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VOL. III
RF
Essentials
COMPLIMENTS OF
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RFEssentials
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and higher-order products are also generated. This makes the calculation of PIM
performance by means of commercial
computer-aided-engineering (CAE) tools,
such as electromagnetic (EM) simulators,
quite difficult and time consuming.
The PIM performance of a component
(like a connector) is generally specified in
power level (dBm) of the generated tone
relative to the power level of the test tones.
If two +40 dBm test tones produce a PIM
signal of -115 dBm, the PIM level is said
to equal -155 dBc. In a case where two
or more test tones are at unequal power
levels, such as +40 and +38 dBm, the PIM
level is referenced to the larger or largest of
the test tones.
System-level PIM can be minimized,
but this requires careful component selection. Even the choice of materials in
those components can impact the level
of generated PIM. For example, antennas are critical components in a wireless
communications system because they are
found at receive and transmit ends of the
system. Especially in the case of the transmit antennas, which are subject to higher
power levels, the presence of ferromagnetic materials (such as nickel) can increase
the level of PIM. Low-quality metal plating
and poor mechanical junctions can also
contribute to high levels of PIM.
Manufacturers of low-PIM connectors generally advise their customers to
make sure that connector mating surfaces
are without damage and that connectors are properly torqued with a torque
wrench, rather than tightened by hand.
In addition, there should be no strain on
These Type N connectors have been engineered with bronze-plated brass bodies
and gold-plated contacts for low PIM performance. (Photo courtesy of Pasternack
Enterprises; www.pasternack.com)
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Matching Software To
Design
Needs
COMPACT in 1980, would develop SuperCOMPACT-PC for the PC, along with a
layout program called AUTO-ART. Ulrich
Rohde, Chairman of Synergy Microwave
Corp., would later buy COMPACT and
Super-COMPACT from COMSAT, greatly
improving both products. Additional
software companies would
emerge, including EESof,
Inc. of Westlake Village, CA
and Circuit Busters of Stone
Mountain, GA. EESof, for
example, would develop the
Touchstone microwave design software specifically for
the IBM PC and similar computer platforms.
Before a high-frequency
engineer can design an RF/microwave
circuit, there must be some understanding of the qualities of the building materials for that circuit, including
the printed-circuit boards (PCBs), integrated circuits (ICs), and
passive circuit elements.
Software tools can contain
large libraries of circuit elements, ICs, and even extensive choices in PCB materials, but they cannot point to
the secret combination of
ingredients that will result in
delivering a customers demanding set of performance
requirements. PCB materials for highfrequency circuits, for example, can vary
widely in terms of key electrical and mechanical parameters, such as relative dielectric constant, dissipation factor, and
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CAE SOFTWARE
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CAE SOFTWARE
design tools are expensive. The MicroWorks Design package from Microwave
Software
(www.microwavesoftware.
com) is priced at only $149.95 (USD)
for its variety of software design tools. It
features six different design functions,
including SmithMatch for designing
matching networks with an interactive
on-screen Smith chart; Sceptre for designing complete two-, three-, and fourport networks; and MStrip+ for designing
microstrip circuits.
DONT FORGET FREE
HUBER+SUHNER INC.
19 Thompson Drive
Essex VT 05452 (USA)
info.us@hubersuhner.com
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hubersuhner.com
When trying to learn more about different CAE tools, it can make sense to take
advantage of freeware programs or free
trial versions. Many of the suppliers of
full-fledged RF/microwave CAE software
suites offer trial versions to help users get
started, such as AutoCAD 2D/3D circuit
layout software from Autodesk (www.
autodesk.com) which can be downloaded as a 30-day free trial. The software is
available in versions for Macintosh computers and PCs. AWR Corp. (www.awrstartdesigning.com) offers a trial version
of its popular Microwave Office suite of
circuit and EM design tools.
One of the better-known free software
utilities that has repeatedly proven its
worth over the years is AppCAD (currently available from www.hp.woodshot.
com). Originally developed by HewlettPackards Microwave Semiconductor
Division (now Avago Technologies), AppCAD included a useful set of calculators that could be applied to circuit and
system design using discrete components or ICs.
In some cases, device manufacturers
may even offer design software for some
of their products, such as Analog Devices
(www.analog.com) for its digitizers and
phase-lock-loop (PLL) devices. The latest
version of the companys ADIsimRF design tools supports engineers creating RF
signal chains with RF-to-digital function
blocks. In addition, the ADIsimPLL Version 3.4 provides a series of design tools
for the firms lines of PLLs. Both software
programs can be downloaded from the
companys website free of charge. MWRF
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May 2012 | Microwaves&RF
RFEssentials
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with a pair of vacuum tubes to achieve plitude. Because the envelope changes, in
high efficiency at high power levels. Class theory, an amplifiers supply voltage can
AB combines traits of both Class A and B be raised or lowered dynamically to adapt
approaches. In a Class C amplifier, the effi- to the state of the envelope, conserving
ciency is increased by operating the active power consumed by the amplifier and
devices in conduction less than 50% of the boosting efficiency in the process.
