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For lists of antiderivatives of primitive functions, see lists where C is an arbitrary constant known as the constant of
of integrals.
integration. Essentially, the graphs of antiderivatives of a
In calculus, an antiderivative, primitive function, given function are vertical translations of each other; each
graphs vertical location depending upon the value of C.
In physics, the integration of acceleration yields velocity
plus a constant. The constant is the initial velocity term
that would be lost upon taking the derivative of velocity
because the derivative of a constant term is zero. This
same pattern applies to further integrations and derivatives of motion (position, velocity, acceleration, and so
on).
Because of this, each of the innitely many antiderivatives of a given function f is sometimes called the general integral or indenite integral of f and is written
using the integral symbol with no bounds:
f (x) dx.
Example
{
1
The function F(x) = x3 /3 is an antiderivative of f(x) = F (x) = x + C1 x < 0
x1 + C2 x > 0
x2 . As the derivative of a constant is zero, x2 will have
3
3
an innite number of antiderivatives, such as x /3, x /3 +
1, x3 /3 - 2, etc. Thus, all the antiderivatives of x2 can be is the most general antiderivative of f (x) = 1/x2 on its
obtained by changing the value of C in F(x) = x3 /3 + C; natural domain (, 0) (0, ).
1
f (t) dt.
F (x) =
0
Varying the lower boundary produces other antiderivatives (but not necessarily all possible antiderivatives).
This is another formulation of the fundamental theorem
of calculus.
There are many functions whose antiderivatives, even
though they exist, cannot be expressed in terms of
elementary functions (like polynomials, exponential
functions, logarithms, trigonometric functions, inverse
trigonometric functions and their combinations). Examples of these are
ex dx,
2
sin x2 dx,
sin x
dx,
x
xn1
x
1 x x1
(x t)n1
x
dx,
. . . x dx.f (xn ) dxn . . . dx2 dx1 =
f (t)
dt.
ln xx0 x0
(n 1)!
x0
x0
From left to right, the rst four are the error function,
the Fresnel function, the trigonometric integral, and the Computer algebra systems can be used to automate some
or all of the work involved in the symbolic techniques
logarithmic integral function.
above, which is particularly useful when the algebraic maSee also Dierential Galois theory for a more detailed nipulations involved are very complex or lengthy. Intediscussion.
grals which have already been derived can be looked up
in a table of integrals.
Techniques of integration
4 Antiderivatives
of
non-
integration by parts to integrate products of func- Assuming that the domains of the functions are open intervals:
tions
Inverse function integration, a formula that expresses the antiderivative of the inverse f 1 of an
invertible and continuous function f in terms of the
antiderivative of f and of f 1 .
the method of partial fractions in integration allows
us to integrate all rational functions (fractions of two
polynomials)
A necessary, but not sucient, condition for a function f to have an antiderivative is that f have the
intermediate value property. That is, if [a, b] is a
subinterval of the domain of f and C is any real number between f(a) and f(b), then f(c) = C for some c
between a and b. To see this, let F be an antiderivative of f and consider the continuous function
4.1
Some examples
g(x) = F (x) Cx
antiderivative
x F may be obtained by integration:
F (x) = 0 f (t) dt .
2. The function
f (x) = 2x sin
0 = g (c) = f (c) C.
The set of discontinuities of f must be a meagre set.
This set must also be an F-sigma set (since the set
of discontinuities of any function must be of this
type). Moreover for any meagre F-sigma set, one
can construct some function f having an antiderivative, which has the given set as its set of discontinuities.
If f has an antiderivative, is bounded on closed nite
subintervals of the domain and has a set of discontinuities of Lebesgue measure 0, then an antiderivative may be found by integration in the sense of
Lebesgue. In fact, using more powerful integrals
like the HenstockKurzweil integral, every function
for which an antiderivative exists is integrable, and
its general integral coincides with its antiderivative.
