SPE 84394

Evaluation of a Hybrid Water-Frac Stimulation Technology in the Bossier Tight Gas

Sand Play
J.A. Rushing, SPE, Anadarko Petroleum Corp. and R.B. Sullivan, SPE, Anadarko Petroleum Corp.
Copyright 2003, Society of Petroleum Engineers Inc.
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Abstract
This paper presents results from an evaluation of water-frac
stimulation treatments in the Bossier tight gas sand play in the
East Texas Basin. The primary objective of our study was to
compare the stimulation effectiveness of conventional waterfracs with a hybrid water-frac technology. The hybrid waterfracs combine the advantages and benefits of both
conventional gel and water-frac treatments. Stimulation
effectiveness, measured in terms of fracture half-length and
conductivity, was evaluated using short-term pressure buildup
testing integrated with decline type curve analysis of longterm gas production data. The results of our study indicate
that we can achieve longer effective fracture half-lengths and
higher effective fracture conductivities more consistently
using the hybrid water-frac technique.
Introduction
Most wells completed in tight gas sands require stimulation to
achieve economic production.
Early hydraulic fracture
treatments utilized polymer gel fluids with large proppant
concentrations in an attempt to create long, highly conductive
fractures. Although excellent for transporting proppant, these
gels often damaged the fracture, were difficult to clean up,
usually generated high net fracturing pressures, and were
expensive.
Under these conditions, minimal effective
stimulation was achieved, sometimes resulting in subeconomic wells.
Water fracturing technology was developed as a less
expensive alternative to conventional gel treatments. Water
fracturing or water-fracs were initially designed to generate
fractures by injecting water with little or no proppant. Slick
water-fracs added linear gels or friction reducers to the water.
Several previous studies have suggested that, when compared
to conventional gel treatments, water-fracs can generate
similar or sometimes better production responses.1-7

Furthermore, even when conventional gel treatments generate

longer propped fracture lengths than a water-frac, the presence
of damaging gels may adversely affect well performance.3-6
Microseismic imaging has shown that water-fracs may
generate very long fractures during treatment.8 However, the
propped or effective fracture half-lengths may vary
significantly depending on both proppant concentration and
placement effectiveness. The use of little or no proppant in a
water-frac may also result in low fracture conductivities.
Recent laboratory studies9,10 have shown fracture conductivity
may be either proppant- or asperity-dominated depending on
proppant concentration, proppant size and strength, and rock
mechanical properties. Under asperity-dominated conditions,
the fracture conductivity is a function of fracture face
asperities created when the rock is fractured.
High
conductivity water-fracs can be generated in the absence of
proppant only when rock displacement creates ample surface
roughness to provide sufficient fracture width. Similar
observations were made with low-strength and/or lowconcentration proppants.9,10 As a result, effective fracture
conductivities are often difficult to predict when little or no
proppant is used. The experimental studies9,10 also suggested
proppant-dominated conditions could be achieved more
consistently with high-concentration proppants.
In order to capture the advantages and benefits of both
conventional gel and water-frac treatments, we have applied a
hybrid water-frac technique in the Bossier tight gas sand play.
These hybrid water-fracs combine the advantages and benefits
of both conventional gel and water-frac treatments. We
demonstrate the successful application of this stimulation
technology with an evaluation of 18 wells from five Bossier
tight gas sand fields located in Freestone and Robertson
Counties, Texas. Stimulation treatments for the study wells
range from water-fracs with little to no sand, water-fracs with
large sand concentrations, and hybrid water-fracs. We
measured stimulation effectiveness using short-term pressure
buildup testing integrated with long-term decline type curve
analysis of gas production data.
Geological and Petrophysical Overview of the
Bossier Tight Gas Sand Play
The Bossier sands are part of the Upper Jurassic-age Cotton
Valley Group deposited in the East Texas Basin. The Bossier
interval, which lies immediately beneath the Cotton Valley
Sandstones, is a thick, lithologically complex system
containing black to gray-black shales interbedded with fine-

