16th WEGEMT School Noise Vibration and Shock On Board Ships Vol1-2 PDF

West
European
Graduate
Education
Marine
Technology
UE
ON
CENTRO PER GLI STUDI DI TECNICA NA VALE

ITALIAN SHIP RESEARCH CENTER
UNIVERSITA DI GENOVA
ISTITUTO POUCATTEDRA
DI INGEGNERIA NAVALE
SIXTEENTH GRADUATE SCHOOL

"NOISE, VIBRATION AND SHOCK
ON BOARD SHIPS"
UNIVERSITY OF GENOA - ITALY
23rd + 28th MARCH 1992
ORGANISED BY CETENA and

UNIVERSITY OF GENOA
VOLUME I
AEuropean Community
cOmEna Project
WEGEMT
WEGEMVT is an international Foundation established in 1975 by 15 Universities from 10 West European
Countries. Its aim is to make available, through a collaborative activity, short intensive courses of study through
which engi*neers and postgraduate students inMarine Technology can update, refresh and extend their knowledge
and skills. Since the foundation of WEGEMVT, the membership has increased to twenty-eight universities from
fourteen West European Countries and fifteen very successful Schools have now been organised on a wide
range of subjects. WEGEMVT Schools are organised by one or two member Universities, with additional lecturing
staff invited from other universities, marine industries, research organisations, classification societies, or
wherever the best expertise is available.
AIMS OF THE COURSE

Increasing demands from the labour-market, in particular from marine industries, made the twenty-six
Universities, aware of the need of providing an advanced tool of knowledge in the field of vibration, noise and
shock on board ships.
An intensive course on these items was proposed aiming at reaching the following specific objectives:
-
making students and people operating inthe marine field, aware of the reasons why noise and vibration on
board should be minimized;
providing an acceptable level of theoretical bases inorder to understand the physical phenomena involved;
transmitting an update level of knowledge about noise and the related vibration phenomena on board ships,
in particular about the excitation mechanisms and propagation paths;
illustrating the different methods, at present available or in course of investigation, to make ships more quiet
and to fulfil national/international standards;
providing outline information on the effects of impulsive loadings on the ship, due to underwater explosions
(shock);
providing alist of high-level references, indicating the technical literature available to go deeper into any
specific aspect.
The overall expected result will be an improved sensitivity to the problems presented inthe course.
This means not only awareness of the physical phenomena involved, their effects, and possible solutions, but
also capability to transmit the related elements of knowledge inthe operative environments where the students
act or intend to work, in particular within Universities and marine industries.
The final aim of all these efforts should be not only to create more qualified professional figures. in order to
make ships a higher-quality product, but also to contribute to form a mentality more open to social problems
as, for example, the acoustic pollution.
PROGRAMME OF THE SCHOOL

Monday, 23 March 1992
08.00 - 09,00 - Registration of the Participants
09.00 - 09.30
09.30 - 10.00
10.00 - 12.00
- Presentation of the course

- Invited Lecture
1.Introductory Lectures
- "Basic concepts of sound and vibration"
Francesco MARULO - University of Naples (I)
12.00 - 14.00 - Lunch
14.00 - 15-00 - "Human response to sound and vibration"
Marinus J.A.M. DE REGT - TPD - TNO (NL)
15.00 - 16.00 - "Introduction to ship acoustics"
Francesco MARULO - University of Naples (1)
16.00- 17.00 - "Standards, requirements, recommendations on noise and vibration on board ships"
Marinus J.A.M. DE REGT - TPD -.TNO (NL)
17.00 - 17.30 - "Representative figures of noise in ships"
Marinus J.A.M. DE REGT - TPO - TNO (NL)
Tuesday, 24 March 1992

09.00 - 09.30
2.Main Noise and Vibration Sources

- Introductory lesson
Enrico RIZZUTO - University of Genoa (I)
09.30 - 11.30 - "Diesel engines, rotating machinery, gears, auxiliary machinery"
Gianroberto BESIO - Diesel Ricerche (I)
11.30 - 12.00 - "Heating, ventilation, air-conditioning systems (HVAC)"
Pasquale CALCAGNO - Cetena (I)
12.00 - 12.30 - "Ship flow noise"
Giovanni CAPRINO - Cetena (I)
12.30 - 14.30 - Lunch
14.30 - 15.30 - "Exhaust systems"
Henk F. STEENHOEK - TPD - TNO (NL)
15.30 - 17.30 - "Propellers, bow thrusters, water jets"
Carl Anders JOHNSSON - SSPA (S)
Wednesday, 25 March 1992

09.00 - 09.30
-
09.30 - 11.00
11.00 - 12.30
12.30 - 14.30
14.30 - 15.00
3.Transmission
Luciana RICCIARDIELLO - Cetena (I)
3.1. Interaction Source - Ship Structure
- "Resilient mounting"
Robert G. WHITE - ISVR (UK)
- "Resiliently mounted engines"
Robert G. WHITE - ISVR (UK)
- Lunch
- "Propeller/hull interaction"
Anders C. NILSSON - The Royal Inst. of Technology (S)
15.00
17.00 3.2. Description of Structure - borne Sound Transmission in Ship Structures

- "Empirical, statistical, theoretical approaches"
Anders C.NILSSON - The Royal Inst. of Technology (S)
17.00 - 17.30
- "New materials"
Anders C.NILSSON - The Royal Inst. of Technology (S)
Thursday, 26 March 1992

