Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Geodtisches Institut
Geodesy
for Hydro Science and Engineering
(MHSE 03)
Lambert Wanninger, Geodetic Institute, TU Dresden, Winter Term 2015/16
Contents
1 Introduction
1.1 Geodesy, Surveying, Geomatics
1.2 Coordinates, Observations,
and Geodetic Instruments
1.3 Basic Principles of Geodetic Work
5.6 Traversing
5.7 Intersection and Resection
5.8 Two-Dimensional Conformal
Coordinate Transformation and
Free Stationing
2 Fundamentals
2.1 Units
2.2 Types of Errors
2.3 Precision, Accuracy and Reliability
2.4 Normal Distribution, Standard
Deviation, Outlier Detection
2.5 Significant Figures
2.6 Error Propagation
3 Setting up Instrument
3.1 Vials (or Bubbles)
3.2 Tripod, Tribrach, Plumbs
3.3 Levelling and Centring of Instrument
4 Differential Levelling
4.1 Principle of Differential Levelling
4.2 Instruments and Rods
4.3 Testing and Adjusting Levels
4.4 Sources of Error and Achievable
Accuracy
5 Computations on the Plane
5.1 Geoid, Ellipsoid, Sphere, Plane
5.2 LOP Concept for Horizontal Positions
5.3 Rectangular/Polar Conversion
5.4 Polar/Rectangular Conversion
5.5 Azimuth Determination
1 Introduction
1.1 Geodesy, Surveying, Geomatics
Geodesy, Surveying, Geomatics, Geoinformatics, Spatial Information Science
+ temporal
of objects
+ of relations between objects
visualization,
communication
quality control
data
management
Engineering
Surveying
Photogrammetry
Remote Sensing
Cartography,
Geographic
Information Systems
Cadastre,
Land Management
Physical
Geodesy
coordinates:
Observables
level
height differences
theodolite
total station
laser scanner
Grounded is not a technical term. It means: all parts of the surveying systems are on the earths surface, but
not in the air or in space.
slope distance SD
horizontal distance HD:
HD SD sin z SD cos v
height difference (vertical distance) h:
h SD cos z SD sin v
Photogrammetry:
3D-objects are recorded in 2D photographs
2 Fundamentals
2.1 Units
International System of Units (SI)
Metre (SI-base unit): The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a
time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second. The practical realization consists of precise length
measurements at laboratory scale using lasers with known wavelengths.
Length: m,
nanometre (nm, 10-9 m), micrometer, (m, 10-6 m), millimetre (mm, 10-3 m),
centimetre (cm, 10-2 m), decimetre (dm, 10-1 m), metre (m), kilometre (km, 103 m)
Area: m2,
non-SI units but accepted: are (a, 100 m2), hectare (ha, 10,000 m2)
km2 (1,000,000 m2)
Volume: m3
Radian (SI-derived unit): A radian is the angle subtended by an arc of a circle having a length
equal to the radius of the circle.
Angle: radian (rad, 1/(2 of a circle): [rad ]
arc m
, dimensionless
radius m
other units:
gon (or grad) (gon, 1/400 of a circle), decigon (dgon,
10-1 gon), centigon (cgon, 10-2 gon), milligon (mgon,
10-3 gon)
degree (deg, 1/360 of a circle),
1 deg = 60 min, 1 min = 60 sec
conversions:
1 rad = [gon] = 200 gon/gon
1 rad = [deg] = 180 deg/deg
example:
calculate the length of arc l for a given radius r (distance) and angle
l
r
Errors:
No measurement can be performed perfectly, every measurement contains some error. Objective: minimization of errors by use of skilled techniques and appropriate precise equipment.
Sources of errors:
Natural errors: environmental variations (temperature, wind, humidity, atmospheric pressure,
atmospheric refraction)
Instrumental errors: imperfection in the construction or adjustment of instruments (reduction
or elimination by adopting proper surveying procedures)
Personal errors: limitations of the human senses of sight and touch
Types of errors:
Systematic errors (biases): they conform to physical laws which can be modelled mathematically. If the conditions are known to exist and if they can be observed, a correction can be
computed (calibration) and applied.
Random errors (accidental errors): obey the law of probability and thus tend to cancel out, but
they do not entirely disappear. They can be reduced by taking more (repeated or redundant)
measurements.
sometimes called gross errors, but should not be classified as errors at all.
Reliability is the degree to which a survey is designed to detect and eliminate mistakes in field
work and computation.