This technique, known as envelope
time, although linearity is further reduced.
In Class D and higher amplifiers, various tracking, is one of a number of techniques
switching approaches are used to further developed over the years to increase amplifier efficiency without
increase efficiency.
degrading linearity. AdLinearity and efficienditional methods include
cy have long been acceptvarious forms of adaped tradeoffs in RF/microtive feedback based on
wave PA design, but now
detecting or predicting
amplifier designers must
the amplifiers distorattempt to optimize both
tion characteristics and
parameters, especially
feedforward techniques,
when handing third-genwhere the amplifiers diseration (3G) and fourthtortion is actually meageneration (4G) signals
with their advanced This RDB2-SC1894 circuit board sured and a signal with
modulation
formats. (25 x 25 mm) surrounds a model the negative values of
More-efficient amplifiers SC1894 third-generation RFPAL amplitude and phase
run cooler than ampli- SoC with all necessary compoare mixed with the amfiers with low efficiency, nents for improving the linearity plifiers signal to cancel
helping to simplify the and efficiency of a PA for small
the distortion.
thermal management of cellular base stations. [Photo
Many of these metha design and minimize courtesy of Scintera (www.
ods can deliver quite
reliability problems.
effective results but, trascintera.com).]
Linearity is of growditionally, have been exing importance in newer communications pensive to implement because of their use
systems that rely on variable-envelope of such components as high-speed data
modulation formats to carry large amounts converters, broadband sensors, and preof data on high-frequency signals. In a sig- cision delay lines. But as new techniques
nal with constant-envelope modulation, are developed and as the integration levels
the information is represented by either and speeds of semiconductor processes
the phase or frequency of the signal. In a such as silicon CMOScontinue to insignal with variable-envelope modulation, crease, many of these amplifier add-on
the information is represented by the am- efficiency boosters can be implemented
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August 2012 | Microwaves&RF
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PA EFFICIENCY
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OW MUCH POWER CAN IT HANDLE? That is a question inevitably asked about most components meant
for transmittersand usually for passive components,
such as filters, couplers, and antennas. But the increasing power levels of microwave vacuum tubes, like traveling-wave
tubes (TWTs), and hearty active devices, such as silicon laterally diffused metal-oxide-semiconductor (LDMOS) transistors
and gallium-nitride (GaN) field-effect transistors (FETs), when
mounted in well-conceived amplifier circuits, will
also be limited by the power-handling capabilities of such components as the
connectors and even the printedcircuit-board (PCB) materials.
Knowing the limits of the
different parts that make
up a high-power component or system can
help to answer that
enduring question.
Transmitters
require power, within
limits. Typically, those
limits are set by governing agencies, such
as the United States
Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) for communications standards. But in
the case of ungoverned systems,
such as radar and electronic-warfare
(EW) platforms, the limits will primarily
arise from the electronic components in the system. Every component has a maximum power limit, whether it is an active component, such as an amplifier, or a passive component, such as a
cable or filter. Understanding how power flows through these
components can help when designing circuits and systems to
handle higher power levels.
When current flows through an electric circuit, part of the
electrical energy is converted into heat energy. A circuit han48
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POWER-HANDLING CAPABILITY
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Space
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Numerous
military
standards
are typically
applied
to ensure
deep-space
readiness.
48
ance that its products will be 100% reliable when put to work. Dow-Key Microwave (www.dowkey.com), for example,
refers to its 42-year heritage and its use of
a dedicated group for its space products,
with zero failures in its past. Similarly,
Teledyne Cougar (www.teledyne-cougar.
com) points to its 22-year legacy of supplying components for space missionsas
well as its MIL-PRF-38534 Class K certification. Suppliers of miniature passive
components and waveguide assemblies,
respectively, Anaren Microwave (www.
anaren.com) and ARRA, Inc. (www.arra.
com) have also built strong reputations as
space-level component manufacturers.
W.L. Gore & Associates (www.gore.
com) has provided its cable assemblies
to more than 70 satellite programs since
1976, with a 100% failure-free flight record.
EMC Technology (www.emc-rflabs.com)
has even gone as far as creating a spacelevel product working reference sheet,
available for free download on their website, by which customers can review different options for screening their component
orders for space-level requirements.
Finally, given the high price of spacegrade components and assemblies, some
companies have considered ways to cut
costs for their space-level customers without sacrificing reliability. Merrimac Industries (www.merrimacind.com), which has
supplied everything from power dividers
to complete beam-forming networks for
space platforms, has developed a program called Merrimac Space Qualified
Products (MSQP). The MSQP program
was created to reduce the complexity of
procuring RF/microwave components for
space. It builds on Merrimacs heritage of
designing and shipping hi-rel military and
space-qualified components for a large
number of systems and already having
documentation and screening levels set
for those components; in effect, the company has created a list of standard components that are already qualified for use
in space. Customers can select a part from
the MSQP list, or have Merrimac create a
specification for the component they need
based on the MSQP design, process, qualification, and screening guidelines. MWRF
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October 2012 | Microwaves&RF