grained to very fine-grained argillaceous sandstones. The

Cotton Valley Group is underlain regionally by the Upper
Jurassic Louark Group, which includes other hydrocarbonbearing formations such as the Smackover Carbonates and
Haynesville/Cotton Valley Limestones. Overlying the Cotton
Valley Group is the regionally productive Lower Cretaceous
Travis Peak and Pettit formations.
Bossier sand rock types11 include clean sandstones,
argillaceous weakly laminated sandstones, dolomitic
sandstones,
and
argillaceous
burrowed
siltstones.
Intergranular constituents are primarily quartz overgrowths,
diagenetic clays in the sands, and detrital clays found in both
sand and silt. The clay fraction is predominantly grain coating
chlorite and illite. Bossier sands also have a narrow range of
grain size, typically from upper very fine to fine. The sands
are medium to well sorted, while the silts are poorly sorted.
Bossier sands also exhibit a significant diagenetic overprint,
including mechanical compaction, cementation from quartz
overgrowths, grain-coating/pore-lining clay development, and
grain dissolution.
Although effective porosity in the Bossier sands varies
from 1% to 17%, the average porosity in the net sand ranges
from 6% to 10%. Absolute permeability varies from 0.001 md
to 1 md in all rock types, while average permeability in the
reservoir rock ranges from 0.005 md to 0.05 md. Measured
water saturation in the reservoir rock ranges from as low as
5% in the most permeable rock to as high as 50% in the lowerquality reservoir rock.11
Evolution of Bossier Sand Stimulation Practices
The first Bossier sand stimulation treatments were performed
by Anadarko during the mid-1990s in the Mimms Creek Field
located in Freestone, County, Texas. These early stimulation
treatments consisted of high polymer-loading, cross-linked
fluids carrying large proppant volumes.
Typical guar
concentrations ranged from 40-50 lbs. polymer (HPG) per
1000 gal fluid. These fluids were cross-linked with zirconate
and usually contained several hundred thousand pounds of
20/40 proppant. The objective of these early treatments was to
create optimal conductivity by packing the fracture and
creating tip screen-outs. Unfortunately, the stimulated well
performance, as measured by initial production and decline
rates, was sometimes disappointing. We attribute the poor
results to short effective fracture half-lengths, probably a
result of both uncontrolled fracture height growth and gel
damage in the fracture. Furthermore, these treatments were
very expensive, often representing a significant portion of the
well completion costs.
In an effort not only to reduce stimulation costs but also
improve well performance in the Bossier tight gas sand play,
we applied the water-frac technology being employed in
Anadarkos Golden Trend Field in Oklahoma. Initial Bossier
water-frac treatments included 5,000 to 10,000 bbls of water
with friction reducers but typically no proppant. These slick
water-fracs were significantly less expensive than the crosslinked treatments, and initial gas production rates were often
as high as wells stimulated with conventional gel treatments.
Well performance analyses indicated that we had generated
fractures with an effective half-length of 30 to 60 ft and an
effective conductivity on the order of 10 md-ft.

SPE 84394

The next evolution of stimulation treatments in the Bossier

sands continued to be slick water-fracs but included some
20/40 sand at low concentrations. Because of the limited
fracture widths generated with the slick water treatments, only
20,000 to 40,000 pounds of 20/40 proppant could be placed in
the formation. Although we generally observed higher initial
production rates than the slick water-fracs with no proppant,
we continued to seek improvements, especially in the effective
fracture lengths generated by the stimulation treatment.
The next progression of sand-laden water-frac treatments
used even larger proppant concentrations (greater than
100,000 lbs), but we also began experimenting with smaller
proppant sizes. In particular, we found 40/70 proppants were
very effective. The use of smaller proppant sizes allowed a
much larger quantity (often exceeding 200,000 lbs.) of
proppant to be placed with the slick water. Not only did we
observe a significant increase in the initial production rates,
but also production performance behavior suggested we had
generated longer effective fracture half-lengths.
Well
performance analyses indicated the effective fracture halflengths ranged from almost 100 ft to as much as 230 ft. We
did not, however, see a significant increase in effective
fracture conductivity.
The objective of the most recent phase of Bossier sand
stimulation treatments was to increase both effective fracture
conductivity and length further using a hybrid stimulation
technique. This hybrid technology uses slick water to
generate fracture width and length while keeping net pressures
low. Following creation of the fracture geometry, gels with
relatively low proppant concentrations are used to transport
proppant down the fracture more effectively. Lower settling
rates associated with the gels also allow a more uniform and
consistent distribution of proppant placement prior to fracture
closure. The typical Bossier sand hybrid treatments include
pumping slick water initially to create fracture geometry and
followed by relatively low (30-35 lbs. per 1000 gals) borate
cross-linked gel carrying 20/40, 40/70, or a mixture of
proppant sizes for increased fracture length and conductivity.
Water-Frac Evaluation: Methodology and Examples
Pressure buildup testing is the most accurate technique for
evaluating the stimulation effectiveness of hydraulically
fractured gas wells. But, knowledge of reservoir permeability,
either from the well test or from an independent source, is
required to compute fracture properties. If a well is shut in for
a sufficient time to reach the pseudoradial flow period, then
we can uniquely determine reservoir permeability.
Unfortunately, wells completed in tight gas sands usually
require very long shut-in times to reach pseudoradial flow.
Most operators are reluctant to shut in a well for extended
periods, particularly under favorable gas product pricing
scenarios. If, however, we have an estimate of reservoir
permeability from an independent source, then shorter
duration pressure buildup tests can still be analyzed to
quantify fracture properties.
Decline type curve analysis of production data is a viable
alternative for evaluating well performance without shutting in
the well.12-15 Unlike pressure transient test analysis, most
decline type curves do not rely upon identification of
characteristic flow regimes, so we cannot always obtain