Size of error
1
2
3
1.65
1.96
2.57
Probability [%]
68.3
95.5
99.7
90
95
99
The most probable value (MPV) is obtained by least squares estimation. In the case of a single unknown and direct measurements of equal weight it is computed as arithmetic mean:
1 n
x xi
n i 1
The residuals are defined as the difference between MPV and the observed values:
vi xi x
The precision of a set of observations can than be computed as empirical standard deviation s
or empirical variance s2 (standard deviation / variance of single observation):
s s2
1 n 2
vi
n 1 i 1
L = 1 234.554 m sL=0.012 m
More examples of 2 significant figures: 40, 3.2, 0.55, 0.065, -0.000 044
10
f 2
f 2 f 2
s xn
s x1
s x 2 ...
s
x1
x2
xn
2
y
The two sides a and b of a rectangle have been measured with standard deviations sa and sb.
What is the standard deviation of the derived area of the rectangle?
Step 1: A a b f (a, b)
f
f
Step 2: dA
da db b da a db
a
b
2
2
2
Step 3: s A b s a a 2 sb2
Step 1: y x1 x 2 ... x n
Step 2: dy dx1 dx 2 ... dx n
Step 3: s y2 s12 s22 ... sn2 n s 2 ,
Standard deviation: s y n s
11
1
( x1 x 2 ... x n )
n
dx
dx dx
Step 2: dy 1 2 ... n
n
n
n
2
2
2
s
s
s
s2 s2
Step 3: s y2 12 22 ... n2 n 2 ,
n
n
n
n
n
Step 1: y
Standard deviation s y
s
n
Step 2: dc
| cosine-rule
a b cos
b a cos
ab sin
da
db
d
c
c
c
x n
n x n 1 , |
x
a b cos
b a cos
ab sin
2
2
2
Step 3: s c2
sa
sb
s
c
c
c
2
| units!!!
numerical example:
a = 34.517 m, sa = 0.010 m
b = 42.981 m, sb = 0.010 m
= 147.322 gon, s= 3.0 mgon = 4.7 10-5 rad
c = 71.041 m
dc = 0.895 da + 0.934 db + 15.4 d
sc2 = 8.01 10-5 + 8.72 10-5 + 5.24 10-7 = 16.8 10-5 m2; sc = 0.013 m
12
2 1
3 Setting up Instrument
Objectives and Measures:
(1) Levelling: In order to be able to separate horizontal from vertical the vertical axis of the
instrument must be aligned with the local plumb line. This is achieved by levelling the instrument.
(2) Centering: In case that the instrument is to be set up above a marker, the instrument has
to be centred as well.
tube bubble (tube vial, level tube): slightly curved glass tube with uniformly spaced graduations etched on the tubes exterior surface, works in the direction of the tube only, to be used
in two perpendicular directions, more precise.
30 / 3600
r
Centring the bubble is not sufficient for levelling the instrument, since
the bubbles horizontal plane may be out of the horizontal plane of the
instrument.
Levelling procedure:
centre the bubble using foot screws 1 and 2
rotate the instrument by 180
13
if the bubble does not remain centred, bring the bubble half way back by tilting the instrument using its foot screws 1 and 2
rotate the instrument by 180 again and check that the bubble remains in its off-centre
position
rotate the instrument by 90 and repeat the procedure described above using foot screw 3
final check: the bubble remains in its off-centre position when rotating the instrument, i.e.
the instrument is levelled
The bubbles must be shaded if set up in bright sunlight. Otherwise, the bubble will expand
and run towards the warmer end as the liquid is heated.
Tripod: a three-legged stand with adjustable legs made of wood, metal or fiberglass.
Tribrach: it consists of three screws for levelling, often a circular bubble, a clamping device to
secure the base of an instrument or accessories (e.g. prism) and threads to attach it to the head
of a tripod. Some tribrachs have integral optical plummets.
Plumb bob: mechanical plummet having a fine point and attached to a cord which must be
free of knots, less precise than an optical plummet.
Optical plummet: independent device or integrated into the alidade3 of an instrument or integrated into the tribach. If the instrument is levelled it provides a line of sight that is directed
downward, collinear with the vertical axis of the instrument.
The alidade is the part of a theodolite that rotates around the vertical axis, and that bears the horizontal axis
around which the telescope turns up or down.
