Fundamentals of Stress Analysis - Lec 05-1

Mansoura University - Faculty of Engineering
Production and Mechanical Design Engineering Department
PRE5311- Fundamentals of Stress Analysis - Lecture No. (5) : Strain and material properties.
Dr. T. A. ENAB, Production & Mechanical Design Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Mansoura University.
Equations of Compatibility
Compatibility::
The concept of compatibility has both mathematical and physical
significance.
From
F
a mathematical
th
ti l point
i t off view,
i
it asserts
t that
th t the
th displacements
di l
t u, v,
and w match the geometrical boundary conditions and are single-valued and
contin o s functions
continuous
f nctions of position with
ith which
hich the strain components are
associated.
Physically,
Ph i ll this
hi means that
h the
h body
b d must be
b pieced
i d together;
h no voids
id are
created in the deformed body.
Kinematic relations connect six components of strain to only three
components of displacement
Compatibility::
We cannot therefore arbitrarily specify all the strains as functions of x,
x y,
y
and z (strains are evidently not independent of one another).
In
I two-dimensional
t
di
i l strain,
t i
diff
differentiation
ti ti
off x twice
t i
with
ith respectt
to y, y twice with respect to x, and xy with respect to x and y results in:
Or
This is the condition off compatibility
p
y of the two-dimensional pproblem,,
expressed in terms of strain.
Compatibility::
The three-dimensional
three dimensional equations of compatibility are obtained in a like
manner:
To gain further insight into the meaning of compatibility, imagine an elastic

bodyy subdivided into a number of small cubic elements pprior to
deformation. These cubes may, upon loading, be deformed into a system of
pparallelepipeds.
pp
The deformed system
y
will,, in ggeneral,, be impossible
p
to
arrange in such a way as to compose a continuous body unless the
components of strain satisfy the equations of compatibility
State of Strain at a Point

Point::
Consider a small linear element AB of length ds is an unstrained body (Fig.(Fig
a). After straining, AB is displaced to position AB and is now ds long.
The x and y displacements are u + du and v + dv,
dv respectively.
respectively
The variation with position of the displacement is expressed by a truncated
Ta lors expansion
Taylors
e pansion as follows:
follo s:
Fig. (b) shows the relative displacement of B with respect to A. It is
observed
b
d that
h AB has
h been
b
translated
l d so that
h A coincides
i id with
i h A;
A it
i is
i now in
i
the position AB. Here B D = du and DB = dv are the components of
di l
displacement.
t
Transformation of Two
Two--Dimensional Strain:
Strain:
For xx yy coordinate system the components of strain are: x, y, xy.
First we determine the unit elongation of ds, x. The projections
off du
d andd dv
d on the
th x axis,
i after
ft taking
t ki EB cos = EB(1) by
b virtue
i t off the
th
small angle approximation, lead to the approximation:
By definition, x is found from EB/ds. Thus, we obtain:
Substituting cos for dx/ds, sin for dy/ds, we have:
This represents the transformation equation for the x-directed normal strain,
which through the use of trigonometric identities,
which,
identities may be converted to the
form
The normal strain y is determined by replacing by + /2
Strain:
For shearing strain xy, we first determine the angle through which AB is
rotated.
tan
t = B E/ds,
E/d where
h BE = dv
d cos du
d sin
i EB sin
i .
By letting:
sin = tan = ,
we have EB sin = x ds = 0.
The latter is a consequence of the smallness of both x and .

Substitutingg into BE, = BE/ds mayy be written as follows:
The angular displacement of yy is readily derived by replacing by + /2
in Eq.:
Strain:
Taking counterclockwise rotations to be positive in finding the shear strain
xy, to add and + /2. By so doing and substituting xy = v/x + u/y,
we obtain:
Through the use of trigonometric identities, this expression for the
transformation of the shear strain becomes:
It is observed that transformations expressions for stress are converted into
strain relationships by replacing:
Strain:
The principal strain directions (where xy = 0) are found from:
The magnitudes of the principal strains are:
The maximum shearing strains are found on planes 45

45 relative to the
principal planes and are given by:
10
Transformation of Three
Three--Dimensional Strain:
Strain:
This case may also proceed from the corresponding stress relations by
replacing by and by /2. Therefore, we have:
where l1 is the cosine of the angle between x and x, m1 is the cosine of the
angle between y and x, and so on.
11
Transformation of Three
Three--Dimensional Strain:
Strain:
The foregoing equations are succinctly expressed as follow:
or conversely
These equations represent the law of transformation for a strain tensor of
rank 2.
The principal strains in 3D are the roots of the following cubic equation:
The strain invariants are:
12
Mohrs Circle for Plane Strain:

Strain:
The transformation properties of stress and strain are identical
The construction technique of Mohrs circle for strain does not differ from
th t off Mohrs
that
M h circle
i l for
f stress.
t
In Mohrs circle for strain, the normal strains are plotted on the horizontal
axis, positive to the right.
When the shear strain is positive, the point representing the x axis strains is
plotted a distance /2 below the line, and the y axis point a distance
/2 above the line, and vice versa when the shear strain is negative.
13

Strain:
Example: State of Plane Strain in a Plate
The state of strain at a point on a thin plate is given by x = 510 , y =
120 , andd xy = 260 . Determine,
D t
i
using
i Mohrs
M h circle
i l off strain,
t i (a)
( ) the
th
state of strain associated with axes x, y, which make an angle = 30
with
ith the axes
a es x, y;; (b) the principal strains and directions of the principal
axes; (c) the maximum shear strains and associated normal strains; display
the given data and the results obtained on properly oriented elements of
unit dimensions.
14

Strain:
Point C: (x + y)/2
Point A: (x , xy/2)
Point B: (y , -xy/2)
Mohr
Mohrss circle radius: r = (1952 + 1302)1/2 = 234
For principal strains angle:
The
Th strain
t i components
t associated
i t d with
ith xy
are:
The pprincipal
p strains are:
15

Strain:
Points D and E represent the maximum shear strains.
strains Thus: max = 468
16
Hookes Law and Poissons Ratio:

Ratio:
Most structural materials exhibit an initial region of the stressstrain
stress strain
diagram in which the material behaves both elastically and linearly.
This
Thi linear
li
elasticity
l i i is
i extremely
t
l important
i
t t in
i engineering
i
i because
b
many
structures and machines are designed to experience relatively small
deformations.
deformations
For that straight-line portion of the stressstrain diagram, stress is directly
proportional
i l to strain.
i
If the normal stress acts in the x direction:
This relationship is known as Hookes law, (Robert Hooke 16351703).
The constant E is called the modulus off elasticity,
y, or Youngs
g modulus,, in
honor of Thomas Young (17731829).
As is a dimensionless quantity, E has the units of .
17

Ratio:
Graphically,
Graphically E is the slope of the stressstrain
stress strain diagram in the linearly elastic
region.
Elasticity
El ti it can similarly
i il l be
b measuredd in
i two-dimensional
t
di
i l pure shear.
h
It is found experimentally that, in the linearly elastic range, stress and strain
are related by Hookes law in shear:
Here G is the shear modulus of elasticity or modulus of rigidity. Like E, G is
a constant for a given material.
Since, the axial tensile loading induces a reduction or lateral contraction of a
specimens cross-sectional area.
Similarly,
y, a contraction owingg to an axial compressive
p
load is accompanied
p
by a lateral extension.
18

Ratio:
In the linearly elastic region,
region it is found experimentally that lateral strains,
strains
say in the y and z directions, are related by a constant of proportionality, v,
to the axial strain caused by uniaxial stress only x = x/E,
/E in the x direction:
Alternatively, the definition of v may be stated as:
Here v is known as Poissons ratio, (S. D. Poisson 17811840), who
calculated v to be for isotropic materials employing molecular theory.
Note that more recent calculations based on a model of atomic structure
yield v=.
Both values ggiven here are close to the actual measured values,, 0.25 to 0.35
for most metals.
19

Ratio:
Volume Change:
The lateral contraction of a cubic element from a bar in tension is
ill t t d in
illustrated
i Fig.,
Fi where
h
it is
i assumedd that
th t the
th faces
f
off the
th element
l
t att the
th
origin are fixed in position.
From the figure, subsequent to straining, the final volume is:
Expanding and neglecting terms involving x2 and x3:
Vf = [[1 + ((x 2x)] dx dyy dz = Vo + V
where Vo is the initial volume dx dy dz and V is the change in volume.
The unit
it volume
l
change
h
e, also referred to as the dilatation,
dil t ti
ma now
may
no be
expressed in the form:
20

Ratio:
Example: Deformation of a Tension Bar
An aluminum alloy bar of circular cross-sectional area A and length L is
subjected
bj t d to
t an axial
i l tensile
t il force
f
P (Fig.).
(Fi ) The
Th modulus
d l off elasticity
l ti it andd
Poissons ratio of the material are E and v, respectively. For the bar,
determine (a) the axial
a ial deformation; (b) the change in diameter d; and (c)
the change in volume V. (d) Evaluate the numerical values of the
quantities obtained in (a) through (c) for the case in which P = 60 kN,
kN d =
25 mm, L = 3 m, E = 70 GPa, = 0.3, and the yield strength yp = 260 MPa.
Solution:
S l ti
If the resulting axial stress = P/A does not exceed the proportional
limit of the material, we may apply Hookes law and write = E.
Also, the axial strain is defined by = /L.
21