SPE 84394

unique estimates of fracture half-length, especially when using

poor-quality production data.
Accordingly, we have
developed an analysis technique that integrates short-term
pressure buildup testing and long-term production data
analysis using decline type curves.16
Our iterative technique begins with initial estimates of
permeability and fracture half-length from decline type curve
analyses of the well production data.14 We then use the
pressure derivative plot of the pressure buildup data to identify
flow regimes characteristic of hydraulically fractured wells.
Depending on the type of flow regimes present, we may use
special analysis techniques17 to compute fracture properties.
Next, we use an automatic history-matching process to
analyze the data. Estimates of formation permeability from
the decline type curve analysis and fracture properties from
the special analyses are used to establish initial estimates and
reasonable ranges for the parameters during the historymatching process. We then iterate between analyses until
consistent results are obtained.
The next section presents results from our water-frac
evaluation. As discussed previously, we obtained pressure
buildup tests from 18 wells producing from five fields in
Freestone and Robertson Cos., TX. Hydraulic fracture
treatments for the study wells, summarized in Table 1, vary
from water-fracs with little to no sand, water-fracs with large
sand concentrations, and hybrid water-fracs. To illustrate our
water-frac evaluation methodology, we present detailed
analyses from five of the Bossier wells.
Field Example No. 1: Well ETX-4. The first field case is an
example of a well completed with a small conventional waterfrac. The well was drilled and completed in the Bald Prairie
Field on August 24, 2001. Following a water-frac with 5,281
bbl slick water and 28,605 lbs 30/50 proppant pumped at an
average rate of 67 bpm, the well produced at an initial rate of
slightly more than 2,000 Mscf/day (Fig. 1). The well was shut
in December 13, 2001 for a two-week pressure buildup test.

Gas Production Rate, Mscf/d

2,500

2,000

1,500

1,000

500

0
24-Aug-01

14-Sep-01

5-Oct-01

26-Oct-01

16-Nov-01

7-Dec-01

Date

Fig. 1Post-fracture gas production history, Well ETX-4.

Initial estimates of permeability and fracture half-length were

obtained from a material balance decline type curve
(MBDTC) analysis of the production data.14 The type curve
match shown in Figure 2 is a log-log plot of normalized rate,
integral of normalized rate, and derivative of rate integral
against material balance time.14 The solid lines correspond to
the dimensionless type curves, while the discrete points

represent the corresponding dimensional discrete field data.

Initial estimates of permeability and fracture half-length were
0.0169 md and 45.7 ft, respectively.

Fig. 2Material balance decline type curve analysis

fracture gas production, Well ETX-4.

14

of post-

Table 1Summary of Stimulation

Treatments for Bossier Sand Wells
Well
No.

Stimulation
Type

Fluid Type &

Volume

Proppant
Quantity & Size

ETX-1

SW, LPC

7,460 bbl SW

34,000 lbs (20/40)

ETX-2

SW, LPC

7,845 bb SW

30,000 lbs (20/40)

ETX-3

SW, LPC

7,000 bbl SW

33,000 lbs (20/40)

ETX-4

SW, LPC

5,281 bbl SW

28,605 lbs (30/50)

ETX-5

SW, LPC

3,962 bbl SW

17,260 lbs (40/70)

168,400 lbs
(40/70)
170,000 lbs
ETX-7
SW, HPC
10,083 bbl SW
(40/70)
237,000 lbs
ETX-8
SW, HPC
8,175 bbl SW
(20/40)
135,000 lbs
ETX-9
SW, HPC
9,710 bbl SW
(40/70)
180,000 lbs
ETX-10
SW, HPC
10,076 bbl SW
(40/70)
140,000 lbs
ETX-11
SW, HPC
8,073 bbl SW
(40/70)
360,000 lbs
ETX-12
SW, HPC
15,481 bbl SW
(40/70)
6,650 bbl
41,000 (40/70);
ETX-13
HYB, HPC
SW/Xlink
150,000 (20/40)
8,404 bbl
50,000 lbs (40/70);
ETX-14
HYB, HPC
SW/Xlink
50,000 lbs (20/40)
7,300 bbl
248,000 lbs
ETX-15
HYB, HPC
SW/Xlink
(20/40)
7,757 bbl
225,000 lbs
ETX-16
HYB, HPC
SW/Xlink
(20/40)
6,958 bbl
440,580 lbs
ETX-17
HYB, HPC
SW/Xlink
(20/40)
8,504 bbl
54,000 (40/70);
ETX-18
HYB, HPC
SW/Xlink
245,000 (20/40)
SW, LPC: slick water-frac with low proppant concentration
SW, HPC: slick water-frac with high proppant concentration
HYB, HPC: hybrid water-frac with high proppant concentration
ETX-6

SW, HPC

9,712 bbl SW

Because of the significant rate changes prior to shutting in the

well, we analyzed the pressure buildup data using both
pseudopressure18 and pseudotime19-21 superposition functions.

SPE 84394

Pseudopressure
Function

Square-Root of Pseudotime Superposition Function, (hr)1/2

Fig. 5Square-root-of-time plot showing formation linear flow

regime from two-week pressure buildup test, Well ETX-4.