14
15
4 Differential Levelling
4.1 Principle of Differential Levelling
horizontal line of sight, vertical rod
height difference = backsight foresight
one setup: height information is transferred from one change point (bench mark) to the next
change point (bench mark)
H h BS FS
Increase of reliability:
- closed loop (end at starting BM)
- start and end at different BM
- double run: perform levelling from A
to B and back again to A
16
17
parallel displacement of line of sight until cross-hair is aligned with nearest graduation on
the invar rod,
coarse reading on the rod, precise reading on the scale of the micrometer
(3) Digital level: automatic level with automatic reading and digital recording
(may be used as optical level as well)
coarse levelling with circular bubble
turn telescope toward rod, focus telescope
start measurement (press button):
1. check whether compensator moves freely
2. determination of signal intensity ( exposure time)
3. image capturing, and A/D conversion
4. image processing: rod reading, image scale distance
measurement takes 2 4 s, results are displayed and stored
19
20
H n h
Even very small systematic effects at each setup may have a large effect on the height difference of the levelling line.
H hi h1 h2 h3 ... hn
(Step 2: differentiation)
2
H
2
h1
2
h 2
... s
2
hn
ns
2
h
(Step 3: variances)
The accuracy of the height difference of a level line is a function of its length (number of setups):
s H s h n s h
L
S
s Lev / km L [km ]
with
s H - standard deviation of height difference of level line of length L
s h - standard deviation of height difference of single setup
sLev / km - standard deviation of 1 km level line observed in double run
n number of setups
length
of level line
L
average distance of rods
S 21
Instrument
Type
Standard
Level
Engineering
Level
Precise Level
Amplification
Factor
of Telescope
[-]
18 25
Precision of
Compensator
[]
15
Achievable
Accuracy
s Lev / km (double run)
[mm/km]
5.0 10
20 30
0.5 1
1.0 3.0
25 50
0.4
0.2 1.0
determine misclosure
22
Price
Euro
few 100
some 100 1000,
digital: few 1000
1000-2000,
digital: some 1000
surveying form
Engineering: Practical 2
Levelling
date: 26.10.09
no.: 171965
instr.: Ni 025
readings
backsight
BS
intermediate
sight IS
foresight
FS
height
difference
h
348
510
461
750
837
120
609
12
969
604
+1
+1
+1
+1
page:
observer: Reuner
point
height
H
5
comment
no.
location
6
100
000
060
288
100
288
C1
822
689
100
977
C2
213
-0
752
100
225
C3
856
-0
105
100
120
809
028
100
148
C4
732
389
101
537
C5
988
621
102
158
C6
984
986
103
144
464
144
144
140
004
L = 0.3km
H 100.000m
H 103.144m
Given
H H H 3.144m
BS 12.604m
FS 9.464m
h BS FS 3.140m
Observed
given
A
given
B
given
B
Misclosure
Tolerance th[mm] 15 L[km]
given
A
m H h 0.004m 4mm
t h 8mm
m
Check
m H
h 3.144
Check
Def. of ellipsoid:
The rotational ellipsoid is a mathematical surface which can be described in a simple manner.
Its dimension and orientation have been selected to fit the geoid.
size and shape defined by two parameters: semimajor and semiminor axes a and b
a b
,
flattening f: f
a
a=6,378,137 m, b=6,356,752 m, a-b=21,384 m,
f=1/298.257
rotational ellipsoid approximates the geoid within
about +/- 100 m (geoid height)
reference surface for horizontal coordinates and
ellipsoidal heights
24
Sphere: approximation of the geoid/ellipsoid for medium-scale regions (diameter < 100 km)
1
0.000
0.078
2
0.000
0.31
5
0.002
1.96
10
0.012
7.84
20
0.098
31.4
50
1.54
196.0
100
12.29
783.9
LOPs
(a) straight lines: angle, azimuth (observed at known station, one direction to unknown
station)
(b) concentric circle: horizontal distances (remember: HD SD sin z SD cos v )
(c) eccentric circle: angle (observed at unknown station)
25
n B n A 2 ( e B e A )2
horizontal
distance
e eA
AB arctan B
nB n A
azimuth
quadrants
e B e A d AB sin AB
A AA A 200 gon
26
5.6 Traversing
traverse: series of consecutive lines whose lengths and directions have been determined from
measurements.