If f has an antiderivative F on a closed interval
[a,b], then for any choice of partition a = x0 <
x1 < x2 < < xn = b , if one chooses
sample points xi [xi1 , xi ] as specied by the
mean value theorem, then the corresponding Riemann sum telescopes to the value F(b) F(a).
n
[F (xi ) F (xi1 )]
i=1
i=1
1
x2
2
cos
x
1
x2
1
x2
with F (0) = 0 . Unlike Example 1, f(x) is unbounded in any interval containing 0, so the Riemann integral is undened.
3. If f(x) is the function in Example 1 and F is its antiderivative, and {xn }n1 is a dense countable subset of the open interval (1, 1) , then the function
g(x) =
f (x xn )
2n
n=1
has an antiderivative
G(x) =
F (x xn )
.
2n
n=1
= F (xn ) F (x0 ) = F (b) F (a) 4. Let {xn }n1 be a dense countable subset of the
open interval (1, 1) . Consider the everywhere
However if f is unbounded, or if f is bounded
continuous strictly increasing function
but the set of discontinuities of f has positive
1
Lebesgue measure, a dierent choice of samF
(x)
=
(x xn )1/3 .
n
ple points xi may give a signicantly dierent
2
n=1
value for the Riemann sum, no matter how ne
It can be shown that
the partition. See Example 4 below.
4.1
Some examples
1. The function
f (x) = 2x sin
( )
( )
1
1
cos
x
x
F (x) =
1
(x xn )2/3
n
3
2
n=1
6 NOTES
the other hand if the Riemann integral is replaced
by the Lebesgue integral, then Fatous lemma or the
dominated convergence theorem shows that g does
satisfy the fundamental theorem of calculus in that
context.
5. In Examples 3 and 4, the sets of discontinuities of
the functions g are dense only in a nite open interval (a, b) . However these examples can be easily
modied so as to have sets of discontinuities which
are dense on the entire real line (, ) . Let
(x) =
a + b b a 1
+
tan x.
2
Then g ((x)) (x) has a dense set of discontinuities on (, ) and has antiderivative G .
6. Using a similar method as in Example 5, one can
modify g in Example 4 so as to vanish at all rational
numbers. If one uses a naive version of the Riemann
integral dened as the limit of left-hand or righthand Riemann sums over regular partitions, one will
obtain that the integral of such a function g over an
interval [a, b] is 0 whenever a and b are both rational, instead of G (b)G (a) . Thus the fundamental
theorem of calculus will fail spectacularly.
Figure 1.
5 See also
Antiderivative (complex analysis)
Lists of integrals
Symbolic integration
Area
Figure 2.
F (1)
6 Notes
[1] Antiderivatives are also called general integrals, and
sometimes integrals. The latter term is generic, and
refers not only to indenite integrals (antiderivatives), but
also to denite integrals. When the word integral is used
without additional specication, the reader is supposed to
deduce from the context whether it is referred to a denite or indenite integral. Some authors dene the indefinite integral of a function as the set of its innitely many
possible antiderivatives. Others dene it as an arbitrarily
selected element of that set. Wikipedia adopts the latter
approach.
[2] Stewart, James (2008). Calculus: Early Transcendentals
(6th ed.). Brooks/Cole. ISBN 0-495-01166-5.
[3] Larson, Ron; Edwards, Bruce H. (2009). Calculus (9th
ed.). Brooks/Cole. ISBN 0-547-16702-4.
References
Introduction to Classical Real Analysis, by Karl R.
Stromberg; Wadsworth, 1981 (see also)
Historical Essay On Continuity Of Derivatives, by
Dave L. Renfro; http://groups.google.com/group/
sci.math/msg/814be41b1ea8c024
External links
Wolfram Integrator Free online symbolic integration with Mathematica
Mathematical Assistant on Web symbolic computations online. Allows to integrate in small steps
(with hints for next step (integration by parts, substitution, partial fractions, application of formulas and
others), powered by Maxima
Function Calculator from WIMS
Integral
Antiderivatives and indenite integrals " at the
Khan Academy
Free online integral calculator with step by step solution "
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