Bilinear
Flow

Formation
Linear Flow

Pseudopressure
Derivative
Function

Pseudotime Superposition Function, hr

Fig. 3Log-log plot identifying flow regimes characteristic of

hydraulically fractured wells, Well ETX-4.

Pseudopressure Function, psia2/cp

The bilinear and formation linear flow patterns may also be

identified by special plotting functions.17 The bilinear flow
regime is indicated by the straight line on a plot of
pseudopressure against the fourth root of pseudotime
superposition function shown in Figure 4. Using the line slope
from Figure 4 and the permeability from the MBDTC
analysis, we estimate the fracture conductivity is 6.2 md-ft.
Using the fracture half-length from the MBDTC analysis, we
also compute a dimensionless fracture conductivity of 8.0.

Fourth-Root of Pseudotime Superposition Function, (hr)1/4

Fig. 4Fourth-root-of-time plot showing bilinear flow regime from

two-week pressure buildup test, Well ETX-4.

Similarly, the formation linear flow regime is indicated by a

straight line on the plot of pseudopressure against the square
root of pseudotime superposition function shown in Figure 5.
Using the slope of this line and the reservoir permeability
estimated from MBDTC analysis, we compute an effective
fracture half-length of 41.8 ft which is very similar to the
value estimated from the decline type curve analysis.

On the basis of the derivative plot in Figure 3, we did not

observe the pseudoradial flow regime. As a result, we could
not use conventional semilog analysis techniques17 to compute
permeability from the well test. Instead, we used an automatic
history-matching process29 to analyze the well test data.
During this history matching process, we allowed effective
reservoir permeability to gas (kg), effective fracture half-length
(Lf), and dimensionless fracture conductivity (FCD) to vary.
To assess the importance of non-Darcy flow,30,31 we also
included a rate-dependent skin factor defined by the nonDarcy flow coefficient, D.
Estimates of formation
permeability from the decline type curve analysis and fracture
properties from the special analyses were used to establish
initial estimates and reasonable ranges for the parameters
during the history-matching process. We then iterated several
times until we obtained consistent results from all analyses.
The final and best history match is shown in Figure 6. The
solid lines drawn through the well test data represent the final
history-matched solution. Note that results from the pressure
buildup test analysis are very similar to that from the decline
curve analysis. We estimate the permeability and fracture
half-length are 0.0134 md and 44.1 ft, respectively. In
addition, the results suggest the stimulation treatment
generated a short fracture with relatively low conductivity.
We compute a fracture conductivity of 13.7 md-ft
corresponding to a dimensionless fracture conductivity of
23.3.
Pseudopressure Functions, psia2/cp/MMscfd

Pseudopressure Functions, psia2/cp/MMscfd

A log-log plot of the pseudopressure change and

pseudopressure derivative functions against the pseudotime
superposition function22,23 is shown in Figure 3. Flow regimes
characteristic of hydraulically fractured wells are indicated by
the solid black lines. The one-quarter slope line identifies
bilinear flow,24-26 while the line with a slope of one-half
indicates formation linear flow.25,27,28 Note that, although we
cannot positively identify a pseudoradial flow period, it may
be developing at the end of the test as indicated by the
flattening of the pressure derivative.

Pseudopressure Function, psia2/cp

Well Test Results

k = 0.0134 md
FCD = 23.3
Lf = 44.1 ft
D = 4.17x10-9 (Mscf/d)-1

Pseudotime Superposition Function, hr

Fig. 6Results from automatic history-match of two-week

pressure buildup test, Well ETX-4.

SPE 84394

Gas Production Rate, Mscf/day

12,000

10,000

8,000

6,000

4,000

square-root of time superposition functions shown in Figures

10 and 11, respectively. Using the slope of the line drawn
through the bilinear flow period data as well as permeability
from the MBDTC analysis, we compute a fracture
conductivity of 128.8 md-ft, which is significantly greater than
the first example. If we use the permeability and fracture halflength estimates from the material balance decline type curve
analysis of the production data, we also estimate a
dimensionless fracture conductivity of 26.3.

Pseudopressure Functions, psia2/cp/MMscfd

Field Example No. 2: Well ETX-8. The next field example

illustrates one of the more successful slick water-fracs using a
large sand proppant concentration. The well, which is
producing from the Mimms Creek Field, was stimulated on
October 8, 1999 with 8,175 bbl slick water and 237,000 lbs
20/40 proppant. As shown by the production history in Figure
7, the initial gas rate was almost 12,000 Mscf/day. After
producing for about 14 months, the well was shut in for a twoweek pressure buildup test on December 31, 2000.
The material balance decline type curve analysis14 of the
production data, shown in Figure 8, indicates the permeability
is 0.0219 md and the fracture half-length is 223.2 ft.

Bilinear
Flow
Formation
Linear Flow
Pseudopressure
Derivative
Function

Pseudotime Superposition Function, hr

2,000

0
8-Oct-99 8-Dec-99

Pseudopressure
Function

Fig. 9Log-log plot identifying flow regimes characteristic of

hydraulically fractured wells, Well ETX-8.
8-Feb-00 8-Apr-00

8-Jun-00

8-Aug-00

8-Oct-00 8-Dec-00

Date

Pseudopressure Function, psia2/cp

Fig. 7Post-fracture gas production history, Well ETX-8.

