in wall cavities at Dharwad

Internal structure of the colony of stingless bees

Different parameters for morphometric studies

General view of meliponiary and single colony used for foraging

Nesting sites of Trigona iridipennis in trees at Dharwad

Important pollen grains from honey samples collected by Trigona

However, our knowledge on biology, biometrics, foraging behaviour, nectar and

Nesting habits and Nest Characteristics

T. gribodei Margretti, nests in cavities of tree trunks and branches. T. staudingeri,

Morphometric studies of stingless bees

Devanesan et al. (2003) studied 18 morphometric characters of the stingless bee, T.

Foraging behaviour of Trigona spp.

Mattu et al. (1997) from Himachal Pradesh analysed 30 honey samples of

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS

Nesting habits and nest structure of T. iridipennis

Morphometric studies of T. iridipennis

In order to study morphometry of T. iridipennis, a sample of 20 stingless bees were

Width of head including eyes

Outer view of colony in mud wall

Outer view of colony in stone wall