Ratio:
The preceding expressions can be combined to yield the axial
deformation:
where
h the
th product
d t AE is
i known
k
as the
th axial
i l rigidity
i idi off the
th bar.
b
The change in diameter equals the product of transverse or lateral strain
and diameter: td = d. Thus:
The change in volume, substituting Vo = AL and x = P/AE, is:
For A = ((/4)(25
)( 2) = 490.9(10
( 6) m2, the axial stress in the bar is
obtained from:
< yield (260 Mpa).
Thus,
Thus we have:
22
Generalized Hookes Law

Law::
For a three-dimensional
three dimensional state of stress,
stress each of the six stress components is
expressed as a linear function of six components of strain within the linear
elastic range,
range and vice versa.
versa
We thus express the generalized Hookes law for any homogeneous elastic
material as follows:
follo s:
The coefficients cij (i, j = 1, 2, 3..., 6) are the material-dependent elastic

constants
constants.
23

Law::
A brief representation of the preceding stressstrain
stress strain relationships are given
in the following form:
The
Th cmnij requiring
i i four
f
subscripts
b i t for
f definition,
d fi iti
are components
t off a tensor
t
of rank 4. We note that, to avoid repetitive subscripts, the material
constants c1111, c1122, ..., c6666are denoted c11, c12, ..., c66
For homogeneous material, each of the 36 constants cij has the same value
at all
ll points.
i
For material without any planes of symmetry (fully anisotropic), cij = cji;
thus the number of independent material constants can be as large as 21.
For orthotropic material, the number of constants reduces to nine.
For isotropic material which has every plane as a plane of symmetry the
number of essential elastic constants reduces to two.
24

Law::
For a two-dimensional
two dimensional homogeneous isotropic rectangular element of unit
thickness, subjected to a biaxial state of stress (Fig.).
Application
A li ti off x alone
l
would
ld result
lt in
i direct
di t strain
t i x/E andd a y contraction
t ti
would take place as well, x/E.
Application of y alone would result in an x contraction y/E and
a y strain y/E.
The simultaneous action of x and y, applying the principle of
superposition, leads to the following strains:
For ppure shear,, stress and strain are related by:
y
25

Law::
Similar analysis enables us to express the components z, yz, and xz of
strain in terms of stress and material properties.
In
I the
th case off a three-dimensional
th
di
i l state
t t off stress,
t
thi procedure
this
d
l d to
leads
t
the generalized Hookes law, valid for an isotropic homogeneous material:
The elastic constants E, v, and G are related, serving to reduce the number
of independent constants in the above Eq.
Eq to two.
two
26

Law::
Referring to the element subjected to pure shear,
shear a pure shearing
stress xy can be expressed in terms of the principal stresses acting on planes
(in the xx and yy directions) making an angle of 45
45 with the shear
planes: x = xy and y = xy.
Then,
Then applying
appl ing Hookes law,
la wee find that:
Because x = y = 0 for pure shear, for = 45, x = xy/2, or
Equating the alternative relations for x , we find that:
Therefore, when any two of the constants , E, and G are determined
p
y, the third mayy be found from the above equation.
q
experimentally,
27

Law::
The following stressstrain
stress strain relationships:
Where:
The shear modulus G and the quantity are referred to as the Lam
constants.
It can be shown that e represents the unit volume change or dilatation of an
element in triaxial stress.
28

Law::
The the modulus of volumetric expansion or bulk modulus of elasticity (K)
is another important constant.
The
Th physical
h i l significance
i ifi
off this
thi quantity
tit is
i observed
b
d by
b considering,
id i
f
for
example, the case of a cubic element subjected to hydrostatic pressure p.
Because the stress field is described by x = y = z = p and xy = yz = xz =
0, then e = 3(1 2)p/E. The foregoing may be written in the form:
It is seen that the unit volume contraction is proportional to the pressure and
inversely proportional to K.
K
This equation also indicates that for incompressible materials, for which e =
0 Poissons ratio is 1/2.
0,
1/2
For all common materials, however, < 1/2, since they demonstrate some
change
h
i volume,
in
l
e 0.
0
29

Law::
Example: Volume Change of a Metal Block
Calculate the volumetric change of the metal block shown in figure,
subjected
bj t d to
t uniform
if
pressure p = 160 MPa
MP acting
ti on all
ll faces.
f
U E=
Use
210 GPa and = 0.3.
Solution:
The bulk modulus of elasticity of the material is:
and the dilatation is:
Since the initial volume of the block is Vo = 2 1.5 1 = 3 m3, then:
V = e Vo = (9.14
( 9 14 104)(3 109) = 2.74
2 74 106 mm3
where a minus sign means that the block experiences a decrease in the
volume as expected intuitively
volume,
30
Hookes Law for Orthotropic Materials