Fourth-Root of Pseudotime Superposition Function, (hr)1/4

Fig. 10Fourth-root-of-time plot showing bilinear flow regime

from two-week pressure buildup test, Well ETX-8.

Fig. 8Material balance decline type curve analysis

fracture gas production, Well ETX-8.

14

of post-

Although the rate changes prior to shutting in the well were

not as significant as the first example, we still analyzed the
pressure buildup data using both pseudopressure and
pseudotime superposition functions. A log-log plot of the
pseudopressure change and pseudopressure derivative
functions against the pseudotime superposition function is
shown in Figure 9. Bilinear and formation linear flow regimes
are indicated by the solid black lines. Note that, similar to the
first example, we did not observe the pseudoradial flow
period. In fact, the time required to develop the formation
linear flow period is much longer than for the first example.
This suggests the hydraulic fracture half-length may be longer.
The bilinear and formation linear flow patterns are also
identified by plots of pseudopressure against fourth-root and

The formation linear flow regime is very well defined and is

indicated by the straight-line on a plot of pseudopressure
against the square root of pseudotime superposition function
shown in Figure 11. Using the slope of this line and the
reservoir permeability estimated from the decline type curve
analysis, we compute an effective fracture half-length of 251.5
ft. Recall that the material balance decline type curve analysis
yielded a fracture half-length of 223.3 ft.
Similar to the first example, the absence of a pseudoradial
flow period precluded use of conventional semilog analysis
techniques to compute permeability from the well test.
Alternatively, we used an automatic history-matching process
to analyze the well test data. The final and best history match
is shown in Figure 12. The solid lines drawn through the well
test data represent the final history-matched solution. Note
that results from the pressure buildup test analysis are again
very similar to that from the decline curve analysis. We
estimate the permeability and fracture half-length are 0.0272

SPE 84394

md and 235.3 ft, respectively. In addition, the results suggest

the stimulation treatment generated a long but moderately
conductive fracture. We compute a fracture conductivity of
250.9 md-ft corresponding to a dimensionless fracture
conductivity of 39.2.

two examples, we do not observe the formation linear flow

period. In addition, we did not shut in the well for a sufficient
time to reach pseudoradial flow. In fact, much of the test data
following the end of wellbore storage appear to be in bilinear
flow. The data at the end of the test are probably a transition
from bilinear to formation linear flow.

Gas Production Rate, Mscf/day

Pseudopressure Function, psia2/cp

2,000

1,500

1,000

500

0
05/05/01

Square-Root of Pseudotime Superposition Function, (hr)1/2

05/19/01

06/02/01

06/16/01

06/30/01

Date

Pseudopressure Functions, psia2/cp/MMscfd

Fig. 11Square-root-of-time plot showing formation linear flow

regime from two-week pressure buildup test, Well ETX-8.

Fig. 13Post-fracture gas production history, Well ETX-9.

Well Test Results

k = 0.0272 md
FCD = 39.2
Lf = 235.3 ft
D = 1.04x10-20 (Mscf/d)-1

Pseudotime Superposition Function, hr

Fig. 12Results from automatic history-match of two-week

pressure buildup test, Well ETX-8.
Fig. 14Material balance decline type curve analysis
fracture gas production, Well ETX-9.

Pseudopressure Functions, psia2/cp/MMscfd

Field Example No. 3: Well ETX-9. The next field case is

another example of a well completed with a conventional
water-frac. The well was drilled and completed in the Bald
Prairie Field on May 5, 2001. Following a water-frac with
9,710 bbl slick water and 135,000 lbs 40/70 proppant pumped
at an average rate of 50 bpm, the well produced at an initial
rate of slightly more than 1,700 Mscf/day (Figure 13). The
well was shut in July 12, 2001 for a two-week pressure
buildup test.
Initial estimates of permeability and fracture half-length
were obtained from a material balance decline type curve
analysis of the production data shown in Figure 14. From this
analysis, we estimate the fracture permeability is 0.0191 md
and the effective fracture half-length is 98.5 ft.
Since the rates appeared to be still changing prior to the
pressure buildup test, we also analyzed the pressure buildup
data using both pseudopressure and pseudotime superposition
functions. A log-log plot of the pseudopressure change and
pseudopressure derivative functions against the pseudotime
superposition function is shown in Figure 15. Again, flow
regimes characteristic of hydraulically fractured wells are
indicated by the solid black lines. Note that, unlike the first

14

of post-

Pseudopressure
Function

Bilinear
Flow

Pseudopressure
Derivative
Function

Pseudotime Superposition Function, hr

Fig. 15Log-log plot identifying flow regimes characteristic of

hydraulically fractured wells, Well ETX-9.