09.00 - 09.30
09.30 - 10.30
- "Concepts to reduce power flow in structures"

Jean Louis GUYADER - INSA - Lyon (F)
Annie BLANCHET - Chantiers de I'Atlantique (F)

10.30 - 12.30
12.30 - 14.30
3.3. Noise radiation: into air and into water

- Lunch
14.30 - 15.30 4.Working Spaces and Accommodations

- "Airborne sound and room acoustics"
15.30 - 16.00 - "Noise reducing measures in engine rooms"
Marinus J. A. M. DE REGT - TPD - TNO (NL)
16.00 - 16.30 - "Noise reducing measures in accommodations"
Marinus J. A. M. DE REGT - TPD - TNO (NI)
Friday, 27 March 1992

5.Noise and Vibration Control in Practice
09.00 - 10.00
10.00 - 11.00
- "Instrumentation, measurement techniques"

Henk F. STEENHOEK - TPD - TNO (NI)
- "Conflicting requirements in ship design"
Annie BLANCHET - Chantiers de rAtlantique (F)

11.00 - 12.30
Kai A.ABRAHAMSEN/Einar BRUBAKK - DNV (N)

12.30 - 14.30
14.30 - 15.30
15.30 - 17.30
- Lunch
6.Design
- "Design Policy"
Enrico BONETTI - CNI - Fincantieri (I)
- "Applications: 2 case - studies"
Kai A. ABRAHAMSEN/Einar BRUBAKK - ONV (N)
Saturday, 28 March 1992

08.00 - 10.00
10.00 - 12.00
12.00 - 13.00
7.Shock
- "Introduction to and general overview of shock phenomena"

Joseth K. HAMMOND - ISVR (UK)
- "Acquisition and analysis of shock phenomena"
Joseth K. HAMMOND - ISVR (UK)
- Course closure (Invited Lecture)
Gian Luigi VALDENAZZI - University of Genoa (I)
16th WEGEMT SCHOOL

Steering Committee Members
Frank J.FAHY
ISVR - Institute of Sound and
Vibration Research
University of Southampton
Southampton S09 5NH
UNITED KINGDOM
Tel. +44-703-592399
Fax +44-703-671532
Jean Michel MONOOT

ACOUPHEN
Centre d'Entreprise et d'Innovation
27 Boulevard du 11 Novembre 1918
BP 2132
69603 VILLEURBANNE Cedex
FRANCE
Tel. +33-78896361
Fax +33-72440732
Anders C.NILSSON
THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY
Dept. of Technical Acoustics
Brinellv. 28
S-100 44 STOCKHOLM
SWEDEN
Tel. +46-8-7907941
Fax +46-8-7906122
Chris J.D. PICKERING ()

Vibration Research
Southampton S09 5NH
UNITED KINGDOM
Tel. +44-703-593716
or +44-703-593561
Fax +44-703-593017
Giorgio SANI
CETENA
Italian Ship Research Center
Via al Mold Giano (Calata Grazie)
16126 GENOVA
ITALY
Tel. +39-10-5995480
Fax +39-10-5995790
Henk F.STEENHOEK
TPD-Institute of Applied Physics
TNO
PO Box 155
Stieltjeesweg 1
2600 AD Delft
THE NETHERLANDS
Tel. +31-15-692440
Fax +31-15-692111
() Deputy UK Member for European Affairs
Rodolfo TEDESCHI
Tel. +39-10-3532420
UNIVERSITA 01 GENOVA
Istituto Policattedra di
Ingegneria Navale
Via Montallegro. 1
16145 GENOVA
ITALY
or +39-10-3532411
Fax +39-10- 318709
School Scientific Assistant:

Luciana RICCIARDIELLO
(till 1991)
CETENA
Via al Molb Giano
(Calata Grazie)
(since 1992)
AUTOMA
Industrial Systems Automation
Research and Development Dept.
Via at Mold Vecchio
(Calata Gadda)
16126 GENOVA
ITALY
Tel. +39-10-5995764
Fax +39-10-5995790
Tel. +39-10- 20921

Fax +39-10-203987
School Secretary:
Stefania RICCO
CETENA
16126 GENOVA
ITALY
Tel. +39-10-5995793
Fax +39-10-5995790
WEGEMT EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE: CONTACT ADDRESSES

Hallvard ENGJA (Chairman)
UNIVERSITETET I TRONDHEIM
Norges tekniske hogskole
Department of Marine Technology
Division of Marine Engineering
Marine Technological Centre
N-7034 TRONDHEIM-NTH
NORWAY
Jim GRANT (Secretary) WEGEMT Secretariat
MTD - The Marine Technology Directorate
Limited
19 Buckingham Street
LONDON WC2N 6EF
UNITED KINGDOM
Tel. +47-7-595556
Fax +47-7-595983
Tel. +44-71-3210674
Fax +44-71-9304323
Marinus J.AM. DE REGT

TNO
PO Box 155
Stieltjeesweg I
2600 AD Delft
THE NETHERLANDS
Tel. +31-15-692352
Fax +31-15-692111
Jean Louis GUYADER