starting point A
closing point B
traverse points e.g. 1, 2
starting reference direction: to AA
closing reference direction: to BB
coordinates have to be known for A, AA, B, BB
,
arctan
CAA arctan CA
B
C
nC nC
B
n A n AA
BB
(2) observed azimuths from first azimuth and observed angles:
AC AA A 200 gon
1 A 1 200 gon
27
2 1 2 200 gon
B 2 B 200 gon
(3) azimuth misclosure:
m BC B
must be smaller than a given tolerance value which depends on traverse length
and number of traverse points
(4) correction of measured angles by equal amount: c m / n
(n number of measured angles)
c
(5) calculation of coordinates:
n1 n CA d A1 cos A
n 2 n1 d 12 cos 1
n B n 2 d 2 B cos 2
e1 e CA d A1 sin A
e2 e1 d 12 sin 1
e B e2 d 2 B sin 2
If desired, traverse station elevations can also be determined calculating height differences
from slant distances and zenith angles. Instrument heights and reflector heights need to be
measured.
Distance resection:
observations: distance dAN and dBN
identical with distance intersection
Angular resection:
observations: 3 horizontal directions to 3
known stations, i.e. two angles between 3
known stations: 1 and 2
geometry: 2 eccentric circle LOPs
best geometry: N close to centre of A,B,C,
weak geometry: all 4 stations lie on the same
circle use more than 4 stations to increase reliability
Tn , Te
translations in n and e
(2) determination of transformation parameters from identical points in both systems:
e.g. 4 unknowns at least 2 identical points
(3) compute transformation parameters (here just 2 identical points, in practice at least 3
should be used to increase reliability)
scale:
29
rotation angle:
translations:
e2S e1S
e2L e1L
arctan L
arctan S
L
S
n 2 n1
n 2 n1
Tn n1S s (n1L cos e1L sin )
Te e1S s (n1L sin e1L cos )
Free Stationing
setup of instrument on unknown point with sights to known stations (bench marks BM)
and to points to be determined; use at least 2 bench marks (better 3 or more to gain increased reliability)
determine horizontal angles and horizontal distances to bench marks
compute bench mark coordinates in local coordinate system
calculate transformation parameters between local coordinate system and state plane coordinate system
determine horizontal angles and horizontal distances to other points, calculate coordinates
in local system, transform them to state plane coordinate system
30
Standard deviation
of single observation
> 3 mgon
1 3 mgon
< 1 mgon
31
Effect at a distance of
50 m
200 m
> 2 mm
> 10 mm
1 2 mm
3 10 mm
< 1 mm
< 3 mm
Instrumental Errors
(1) Collimation Error:
collimation axis not perfectly normal to horizontal axis
c
directional error depends on zenith angle: c
sin z
(2) Horizontal Axis Error:
horizontal axis deviates from horizontal plane
no effect on horizontal sights
directional error depends on zenith angle i i cot z
Elimination or Correction:
elimination by observations in both telescope positions6 and averaging the results:
1
r (r I r II 200 gon)
2
electronic theodolites: determination from observations in both telescope positions and
numerical correction
plunge the telescope = rotate telescope around horizontal axis by 180 degrees, rotate the instrument around its
vertical axis by 180 degrees and then take a second reading; direct and reverse telescope positions.
32
Coded Circle:
direct direction reading from parallel binary code
33
t counter 2
t full rotation
34
y A sin t 0
c
with
y magnitude of oscillation
A amplitude, maximum magnitude of oscillation
= 2f angular frequency [rad/s] with f frequency [1/s]
t time [s]
x position (distance) [m]
c velocity [m/s]
here vacuum velocity: c 2.99792458 10 8 m / s 3 10 8 m / s
zero phase (phase angle at t0, x0) [rad]
35
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Modulation
e.g.:
Refractive Index
The refractive index of a medium is the ratio of vacuum velocity to the actual phase velocity
of electromagnetic radiation:
c
v
36
Troposphere
Ionosphere
Visible light
temperature, pressure,
water vapour content
(humidity), frequency
negligible (n = 1)
Microwaves
temperature, pressure,
water vapour content (humidity)
(non-dispersive, independent of
frequency)
Density of ionised atoms,
frequency
Group velocity (velocity of modulation) differs from phase velocity if the medium is dispersive (i.e. refractive index frequency-dependent).
c
Group velocity refractive index: n g
vg
Examples:
Medium
Vacuum
1.000 292
1.000 302
1.000 288
1.000 273
1.000 286
1.000 311
1.000 000
0.999 988
1.000 012
Dual-Frequency systems
Dual-frequency systems enable the calculation of phase or group velocity deviations when
used in dispersive media:
e.g.