The bilinear flow pattern is also identified by a plot of

pseudopressure against fourth-root of time superposition
function shown in Figure 16. Using the slope of the line
drawn through the data and estimates from the material
balance decline type curve analysis, we compute a fracture

SPE 84394

conductivity of 9.6 md-ft and a dimensionless fracture

conductivity of 5.1.

production data (Figure 19) yielded a permeability of 0.0140

md and an effective fracture half-length of 117.3 ft.

Pseudopressure Function, psia2/cp

Gas Production Rate, Mscf/day

14,000
12,000
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
2,000
0
14-Sep-01

28-Sep-01

12-Oct-01

26-Oct-01

9-Nov-01

Date

Fourth-Root of Pseudotime Superposition Function, (hr)1/4

Fig. 16Fourth-root-of-time plot showing bilinear flow regime

from two-week pressure buildup test, Well ETX-9.

Fig. 18Post-fracture gas production history, Well ETX-15.

Pseudopressure Functions, psia2/cp/MMscfd

Similar to the previous two examples, we also used an

automatic history-matching process to analyze the well test
data. The final and best history match is shown in Figure 17.
The solid lines drawn through the well test data represent the
final history-matched solution. We estimate the permeability
and fracture half-length are 0.0185 md and 101.1 ft,
respectively. In addition, the results suggest the stimulation
treatment generated a short and low-conductivity fracture. We
compute a fracture conductivity of 16.4 md-ft corresponding
to a dimensionless fracture conductivity of 8.8. Although the
effective fracture half-length was longer, this large water-frac
generated an effective fracture conductivity only slightly
greater than the small water-frac for Well ETX-4.
Well Test Results
k = 0.0185 md
FCD = 8.8
Lf = 101.1 ft
D = 1.05x10-14 (Mscf/d)-1

Pseudotime Superposition Function, hr

Fig. 17Results from automatic history-match of two-week

pressure buildup test, Well ETX-9.

Field Example No. 4: Well ETX-15. The next example

illustrates a hybrid water-frac in a well producing from the
Dowdy Ranch Field. The stimulation treatment for this well
began by injecting 3,024 bbl slick water with 2,500 gal 15%
HCl followed by 3,819 bbl of 35 lbs/1000 gal cross-linked gel
with 248,000 lbs 20/40 proppant. Similar to the second
example, the initial rate was slightly greater than 12,000
Mscf/day (Figure 18). The well produced for about two
months before being shut in for a two-week pressure buildup
test. The material balance decline type curve analysis14 of the

Fig. 19Material balance decline type curve analysis

fracture gas production, Well ETX-15.

14

of post-

A log-log plot of the pseudopressure change and

pseudopressure derivative functions against the pseudotime
superposition function is shown in Figure 20. The formation
linear flow regime is indicated by the solid black lines. Unlike
the first three examples, we do not observe a bilinear flow
period. We do, however, see indications of a very well
defined formation linear period which is present over a
significant portion of the buildup test period. The presence of
a long-duration formation linear flow period as well as the
absence of significant bilinear flow suggests the well probably
has very high fracture conductivity. The flattening of the
pressure derivative curve at the end of the test is probably the
transition period between formation linear and pseudoradial
flow.
The formation linear flow regime identified by the
pseudopressure derivative function in Figure 20 is also
indicated by the straight-line on a plot of pseudopressure
against the square root of pseudotime superposition function
shown in Figure 21. Using the slope of this line and the
reservoir permeability estimated from the decline type curve
analysis, we compute an effective fracture half-length of 110.7
ft.
Results from the automatic history-matching process are
shown in Figure 22. We estimate the permeability and
fracture half-length are 0.0133 md and 119.9 ft, respectively.

SPE 84394

The results also suggest the stimulation treatment generated a

short but very conductive fracture. The analysis shows the
fracture conductivity is 375.7 md-ft corresponding to a
dimensionless fracture conductivity of 235.8.
Pseudopressure Functions, psia2/cp/MMscfd

Pseudopressure
Function

stimulation was slightly less than 12,000 Mscf/day (Figure

23). The well produced for about six months before being
shut in for a two-week pressure buildup test. The material
balance decline type curve analysis14 of the production data,
shown in Figure 24, yielded a permeability of 0.0261 md and
an effective fracture half-length of 206.6 ft.
14,000

Formation
Linear Flow

Pseudopressure
Derivative
Function

Gas Production Rate, Mscf/d

12,000

10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000

2,000

Pseudotime Superposition Function, hr

Fig. 20Log-log plot identifying flow regimes characteristic of

hydraulically fractured wells, Well ETX-15.

0
17-Mar-01

17-Apr-01

17-May-01

17-Jun-01

17-Jul-01

17-Aug-01

17-Sep-01

Date

Pseudopressure Function, psia2/cp

Fig. 23Post-fracture gas production history, Well ETX-18.