INSA (Institut National des Sciences
Appliqu6es) - LYON
Bt. 303
20 Av. Albert Einstein
69621 Villeurbanne Cedex
FRANCE
Tel. +33-72438080
Fax +33-72440800
Joseph K. HAMMOND
Vibration Research
Southampton SO9 5NH
UNITED KINGDOM
Carl-Anders JOHNSSON
SSPA
PO Box 24001
Chalmers Tvargata 10
S - 40022 GOTEBORG
SWEDEN
Francesco MARULO
UNIVERSITA DI NAPOLI
FacoltA di Ingegneria
Istituto di Progetto Velivoli
Via Claudio, 21
80125 NAPOLI
ITALY
Anders C.NILSSON
THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY
Brinellv. 28
S-100 44 STOCKHOLM
SWEDEN
Tel. +44-703-592274
Fax +44-703-593033
Tel. +46-31-639572
Fax +46-31-639624
Tel. +39-81-7683327
or +39-81- 614066
Fax +39-81- 624609
Tel. +46-8-7907941
Fax +46-8-7906122
16th WEGEMT SCHOOL

Teachers
Kai A. ABRAHAMSEN
DET NORSKE VERITAS CLASSIFICATION
Dept. Noise and Vibration
P0 Box 300
Veritasveien 1
N - 1322 HOEVIK
NORWAY
Tel. +47-2-477495
Fax +47-2-47991 /2
Gianroberto BESID
DIESEL RICERCHE
ENGINEERING TECHNICAL SERVICES
Bagnoli della Rosandra, 334
34018 TRIESTE
ITALY
Tel. +39-40-3195260
Fax +39-40-3195628
Annie BLANCHET
CHANTIERS DE UATLANTIQUE
B.P. 400
44608 Saint-Nazaire Cedex
FRANCE
Tel. +33-40909138
Fax +33- 40909508
Enrico BONETTI
CNI (Cantieri Navali Italiani)
FINCANTIERI
Via Cipro, 11
16129 GENOVA
ITALY
Tel. +39-10-5995356
Fax +39-10-5995379
Einar BRUBAKK
DET NORSKE VERITAS CLASSIFICATION
Dept. Noise and Vibration
PO Box 300
Veritasveien 1
N - 1322 HOEVIK
NORWAY
Tel. +47-2-477463
Fax +47-2-479911/2
Pasquale CALCAGNO
CETENA
16126 GENOVA
ITALY
Tel. +39-10-5995764
Fax +39-10-5995790
Giovanni CAPRIND
CETENA
Via alMolb Giano (Calata Grazie)
15126 GENOVA
ITALY
Tel. +39-10-5995470
Fax +39-10-5995790
Luciana RICCIARDIELLO ()
(till 1991)
CETENA
Via al MolD Giano
(Calata Grazie)
(since 1992)
AUTOMA
Industrial Systems Automation
Via al Mold Vecchio
(Calata Gadda)
16126 GENOVA
ITALY
Tel. +39-10-5995764
Fax +39-10-5995790
Enrico RIZZUTO
UNIVERSITA D0GENOVA
Ingegneria Navale
Via Montallegro. 1
16145 GENOVA
ITALY.
Tel. +39-10-3532429
or +39-10-3532411
Fax +39-10- 318709
Henk F.STEENHOEK
TNO
PO Box 155
Stieltjeesweg 1
2600 AD Delft
THE NETHERLANDS
Tel. +39-10- 20921

Fax +39-10-203987
Tel. +31-15-692440
Fax +31-15-692111
Gian Luigi VALDENAZZI (')

Ingegneria Navale
Via Montallegro, 1
16145 GENOVA
ITALY
Tel. +39-10-3532411
Fax +39-10- 318709
Robert G. WHITE
Vibration Research
Southampton S09 5NH
UNITED KINGDOM
Tel. +44-703-592315
Fax +44-703-593033
V ) School Scientific Assistant

(') Invited Lecturer
INDEX
-VOLUME
I-
SESSION : Noise and Vibration

CHAPTER :1. INTRODUCTORY LECTURES
LESSON
1. Basic Concepts of Sound and Vibration
LESSON
2. Human Response to Sound and Vibration
LESSON
3. Introduction to Ship Acoustics
LESSON
4. Standards, Requirements, Recommendations on Noise and Vibration
on Board Ships
LESSON
5. Representative Figures of Noise in Ships
CHAPTER :2. MAIN NOISE AND VIBRATION SOURCES
LESSON : 6. Diesel Engines, Rotating Machinery, Gears, Auxiliary Machinery
LESSON
7. Heating, Ventilation, Air-conditioning Systems (HVAC)
LESSON
8. Ship Flow Noise
LESSON
9. Exhaust Systems
LESSON :10. Propellers; Bow Thrusters; Water Jets
CHAPTER : 3. TRANSMISSION
3.1 Interaction Source - Ship Structure
LESSON :11. Resilient Mounting
LESSON :12. Resiliently Mounted Engines
LESSON :13. Propeller/Hull Interaction
3.2 Description of Structure - borne Sound Transmission in Ship Structures
LESSON :14. Empirical, Statistical, Theoretical Approaches
LESSON :15. New Materials
LESSON :16. Concepts to Reduce Vibration Propagation in Structures
3.3 Noise Radiation: into Air and into Water
LESSON : 17. Noise Radiation into Air and into-Water
-VOLUME
pag. 3.1
pag. 4.1
pag. 5.1
pag. 6.1
pag. 7.1
pag. 8.1
pag. 9.1
pag. 10.1
pag. 11.1
pag. 12.1
pag. 13.1
pag. 14.1
pag. 15.1
pag. 16.1
pag. 17.1
II-
CHAPTER : 4. WORKING SPACES AND ACCOMMODATIONS