visible light and troposphere: 441.6 nm (green) and 632.8 nm (red) (EDM)
microwaves and ionosphere: 19.0 cm and 24.4 cm (GPS)
37
Pulse method
1
1 c
v t t
2
2 n
1
N M 1 N M M 1 N M 0 M 0
2
2
2 2
ng
2 n g
N integer ambiguity, - observed phase difference, M 0 - nominal modulation wavelength, M - actual modulation wavelength with refractive index ng
(1) rough
0.1498
1 000
0.550
550
(2) rough
1.4989
100
0.496
49.6
(3) fine
14.9896
10
0.973
9.73
Measured distance d: 549.73 m
Readings
(1) fine
(2) fine
(3) fine
Diff. (1)-(2)
Diff. (1)-(3)
Frequency
fM [MHz]
Scale
U =[m]
Phase
Difference
Phase Reading =
U [m]
14.9896 10.00
14.8397 10.10
13.4906 11.11
0.973
0.429
0.481
9.73
4.33
5.34
0.1498 1 000
1.4989 100
0.544
0.492
544
49.2
d=549.2
Ambiguity
N= nint
[(d-U
54
54
49
Measured
distance
d=N*U+
549.73
549.73
549.73
d= 549.73 m
Reflectors
Reflector constant: the effective centre of a prism does not coincide with the plummet, can be
as large as 70 mm, varies with kind of reflector
39
Without Reflector
Without reflector: esp. for any situations which are difficult or impossible to access directly,
e.g. facade of a building
May experience erroneous observations in certain situations experienced observer
refractive error: deviations from design refractive index of e.g. 1.000 273
observing actual pressure and temperature and applying correction
Accuracy of EDM:
s d2 e 2 (d p) 2 [mm2]
e constant error [mm]: with reflector 1 5 mm, without reflector 5 10 mm
p proportional error [mm/km = ppm]: 1 5 ppm
d distance [km]
40
8 Satellite-Based Positioning
GNSS: Global Navigation Satellite System, namely
GPS (NAVSTAR GPS (NAVigation System Timing And Ranging Global Positioning System)),
GLONASS (Global Navigation Satellite System),
Galileo, BeiDou
Satellite System
GPS
GLONASS
USA
Soviet Union /
Russia
1973
~30
1979
~24
Country
Start of Project
Number of healthy
satellites
(Aug. 2015)
Galileo
mainly
European
countries
1999
3
Beidou
China
late 1990
~13
Objectives:
provide high-accuracy real-time position (~10 m), velocity (<0.1 m/s), and time
to an unlimited number of users
worldwide, all weather operation, 24 h a day
affordable, reliable user equipment (no high-accuracy clocks, no directional antennas on
user side)
C ai Rai c t a t i
with
Rai X i X a ( X i X a ) 2 (Y i Ya ) 2 ( Z i Z a ) 2
observed:
C ai ; given: X i , t i ; unknown: X a , t a
Example for a set of observations:
Observation epoch: Y: 05 M: 08 D: 31 H: 10 M: 05 S: 30.00
SV
C[m]
03
23,279,758.86
09
25,613,898.87
11
21,266,649.95
17
22,709,865.93
21
21,139,856.02
24
23,690,282.29
27
20,460,660.62
GPS-time
Control
Segment
User
Segment
42
Satellite Segment:
24 or more satellites which continuously transmit micro wave signals.
These signals are modulated with a
code signal which is used for ranging
and which also contains information
on satellite orbits (3D coordinates) and
clocks (clock correction to obtain system time).
Control Segment:
Tasks:
continuously monitor and control
the satellite system,
determine system time,
predict the satellites ephemerides
and the behaviour of the satellite
clocks,
periodically update the navigation
message for each particular satellite,
command small maneuvers to maintain orbit, or relocate or substitute
an unhealthy satellite
GPS Control Segment
43
User Segment:
Receives signals of 4 or more satellites and determines its position + time (absolute positioning) or using simultaneous observations from at least 2 stations of 4 or more satellites to determine position differences and time differences (differential positioning).