Square-Root of Pseudotime Superposition Function, (hr)1/2

Pseudopressure Functions, psia2/cp/MMscfd

Fig. 21Square-root-of-time plot showing formation linear flow

regime from two-week pressure buildup test, Well ETX-15.
Well Test Results
k = 0.0133 md
FCD = 235.6
Lf = 119.9 ft
D = 2.87x10-6 (Mscf/d)-1

Pseudotime Superposition Function, hr

Fig. 22Results from automatic history-match of two-week

pressure buildup test, Well ETX-15.

Field Example No. 5: Well ETX-18. The last example

illustrates a hybrid water-frac that generated a longer effective
half-length than Well ETX-15. This particular well is
producing from the Dew Field in Freestone Co. The
stimulation treatment for this well began by injecting 5,405
bbl slick water with 2,500 gal 15% HCl and 54,000 lbs 40/70
sand followed by 2,857 bbl of 30 lbs/1000 gas cross-linked gel
with 245,000 lbs 20/40 proppant. The initial rate following

Fig. 24Material balance decline type curve analysis

fracture gas production, Well ETX-18.

14

of post-

A log-log plot of the pseudopressure change and

pseudopressure derivative functions against the pseudotime
superposition function is shown in Figure 25. We observe
both bilinear and formation linear flow periods as indicated by
the solid black lines. We do not, however, see evidence of
pseudoradial flow.
The bilinear and formation linear flow patterns are also
identified by plots of pseudopressure against fourth-root and
square-root of time superposition functions shown in Figures
26 and 27, respectively. Using the slope of the line drawn
through the bilinear flow period in Figure 26 and the
permeability estimated from the MBDTC analysis, we
compute a fracture conductivity of 121.6 md-ft. Further, if we
use the permeability and fracture half-length estimates from
the material balance decline type curve analysis of the
production data, we estimate a dimensionless fracture
conductivity of 22.6.
As indicated by the straight-line on a plot of
pseudopressure against the square root of pseudotime
superposition function shown in Figure 27, the formation
linear flow period is very well defined. Using the slope of this
line and the reservoir permeability estimated from the

SPE 84394

Pseudopressure
Function
Pseudopressure
Derivative
Function

Formation
Linear Flow
Bilinear
Flow

Well Test Results

k = 0.0276 md
FCD = 23.1
Lf = 290 ft
D = 1.01x10-6 (Mscf/d)-1

Pseudopressure Functions, psia2/cp/MMscfd

Pseudopressure Functions, psia2/cp/MMscfd

MBDTC analysis, we compute an effective fracture halflength of 260.1 ft.

Pseudotime Superposition Function, hr

Pseudotime Superposition Function, hr

Fig. 25Log-log plot identifying flow regimes characteristic of

hydraulically fractured wells, Well ETX-18.

Fig. 28Results from automatic history-match of two-week

pressure buildup test, Well ETX-18.

Pseudopressure Function, psia2/cp

Results from Water-Frac Evaluation Program

Results from the evaluation of 18 wells completed in the
Bossier tight gas sand play are summarized in Table 2.
Specifically, we have tabulated reservoir permeability,
effective fracture half-length and conductivity, dimensionless
fracture conductivity, and the rate-dependent non-Darcy skin
factor. All results represent the final history-matched analysis
of the short-term pressure buildup tests. We have also plotted
the effective fracture half-lengths and conductivities in Figures
29 and 30, respectively.
Table 2Summary of Results from
Water-Frac Evaluation Program
Fourth-Root of Pseudotime Superposition Function, (hr)1/4

Pseudopressure Function, psia2/cp

Fig. 26Fourth-root-of-time plot showing bilinear flow regime

from two-week pressure buildup test, Well ETX-18.

Square-Root of Pseudotime Superposition Function, (hr)1/2

Fig. 27Square-root-of-time plot showing formation linear flow

regime from two-week pressure buildup test, Well ETX-18.

The final and best history match for Well ETX-18 is shown in
Figure 28. The solid lines drawn through the well test data
represent the final history-matched solution. Note again that
results from the pressure buildup test analysis are very similar
to that from the decline curve analysis. We estimate the
permeability and fracture half-length are 0.0276 md and 290.1
ft, respectively. In addition, the results suggest the stimulation
treatment generated a long and very conductive fracture. We
compute a fracture conductivity of 250.9 md-ft corresponding
to a dimensionless fracture conductivity of 39.2.

Well
No.

k, md

Lf, ft

wkf,
md-ft

FCD

D
-1
(Mscf/d)