LESSON :18. Airborne Sound Transmission in Rooms
LESSON :19. Noise Reducing Measures in Engine Rooms
LESSON :20. Noise Reducing Measures in Accommodations
CHAPTER :5. NOISE AND VIBRATION CONTROL IN PRACTICE
LESSON : 21. Instrumentation, Measurement Techniques
LESSON : 22. Conflicting Requirements in Ship Design
CHAPTER : 6. DESIGN
LESSON : 23. Design Policy
LESSON : 24 A. Applications: Noise and Vibration
Control Onboard Fast Passenger Vessels
LESSON: 24 B.Applications: Conversion of a Large
Cruise Vessel from Steam to Diesel
SESSION
pag. 1.1
pag. 2.1
pag. 18.1
pag. 19.1
pag. 20.1
pag. 21.1
pag. 22.1
pag. 23.1
pag. 24.1
pag. 24.19
Shock
CHAPTER : 7. SHOCK
LESSON : 25. Introduction to and General Overview of Shock Phenomena
LESSON :26. Modelling Techniques and Associated Signal Processing.
COURSE CLOUSURE :27. Shock Design Analysis of Shipboard Equipment - An Overview
pag. 25.1
pag. 26.1
pag. 27.1
CHAPTER: 1
INTRODUCTORY LECTURES
LESSON
1
16th WEEGEMT SCHOOL
SESSION
CHAPTER
LESSON
TEACHERS,
COMPANIES &
BIOGRAPHIES
COUNTRY
ABSTRACT
:
:
Noise and Vibration

1. INTRODUCTORY LECTURES
1. Basic Concepts of Sound and Vibration
Francesco MARULO - UNIVERSITA' DI NAPOLI
Facolta' Ingegneria-Istituto Progetto Velivoli
Via Claudio, 21 - 80125 Napoli
He was graduated at the University of Naples "Federico
II"
in Aeronautical Engineering in 1981.After
his
graduation he joined the Aircraft Design Institute of the
same University, where he started studying structural
dynamics
and aeroelasticity problems.
He also did
research in the acoustic field, mainly using Finite
Element codes and structural acoustic analogy to approach
fluid-structure interaction problems.
Luciana RICCIARDIELLO AUTOMA
Industrial Automation Systems: R&D Dept.
Via al Molo Vecchio(Calata Gadda)- 16126 Genova
Born in 1953 and graduated in Mathematics at the Genova
University in 1976, she joined CETENA in 1976, where she
remained up to 1991.
Major involvements: Development of theoretical models for
prediction of vibration and noise; participation to
International
Technical Committees
(ISSC,ICMES,ISO);
scientific coordination of EC projects (MAST,COMETT).
In 1991 she joined AUTOMA, where is presently involved in
Neural Networks development.
Enrico RIZZUTO - UNIVERSITA' DI GENOVA
Istituto Policattedra di Ingegneria Navale
Via Montallegro 1 - 16145 Genova
Born in 1962, graduated in 1986 at the Genova University
in Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering, he joined
CETENA in 1986 and the University of Genoa as researcher
in 1990.
Activity:propeller design & verification; analysis of
noise surveys (model & full scale)
ITALY
The basic concepts of noise and vibration are herein
presented, in their hystorical view, physical analogies,
similarities and diversification. Main definitions in the
'noise' area are. given,
together with the related
physics.,
in order to provide background to the following
lessons; simple exercises are also proposed.
A glossary containing the basic terminology in the fields
concerned is finally given.
More
extensive biographies of both teachers will be found

'Introductory lessons'.
I.'
in
the
11 INTRODUCTION
Acoustics can be considered a young

science. Up to one
hundred years ago it was an art,
and during this century,
mainly following the tremendous
development
of
the
electronics,
it
is entering in the precision-engineering
era.
The first great names who stated
the foundation
of
acoustics are Rayleigh, Stokes, Thomson, Lamb, Helmholtz,
Xonig, Tyndall, Kundt. Their contribution to the physics of
sound were followed by the two volumes of Lord Rayleigh,
Theory of sound (1877-1878) which is still
a milestone for
those approaching such studies.
The first acceleration in the field of acoustics followed
the invention of triode-vacuum-tube circuits (1907) and the
advent of radiobroadca sting (1920).
Architectural acoustics received a boost principally from
the theoretical and experimental application coming from
MIT and
UCLA (1930-1940) and several research centers in
England and Germany. Consequently the
sound decay in
rectangular
rooms was explained and the acoustic impedance
was introduced as a tool for classifying
acoustical
materials.
Other sciences came also out like the psychoacoustics and
the study of the effects of noise on man.
The development
of
the modern society has lead to more and more sound
sources giving higher and higher noise levels. Noise is
nowadays one of the most widely and frequently experienced
problems of the industrial working environment.
Today the
acoustics and,
from our point of view the noise, has
reached a complete dignity of design parameter
for many
human projects and productions.
The acoustic requirements
are always less a suggestion and'always more a need which,
if one does not meet, the success of a specific project can
be seriously affected.
Unfortunately noise problems
are not easily to solve.
Virtually every problem in noise and vibration control
involves
a system composed of three basic elements: a
source, a path and a receiver. Before a solution to a
complex noise (and vibration) problem can be designed,
the
dominant source of the noise
must
be
known,
the
characteristics of the significant transmission paths must
be understood,
and a criterion
for a permissible or
acceptable level must be available. These three elements do
not necessarily act independently.
The radiated sound
power, for example,
depends on the environment surrounding
the source. A machine may radiate more sound if placed in
the corner of a room rather than in
some other location,
and so on. At the same way that path of the sound may be
affected by acoustical,
details of
the source and the
receiver, as well as by their heights above the ground.
1.2
affects man both physically,