Materials::
A general orthotropic material has three planes of symmetry and three
corresponding orthogonal axes called the orthotropic axes.
Within
Withi eachh plane
l
off symmetry,
t material
t i l properties
ti may be
b different
diff
t andd
independent of direction.
A familiar example of such an orthotropic material is wood.
Strength and stiffness of wood along its grain and in each of the two
perpendicular directions vary.
These properties are greater in a direction parallel to the fibers than in the
transverse direction.
A ppolymer
y
reinforced by
y pparallel gglass or ggraphite
p
fibers represents
p
a typical
yp
orthotropic material with two axes of symmetry.
31

Materials::
Materials such as corrugated and rolled metal sheet,
sheet reinforced concrete,
concrete
various composites, gridwork, and particularly laminates can also be treated
as orthotropic.
orthotropic
We note that a gridwork consists of two systems of equally spaced parallel
ribs (beams),
(beams) mutually
m t all perpendicular
perpendic lar and attached rigidly
rigidl at the points of
intersection.
For
F
an elastic
l i orthotropic
h
i material,
i l the
h elastic
l i coefficients
ffi i
cij remain
i
invariant at a point under a rotation of 180 about any of the orthotropic
axes.
In the following derivations, we shall assume that the directions of
orthotropic axes are parallel to the directions of the x, y, and z coordinates.
32

Materials::
First,
First let the xy plane be a plane material symmetry and rotate Oz through
180. Accordingly, under the coordinate transformation x: x, y: y, and z:
zz, the direction cosines are:
Then we have:
Inasmuch as the cij remain the same:
Therefore, from the above equations:
33

Materials::
Thus,
Thus c15 = cc15, c16 = cc16, implying that c15 = c16 = 0.
0
Likewise, considering y, z,
th t c25 = c26 = c35 = c36 = c45 = c46 = 0.
that
0
xy,
yz,
xz,
we
obtain
The elastic coefficient matrix [cij] is therefore:
34

Materials::
Next,
Next consider the xz plane of elastic symmetry by rotating Oy through a
180 angle. This gives l1 = n3 = 1, m2= 1 and l2 = l3 = m1 = m3 = n1 = n2 =
0 Upon following a procedure similar to that in the preceding,
0.
preceding we now
obtain c14 =c24 = c34 = c56 = 0.
The matrix
matri of elastic coefficients become then:
Finally,
Finally letting yz be the plane of elastic symmetry and repeating the
foregoing procedure do not lead to further reduction in the number of nine
elastic coefficients.
35

Materials::
Hence,
Hence the generalized Hooke
Hookess law for the most general orthotropic elastic
material is given by:
36

Materials::
The inversed form of the above Eqs.
Eqs may be expressed in terms of
orthotropic moduli and orthotropic Poissons ratios as follows:
37

Materials::
Because of symmetry in the material constants,
constants we have:
The quantities Ex, Ey, Ez designate the orthotropic moduli of elasticity,
and Gxy, Gyz, Gxz are the orthotropic shear moduli in the orthotropic
coordinate system.
Poissons ratio xy indicates the strain in the y direction produced by the
stress in the x direction.
The remaining Poissons ratios xz, yyz, ..., xz are interpreted in a like
manner.
We observe from Eqs.
q that,, in an orthotropic
p material,, there is no interaction
between the normal stresses and the shearing strains.
38
39

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Mansoura University - Faculty of Engineering

Production and Mechanical Design Engineering Department

To gain further insight into the meaning of compatibility, imagine an elastic

State of Strain at a Point

The latter is a consequence of the smallness of both x and .

The maximum shearing strains are found on planes 45

Mohrs Circle for Plane Strain:

Mohrs Circle for Plane Strain:

Mohrs Circle for Plane Strain:

Mohrs Circle for Plane Strain:

Hookes Law and Poissons Ratio:

Hookes Law and Poissons Ratio:

Hookes Law and Poissons Ratio:

Hookes Law and Poissons Ratio:

Hookes Law and Poissons Ratio:

Hookes Law and Poissons Ratio:

Generalized Hookes Law

The coefficients cij (i, j = 1, 2, 3..., 6) are the material-dependent elastic

Generalized Hookes Law

Generalized Hookes Law

Generalized Hookes Law

Generalized Hookes Law

Generalized Hookes Law

Generalized Hookes Law

Generalized Hookes Law

Hookes Law for Orthotropic Materials

Hookes Law for Orthotropic Materials

Hookes Law for Orthotropic Materials

Hookes Law for Orthotropic Materials

The elastic coefficient matrix [cij] is therefore:

Hookes Law for Orthotropic Materials

Hookes Law for Orthotropic Materials

Hookes Law for Orthotropic Materials

Hookes Law for Orthotropic Materials

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