Price
Observables
Observation Channels
Achievable Accuracy:
absolute, kinematic
differential, kinematic, code (DGNSS)
differential, phase
Data recording
Antenna
10 m
few m
5m
1m
positions
small and simple, internal or
external
mm cm
all observations and positions
separate geodetic antenna
44
GNSS Receivers
GNSS Antennas
45
Global Cartesian
X
Y
Z
WGS 84
Ellipsoidal
Transformation
h
WGS 84
46
UTM
Projection
North
East WGS 84
arctan
X 2 Y 2
Y
arctan
X
X 2 Y 2
h
N
cos
2
1 e
N h
Y ( N h) cos sin
Z N 1 e 2 h sin
47
n cos sin
e sin sin
u cos
- origin in point P,
- orientation by the ellipsoidal vertical (as given by ellipsoidal latitude and longitude ).
- z-axis is directed towards the ellipsoidal zenith,
- x-axis points to ellipsoidal north,
- left-handed system: y-axis points towards east.
Local ellipsoidal coordinates can be transformed to differences of global Cartesian coordinates and vice versa. The transformation consists of
- a reflection (global: right-handed system, local: left-handed system) and
- 2 rotations (as a function of ).
It is performed using the following transformation matrix A:
sin cos
A sin sin
cos
0
sin
Application:
X
n
Y A e
Z
u
or
n
X
1
T
e A Y A
u
Z
48
Y .
Z
49
code tracking loop: time shift of internal signal until maximum correlation with incoming
signal: size of time shift corresponds to signal travel time plus receiver clock error
pseudorange, reading of satellite clock.
then: extraction of data message and carrier tracking loop
Dilution of Precision (DOP) values are used to estimate the achievable accuracy as a function
of the satellite geometry. It is a factor which describes the error propagation of the standard
deviation of the measured pseudoranges to the standard deviation of the position (or position
components). A good geometry is represented by a low DOP factor. In practice several different DOP factors are used: e.g. North DOP, East DOP, Vertical DOP, 3D-Position DOP
(=PDOP).
s Pos s Pseudorange DOP
Satellite Orbits
Predicted satellite positions (orbits) differ from actual satellite positions. This difference has no effect on the observations but on the position computation.
Size of error (GPS): m few m
mitigation bydifferential positioning
Satellite Clocks
The corrected satellite clock reading (actual reading plus
predicted correction) is not perfectly synchronized to the
system time.
Size of error (GPS): m few m
elimination bydifferential positioning
50
Ionosphere
Due to ionized particles in the ionosphere the refractive index differs from 1. The ionosphere
is a dispersive medium for microwave signals and thus code and phase are affected in different ways: code delay, phase advance.
Size of error: 0.3 30 m
mitigation by dual-frequency observations
mitigation by differential positioning
Troposphere
The signal is delayed due to tropospheric refraction which is independent of frequency in the
microwave frequency spectrum. Hence, also the effects on code and phase are identical.
Size of error: 2.5 m (zenith) 25 m (low elevations)
mitigation by standard troposphere models (remaining errors: cm dm in zenith
direction)
mitigation by differential positioning
Multipath
The direct signal is superimposed by reflected
signals. This causes errors for both types of observables namely code and phase.
51
with
Rai ,b
X i Xb X i Xa
X i X b X i X b X a ,b
and
52
Pseudorange Corrections
n c i 1
(c) calculation of pseudorange corrections K Ri :
K Ri C Ri c t R [m]
The corrections contain the effects of satellite clock errors, ionospheric refraction,
tropospheric refraction and orbit errors at the reference station site.
(d) transmission of corrections from the reference site to the rover receiver
(e) application of pseudorange corrections at the rover site:
C ai K Ri Rai c t a t i
Remaining errors of the reference clock are absorbed in the rovers clock error term, i.e. they
do not affect the positioning results
Remaining errors for positioning:
- multipath effects at the rover and the reference sites, to be further reduced by smoothing
with carrier phase observations.
- effects of ionospheric refraction, tropospheric refraction, orbit errors if distance to reference
station is large (exceeds a few hundred km)
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Example 1:
EGNOS (European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service)
is the European SBAS (Satellite
Based Augmentation System).
Example 2:
54
Cai Rai c ta ti
ia Rai c ta ti N ai
C ai - code observation [m],
Rai - geometric distance satellite i receiver a [m],
c - vacuum signal velocity [m/s],
t a - receiver clock error [s],
Random errors
Code
Phase
dm
mm
Multipath
Effects
m
cm
ambiguity
unambiguous pseudorange
ambiguous pseudorange
Single Difference:
ia ,b
ib ia
Rai ,b c ta ,b N ai ,b
Satellite clock error eliminated, tremendous mitigation of ionospheric, tropospheric and orbit
errors especially for short baselines (compare Differential GNSS).