anticipated,
as
noise,
The
damage hearing,
Itcan
socially.
psychologically and
be annoving, cause tiredness
interfere with communication,
and reduce efficiency. The reduction of hearing sensitivity
can be permnanent, irreversible and never more be repaired.
and then
intense noise
After spending a short period in
quiet sounds can no longer be
to a quieter area,
moving
the
Only if the noise had not been too intense or
heard.
duration too long, normal hearing returns after a period of
Noise can also influence blood circulation and cause
rest.
can
it
effects.
psychologically
other
stress and
influence the ability to understand speech.
significantly
At around 70 dB, for example, it is difficult to carry on a
telephone conversation. At present time many countries are
in
legal limits for direct exoosure to noise,
setting up
studies
order to protect employees and to address specific
working
suitably quiet
of
a
creation
the
toward
environment.
1.2.
PHYSICAL PHENOMENA
always
noise and vibration
1.2.1 Very often people talk 'about
and
control
application,
studies,
for
together
linked
reduction.
concepts
intuitive
This Chapter is devoted to recall some
concerning vibration and noise, with some emphasis to both
analogies and differences.
Both these phenomena are basically relying on the presence
water,
(air,
'waves' which propagate through a medium
of
thus
inertia and elasticity,
its
structure) because of
originating motions of the component particles.
The 'Inertia' is related to the density of the medium, t-i.
is
'Elasticity'
The
the mass of the particles component.
capability of the medium (body) to react to
on the
based
initial
trying to restore the
forces,
the external
equilibrium position.
the
wave propagation can be observed, in
The pattern of
space, time or frequency domain.
sinusoidal
Let's see how the simplest form of wave,
one, can be described in the three domains
-the
a) Time domain (see fig.2.l.a)

The wave can be described with two independent variables:
-
adjacent
between two
time
(T):
Period
positions;
from the
Amplitude (A) :maximum displacement
position.
motionless
motionless
b) Space domain (fig.2.L.bl:

-
again two variables:
Length
( A ) the space between two consecutive points
showing the same displacement.
Amplitude (A)
c) Frequency domain:
the two variables are:
Frequency f, the inverse of the Period (l/T),

which
re
presents how many sinusoids are included in the
unit-time: it is measured in cycles/seconds, which
unit is called 'Hertz'(Hz).
Amplitude (A)
The
last two domains are very correlated by the definition
of frequency itself, but also the
first two are not
independent,
because a relation between A and T is set by
the wave speed c in the medium
c = A/T = 2sf
c is dependent on the medium characteristics only.
In substances of either
gaseous
or
liquid
state,
perturbations propagate only in a form of longitudinal wave
(compressed wave).
SINUSOIDAL
E
PATTERN OF
~C
THE
WAVE
'a'
t;rne
spoce
Fig.l.1
In solid substances, however, perturbations transmit either
in the form of longitudinal wave, bending wave, shear wave
or torsional wave, and reach us after being radiated
into
air.
These concepts and related definitions will be illustrated
more deeply in the subsequent lessons.
1.4
Speaking in a general way it can be said that a wave is

completely
described
once
two independent variables
describing the wave (amplitude and one more among time,
frequency and space)
and the medium characteristics are
given.
The physical quantities commonly used for describing waves,
more appropriate for the different
cases,
will
be
illustrated Aater.
As mentioned before,
the concept of "wave" is common to
both the so-called "vibration" and noise.
what makes them different is the different frequency range
covered; schematically one can distinguish:
a) VIBRATION: approximately 0.5-50 Hz
b) NOISE:
approximately 16-16000 Hz
Roughly speaking, the noise frequency field corresponds to
the human hearing perception, while the vibration field,
even
if
partially
overlapping with the first one,
corresponds to a perception experienced by the whole human
body: namely the discomfort is mainly due to oscillations
transmitted
through
the
supporting
interface
(floor,seat...).
Vibration phenomena occurring over 16000 Hz are outside of
the common human ear sensitivity and belong to the sphere
of the 'Ultrasonic' effects.
However, it must be noted that also vibrations that
propagate in media different from air (f.i. steel),
when
falling into the frequency range 16+'16000 Hz,
are called
"noise" even if not directly perceived by ears.
Usually
these
vibrations
are
referred
to
as
"structure-borne noise" or "structural noise".
On the other hand,
those perceived directly by ears are
called
'airborne noise".
This concept will be better
clarified in subsequent lessons.
Another
consequence of the different frequency range
covered by vibration and noise is the different effect on
objects:
f.i.
low-frequency vibration excitations can be
dangerous for the main ship structure, while high-frequency
noise can affect the performance of delicate electronic
devices on board.
The above-mentioned differences in
frequencies
lead to
different
measure
techniques,
different
prediction
approaches and different counter-measures for the reduction
of unwanted effects.
The
present
course
will
basically
deal with
high-frequency range of vibrations, corresponding to
noise field.
1.5
the
the
1.2.2 The physical quantities commonly

propagating through solids are:
used to describe waves
- displacement
- velocity
- acceleration
This is valid both for
"vibration" and "structure-borne
noise".
When dealing with gases or liquids, the physical quantities
commonly used for describing the acoustical phenomena are:
- pressure
- power
- intensity
While
the relation among displacement,
velocity and
acceleration is well known, the concept of pressure, power
and intensity and their relation will be illustrated
herebelow.
Pressure
In this context, when talking about waves in a fluid and