ETX-1

0.0192

73.9

220.6

155.5

1.53E-04

ETX-2

.0115

108.9

141.7

113.2

5.78E-04

ETX-3

.034

52.0

127.0

71.8

5.06E-04

ETX-4

.0134

44.1

13.8

23.4

4.17E-09

ETX-5

.0085

63.6

15.7

29.0

1.06E-04

ETX-6

.6181

97.1

906.3

15.1

3.60E-05

ETX-7

.0240

63.8

26.8

17.5

2.64E-05

ETX-8

.0272

235.3

250.9

39.2

1.04E-19

ETX-9

.0185

101.1

16.4

8.8

1.05E-14

ETX-10

.0256

28.6

12.3

16.8

1.91E-20

ETX-11

.0345

140.8

29.1

6.0

1.92E-14

ETX-12

.0191

100.4

56.8

29.6

6.71E-06

ETX-13

.1437

289.5

977.6

23.5

1.15E-18

ETX-14

.0085

268.4

40.8

17.9

4.42E-05

ETX-15

.0133

119.9

375.7

235.6

2.87E-06

ETX-16

.0086

313.2

537.4

199.5

1.23E-20

ETX-17

.0043

124.5

62.5

116.8

1.03E-19

ETX-18

.0276

290.1

185.2

23.1

1.10E-06

In general, the hybrid water-frac treatments appear to

generate longer effective fracture half-lengths and higher

10

SPE 84394

effective fracture conductivities than either the small or large

conventional water-frac treatments. As shown by Table 2 and
Figure 29, the average effective fracture half-length from the
small water-fracs is less than 70 ft. Generally, the use of more
proppants in the large water-fracs increased the effective
fracture half-length by about 60 percent or to an average halflength of almost 110 ft. Note that the fracture half-length for
Well ETX-8 is significantly greater than the average,
suggesting that this stimulation treatment may not be
representative of the results from large conventional waterfracs. Consequently, if we exclude well ETX-8 from the
average, then the increase above the small water-fracs is only
about 30 percent. The average effective fracture half-length
from the hybrid water-fracs is about 235 ft, which represents a
2 to 3.5 times increase above the large and small conventional
water-frac treatments, respectively.

representing an increase of 2 and 3.5 times above the

conventional large and small water-fracs, respectively. Unlike
the computed fracture half-lengths, we did notice significant
inconsistency in generated fracture conductivities, even within
the same type of stimulation treatment. This suggests that
additional research is required to achieve more consistency in
our fracture design and execution.
Conclusions
On the basis of our study of water-frac stimulation treatments
in the Bossier tight gas sand play, we offer the following
conclusions:
1. On average, a hybrid water-frac stimulation technique
seems to generate longer effective fracture half-lengths
and larger effective fracture conductivities than
conventional water-fracs.

Hybrid-Fracs

350

2. The use of larger proppant concentrations with

conventional water-fracs does not appear to generate
longer and more conductive fractures consistently. This
lack of improvement may be attributed to ineffective and
inconsistent placement of proppant prior to fracture
closure.

Fracture Half-Length, ft

300

Large Water-Fracs
250
200

Small Water-Fracs

150
100

3. Although the average measured effective fracture

conductivity in the hybrid water-fracs was larger than
conventional water-fracs, the inability to obtain greater
conductivity consistently suggests more research and
field trials are required to optimize the hybrid waterfracs.

50

XET 3
X4
l W ETX
ate - 5
r- F
ra
c
ET
XET 6
X8
ET
XET 7
X
ET - 9
XAv
ET 10
g.
XLa
E 11
rg
e W TX
ate - 12
r-F
ra
ET c
X1
ET 3
XET 14
X1
ET 5
XAv
ET 16
g.
XHy
1
br
id ET 7
W Xat
1
er 8
-F
ra
c

X2

ET

Av
g.
Sm
al

ET

ET

X1

Fig. 29Effective fracture half-lengths for 18 study wells in the

Bossier tight gas sand play.

4. When combined with decline type curve analysis of well

production data, short-term pressure buildup testing has
tremendous value, especially when assessing
hydraulically fractured wells completed in tight gas
sands.

Hybrid-Fracs

700
600
500
400
300

Large Water-Fracs
Small Water-Fracs

Acknowledgements
We would like to express our thanks to Anadarko Petroleum
Corporation, especially Mr. Steve Pearson, Mr. Bob
Abendschein, and Mr. Jerry Windlinger for their support and
for permission to publish results from our study.

200
100
0
ET

XET 1
XET 2
XAv
ET 3
g.
XSm
4
al
l W ETX
ate - 5
r- F
ra
ET c
XET 6
XET 8
XET 7
X
ET - 9
XAv
ET 10
g.
XLa
11
rg
e W ETX
ate - 12
r-F
ra
ET c
XET 13
XET 14
XET 15
XAv
ET 16
g.
XHy
17
br
E
id
T
W X18
at
er
-F
ra
c

Effective Fracture Conductivity, md-ft

800

Fig. 30Effective fracture conductivities for 18 study wells in the

Bossier tight gas sand play.

We observed similar improvements in the measured effective

fracture conductivity when using the hybrid water-fracs. As
shown by Figure 30, average effective fracture conductivities
for the small and large conventional water-fracs were 104 and
186 md-ft, respectively. The average effective fracture
conductivity for the hybrid water-fracs was 363 md-ft, again

Nomenclature
D
= non-Darcy flow coefficient, (Mscf/d)-1
FCD = dimensionless fracture conductivity = wkf/kgLf
kf
= fracture permeability, md
kg = effective permeability to gas, md
Lf
= effective fracture half-length, ft
w
= fracture width, ft
wfkf = effective fracture conductivity, md-ft
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