Double Difference (DD):
ia,,jb
ib ia bj aj
Rai ,,bj N ai ,,bj
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Float-Solution:
Ambiguities are estimated as real numbers but they are not fixed to their integer values
Ambiguity Fixing
Simplified procedure:
Independent testing of each estimated ambiguity value and its standard deviation: N ai ,,bj
must be closer to an integer than threshold 1 and sN must be smaller than threshold 2.
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8.8 Applications
Data Processing
Absolute Positioning:
Code (Single- or Dual-Frequency)
Differential Positioning:
DGNSS or DGPS (Code) (Single-Frequency)
Phase (Single- or Dual-Frequency)
without ambiguity fixing: float-solution
with ambiguity fixing: fixed-solution
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RTK
58
Navigation
References
Wolf, P.R., Ghilani, C.D. (2014): Elementary Surveying. 14th edition, Pearson Prentice Hall,
Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA
Kavanagh, B.F. (2003): Geomatics. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA
Bannister, A., Raymond, S., Baker, R. (1998): Surveying. 7th edition, Pearson Education
Ltd, Harlow, Essex, UK.
Schofield, W. (2007): Engineering Surveying. 6th edition. Elsevier Butterwoth-Heinemann,
Oxford, UK.
Satellite-Based Positioning:
Hofmann-Wellenhof, B., H. Lichtenegger, and E. Wasle (2008): GNSS - Global Navigation Satellite Systems. Springer-Verlag, Wien.
59
Appendix:
Sample questions for preparation of the written exam
Please define, explain, give examples, draw a sketch etc.
Radian
Grad (gon)
Mistakes
Errors
Natural errors
Instrumental errors
Personal errors
Systematic errors
Random errors
Precision
Accuracy
Reliability
Normal distribution
Variance
Standard deviation
Outlier detection
Significant figures
Circular bubble
Tube bubble
Tribrach
Optical plumb
Principle of differential levelling
Automatic level
Digital level
Collimation error (levelling)
Visible Window
Radio Window
Modulation
Refractive index
Phase velocity
Group velocity
Dispersive medium
Dual-frequency observations
Pulse method
Phase difference method
Ambiguities (EDM)
Reflector constant
Zero error (EDM)
Scale error (EDM)
Geoid
Rotational ellipsoid
Line of position (LOP)
Angular intersection
Distance intersection
Angular resection
Free stationing
Theodolite
Total station
Horizontal direction
Horizontal angle
Zenith angle
Vertical axis error of theodolite
Collimation error (theodolite)
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Calculations
Convert an angle given in degree (or grad, or radian) to grad (or radian, or degree).
An angle has an error of s mgon. Estimate the position error which is caused by this angle observation error at a distance of d m.
A distance has been observed 10 times. Calculate the arithmetic mean, the standard deviation of a
single observation, the standard deviation of the mean value. Detect outliers according to the 3sigma-rule and ignore them.
Given is a function of observed values (e.g. area of a rectangle being the function of two observed
distances). Calculate the standard deviation of the function based on the standard deviations of the
observed values using the formulas of error propagation.
Given:
two bench mark heights,
levelled height difference and approximate distance of a new station to the first bench
mark,
levelled height difference and approximate distance of the second bench mark to the new
station
tolerance for a height differences t h [ mm] 15 L[ km]
Determine the height of the new station.
Further questions
Describe the levelling and centring procedure of a geodetic instrument using circular bubble, tube
bubble, and optical plummet.
A levelling instrument is to be tested whether a collimation error exists. Please explain the testing
procedure.
The height of a new station has been determined by levelling from a known bench mark. How can
the reliability of the height of the new station be increased?
Why should differential levelling be performed with equal distances in backsight and foresight?
EDM measurements using phase difference method are ambiguous. How can this ambiguity be
resolved?
Why do horizontal angle measurements require a reference direction (i.e. two horizontal direction
readings)? Is there a similar reference direction for the observation of a zenith angle?
An electronic distance meter is to be tested whether a zero error exists. Explain the testing procedure.
Explain the basic principles of positioning with GNSS, with DGNSS, or with RTK.
What are the main differences between a GNSS navigation receiver and a geodetic receiver?
GNSS are designed to provide position accuracies of about 10 m. How can accuracies of about 1
cm be obtained?
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