related pressure, in'reality what is taken into account is
the "variation of pressure" observed in the point under
investigation.
The sound pressure magnitude is defined as the "effective"
value of the instantaneous pressure (i.e. R-IS value = root
mean square value).
Power /I/
A sound source (f.i. a machinery) radiates power. A portion
of this power will flow through each small region of the
medium surrounding the source.
If there are no losses in the medium, all this radiated
power must pass through any surface that encloses the
source. The larger the enclosing surface, the less the
power per unit area that will pass through any element of
the surface.
A simple nondirectional source of sound located at the
center of a spherical surface is shown in Fig. 1.2.
,j
*,r,.i,
' o-.
,.
s.,
o,
A simnple
nnseso
sourc of sound located at the
center of a spherical surface pr
duces a s
spheric"a
Fig. 1.2 /1/
1.6
nd power of K' warts.
The ntetaq of the sound 3* all

pn. on the surfaceia I - W/S
.
wrn'hm where the area of the
surface of ndius
ia
Intensity
The energy flow per unit area is called "intensity".
if w represents the total acoustic power
In other words,
and
I
source
(expressed in watts)
by
the
radiated
represents
the intensity, w
is equal to the product of I
times the area of the surface:
W = I * S
watts
If the sound source is directional, the intensity will vary

over the surface and the total power radiated W must be
found by integration over the surface S
W =
fIs dS
watts
S
each
where Is = intensity through
the surface, watts/m 2
incremented area dS of
2
S = area of the enclosing surface, m
Sound intensity is difficult to be measured directly, but,

the
intensity can be
some simple relationships,
using
determined from pressure variations.
to be
cases
are the last ones
of practical
In most
measured.
in the direction of the wave propagation
Point by point,
the intensity is given by:
I =
P 2 /ec
(W/m
2 )
where
c = velocity of sound
= density of the air
(m/s)
(kg/m')
Velocity
in solid substances perturbations
As already mentioned,
either in the form of longitudinal wave, bending
transmit
receiver
wave, shear wave or torsional wave and reach the
after being radiated into the air.
On the other hand, in substance of either gaseous or liquid
they propagate only in the form of longitudinal
state,
waves (compressed waves).
Different expressions are therefore used when dealing with
"sound velocity", depending on the medium /3/; namely:
Velocity of longitudinal wave C is defined as:
- for infinite solid:
- for infinite plate:
- for rod or bar:
C = VE (l-v) /(l+v)(l-
C
(-
m/s
CL=E/e
m/s
1.7
/s
CS
velocity of shear wave

C3=VE
is defined as:
/ 2e (1+v)
M/s
where:
[N=Newton]
E = Young's Modulus, in N/mr

G - Shear Modulus, in N/m 2
y = Poisson's ratio
= Density of the medium, in kg/m'
Sound velocity in air
C=
C is defined as:
'ryJp,/e
in m/s
where:
pa= atmospheric air pressure, in 10
N/mr
ratio of specific heat at constant volume and specific

heat at constant pressure, ca. 1.4
density of air,
at 15C.
approximately 1.226 kg/mr
for dry air

C)
The sound velocity in air at room temperature (20

approximately 340 m/s:
Aluminum
5150
6300
Brass
3500
4700
Steel
5050
6100
Liquids : Water (fresh)

Water (sea)
Alcohol
1481
1500
1150
Solids
Gas:
Air
Oxygen
is
343
317
The two values for the solid media correspond to sound

velocity in bars and bulk respectively.
1.3.
BASIC CONCEPTS ON VIBRATION AND

NOISE
1.3.1 Basic properties of the oscillating

bodies
The well known basic equation of
motion
Ms +Cs +Ks = F(t)
(1.1)
simply means that,if a time-varying
force F(t) is applied
to the center of gravity of
a body and no external
restraints are applied,
the body itself undergoes a
displacement s(t) in the di-rection
of the applied force.
The displacement and the derived
velocity
and accelerations
originate three reaction forces
which altogether balance
the external applied force.
The three components of the reaction
are connected to each
other by a common parameter (s)
and its derivatives, but
their value depends on some peculiar
characteristics of the
body as follows:
Ms (Inertia force) depends on the
mass of the body (M);
Cs (Damping force) depends on
damping coefficient,
which in turn is connected to the
the viscous properties of
the material (C).;
Ks (Elastic force) depends on
the stiffness of the body
(K);
In the case of oscillatory motions
applied to the body, the
force will be of sinusoidal
(cosinusoidal or combined)
type:
F(t)= F.sin Qt (or cos 92t)
(1.2)
and the particle will undergo
a displacement of the same
type with some delay expressed by
the phase (0)
s(t)= s.sin (ft + 0)
The case will
problem.
be
referred
1.9
(1.3)
to
as
'Forced
Vibration'
If
F=0,
equation (1.1) will be solved as well,
but (1.3)
will no more represent a real motion, but
the
potential
pattern of
motion of the body (t.i. the relative amplitude
of
displacement of
the points
of
the body in case an
hypotetical synusoidal force would excite it).
A
'Natural
Vibration' problem will .exist in such a case.
The previous concepts are straightforward in the case
of a
very simple system composed by one single mass,
one damper
and one spring(elasticity), which is referred to as
a 'one
degree- of- freedom' system, because one only pattern
of
displacement is allowed.
Fig.
1.3 shows
such an idealized system in the original
position and in a displayed position, highlighting
in turn
the
three
components of
the reaction:displacement
s
associated to the spring, velocity X associated
to the
piston(damper)
and
acceleration a -associated
to the
sphere(mass).
If no external force is applied and the mass
is
gently
compressed
along the spring and immediately released,
the
'one-degree-of-freedom' system will be able to vibrate
at
one well defined
frequency 1, which
is typical of the
system.
The same applies
to a
'one degree-of-freedom'
system
excited
normally to -instead of along- the spring axis,
provided
the spring has
no more axial, but flexural
elasticity (fig. 1.4).
Let
now
consider
a system with several
(f.i.
3)
masses-dampers-springs with
different
properties
and
displace
the system from its original position, suddenly
releasing it
immediately after.
If the experience is
repeated several times it will be possible to identify
only
a number of frequencies of natural vibration corresponding
to the number of 'degrees - of
freedom' (t.i.masses
dampers
- springs) existing in the original system ( 3 in
the example).
If the relative position of the three masses of the
system
are shown in a diagram for each
frequency, it will be
possible
to identify three possible patterns (curves) of
motion, each associated to one frequency (fig.1.5).
The frequencies and the related patterns of motion
are
called 'Natural Frequencies' and 'Modes' respectively.
Both
Natural
Frequencies
and
Modes
are
intrinsec
characteristics to the system, as is the number of
massesdampers- springs, called 'Degrees-of-Freedom'.
A system with N Degrees-of-Freedom' will be able to
display
N Natural Frequencies and N related Modes.
I.*IS
omper
moss
SYSTEM
OF FREEDOM
AXIAL VIBRATION OF A ONE DECREE
spdring
FORCED
VIBRATION
Fig.
VERTICAL
MO Cv Ks - F()
Mo - Cv
NATURAL VIBRATIOt
Ks - 0
1. 3
VIBRATION OF A ONE DECREE OF FREEDOM
&
05i
spring
><
domper
Fig. 1 .4
I.*II
SYSTEM
VERTICAL VIBRATION OF A 3 DEGREES

OF FREEDOM SYSTEM
ORIGINAL POSITION
System v~bra~es at
'Naturoa frequency' f(
and its mode is as in
the left picture (2 nodes)
-itThe
I
I
The system
Fig.
1.5
I T.2
The system vibrates at

"Naturol frequency" Q2
and ;ts mode is as in
the left picture (3 nodes)
vibrates at
"Notural frequency" Q3
and its mode is Cs in
*the 11eft picture (4 nodes)
Now the 'resonance' concept will be introduced.

If
the
previous-mentioned one-degree-of-freedom system is
excited by a unit force slowly sweeping the whole frequency
range and the amplitude of
the related displacement
is
shown for each frequency in a diagram, the pattern will be
as in Fig.l.6.a).
It
is
evident that
the amplitude
of
the
response
(displacement) of
the system increases
as far
as the
exciting frequency approaches a 'Natural Frequency'.
When
the
two values coincide, a maximum of response is found:
this situation is of 'resonance'.
A bell-shaped curve is observed in the neighborough of
the
resonance
frequency, the shape of the curve being typical
of the intrinsic characteristics of the system
(Resonance
curve).
Regimes of resonance are dangerous
in the mechanical
systems,
since they undergo additional stresses which can
cause malfunctions and failures.
The, shape of the
'Resonance curve'
for each natural
frequency depends on the damping characteristics of
the
material,
including internal friction, interface friction
and radiation of energy
into
contiguous
fluids
or
structures.
For an
ideal material with no damping,
the curve would
become a vertical
straight
line
(range of frequencies
involved =0) with infinite amplitude. The more the' damping
is important for the material,
the wider the basis of
the
curve
will
be
(thus
involving
a wider range of
frequencies), while the related amplitude will be reduced.
In several practical cases the damping mechanisms doe5 not
significantly affect
the behaviour of the system, thus
allowing to approach the problem of retriving its natural
frequencies
by investigating the equivalent undamped
system.
In
practice
the
complex
industrial
systems
are
multi-degrees-of-freedom, thus showing several bell-shaped
resonance curves.
In this case an external exciting force with a frequency
different from any resonant frequency of the system gives
rise to a response which is the summation of the
response
contributions coming
from the
'tails' of the adjacent
resonance curves.
The response of a multi-degree-of-freedom
system under a
unit force sweeping the whole frequency range is given in
Fig. 1.6.b).
RESONANCE CURVE
b)
o)
~F-F.Isen.,t
AAA
f1
f2
f3
1.13
fM f2
Q 3
f4 f5 f6f7
1.3.2 Frequency analysis

The acoustical and the vibrational
measurements
are
generally time-dependent signals,as f.i.
instantaneous
pressures
or
structural
dynamic
measurements
like
displacements or associated velocities and accelerations.
Such time histories are generally acquired in time domain,
but they are transferred into the frequency domain for a
better and easier way to analyse them.
The object of this domain change is in facts to break down
a complex time-dependent signal, which generally comes out
from such dynamic measurements, into its components at
various frequencies.
In recent years
the
explosive
development of such analysis, due mostly to the incredible
progress of microelectronics, has been experienced.
The well known 'Fourier' expansion formula, applied in this
case to a time-varying exciting force F(t)
F(t)= E(F. sin it + G. cos ct) = E
sin (Cot +f) (1.4)
is the key of translation between time and frequency domain

and is broadly sketched in Fig.3.3, where the Function
'Force',
originally defined in the time domain, can be
represented in terms of (Amplitude of displacement-Phase of
displacement) at each of a set of frequencies.
Theoretically the Fourier formula is expressed in the form
of an integral instead of summation, since conceptually the
number of the implied frequency is infinite, but in the
practical cases the relevant responses of a system occur
along a finite set of frequencies, which supports the use
of (3.4) as a meaninful representation of the Fourier
formula.
A typical example concerns the machinery, where the set of
interested frequencies involves the first-order frequency
(connected
to
the
revolutions per minute) and its
harmonics.
PATTERN OF A FOURIER DECOMPOSITION

TVE
F
(A)
COYAN
FREOQENCY
F.
(A.)'
+
L
2f'2f
Fig.
1.7
1.14
O'CAN
The problem is now focussed on identifying the required

(displacement or velocity or
of the system
response
acceleration) for each frequency component of the Force,
the
expressed once more in the frequency domain, t.i.
the
of
Phase
and
couples (A , d; ) representing Amplitude
the
(or
response
required
the
of
component
i-th frequency
associated Circular Frequency CJ= 2w fQ.
The couple (Amplitude-Phase) identifying the parameters of
under a unit exciting
the response at a given frequency fi
force acting at the same frequency is defined as
component
or
(displacement,velocity
Operator'
'Response
the
acceleration).
Once all the response operators in the interested range of
frequencies have been detected, the response is obtained by
a pure composition:
A(t)
A, sin (Qt + a )
(1.5)
The graph showing the amplitudes (and also the phases) of

the components of a force (cause) or effect (displacement,
velocity or acceleration) as a function of the frequency is
defined as 'spectrum'.
What is important at thi's level is to stress that basically
the noise and vibration problems will be approached in the
frequency domain, executing or implying the performance of
the transformations explained before.
the
in
relevance
particular
a
has
problem
The
instrumentation field, since the majority of the vibration
noise measurements are carried out with devices
and
calibrated in the frequency domain.
Whenever a transformation is required to shift from the
'Time' domain or viceversa, adequate
'Frequency' to the
(Fast-Fourier
mathematics
specific
using
formulae
available.
immediately
be
will
Transform)
Operators"
Some common definitions related to the "Response
(displacement,
involved
parameter
the
to
according
velocity, acceleration) and the corresponding reciprocal
values are given herebelow:
Dynamic Compliance
Displacement / Force
Velocity
Mobility
/ Force
Inertance
Acceleration / Force
Dynamic Stiffness
Force / Displacement
Mechanical Impedence =
Force / velocity
Dynamic Mass
Force / Acceleration
1.15
1.4.
BACKGROUND ON MECHANICAL VIBRATION ON BOARD SHIPS
(f)
1.4.1 The excitation sources

The excitation sources on board ships can be classified
into: propeller-machinery-sea.
a) As a consequence of operating in a non-uniform flow the
is
subjected
to two types of actions
propeller
(fig.1.8).
Each blade is loaded by actions resulting from the
of the time-varying pressures the blade
summation
encounters during its revolution. Conventionally such
actions, which are expressed through the six components
of forces and moments along (around) the coordinate
since they
axis, are identified as 'bearing forces',
propagate along the shaft, thus involving the hull
through the shaft bearings.
In parallel a field of pulsating pressures is generated
around the propeller, which migrate in the surrounding
fluid and involves the hull with further propagation
along the internal structures.Such forces are usually
referred to as 'surface' or 'hull' forces.
which exciting forces are
through
b) The
mechanism
generated in the machinery -and,in particular, in the
main diesel engines- are well known, since pertaining to
the field of the 'Applied Mechanics'; moreover a mention
will be made in a further lesson.
What is of relevance here is to remark that, despite all
efforts to minimise the resulting forces-moments of the
various harmonic components through planning of the
firing order in the cylinders to achieve a balance,
non-zero values are transmitted outside the engine to
the
surrounding structure (and the hull) via the
supports.
slender
the
case
of
Moreover,
particularly in
-they undergo deformations
flexibly-mounted engines,
which once more can involve the engine structure, the
aftmost ship hull and also the superstructures.
c) Also the sea waves can excite the ship structure. The
two most relevant cases are described shortly afterwords
(Fig. 1.9).
Rough impact of the sea waves against the hull may cause
a transient excitation of part of the ship hull,
referred to as 'whipping'.The ship designer usually
tries to minimize the statistical value of the impacts
occurring in the ship lifetime due to the repeated
emersions and sudden immersions into the wave, by a
proper design of the hull forms.
Furthermore waves of length comparable to the ship
length may excite a 2-node vibration (and also other
modes of vibration) referred to as 'springing'.This
excitation is permanent and, as such, induces fatigue
stresses on the structures.
has been
Chapter
*) This
Department" of CETENA
1.16
contributed
by
the
"Structural
PROPELLER-EXCITED
FORCES
b)
b)
BEARING FORCES
NON-UNIFORM FLOW
c)
HULL
(SURFACE)
Fig.1.9
SEA (WAVE)
FORCES
-INDUCED
b) Springing
Fig. 1. 9
1.17
1.4.2 The transmission path

a) The bearing forces ,through the shaft, are transmitted,
via the shaft bearings, to the hull structures.
Vibration affects both the structures and the shaft.
The hull forces affect primarily the aftermost hull
plates; hence, through decks and bulkheads, propagates
to the hull structures.
b) The forces generated within the engine are directly
transmitted to the double bottom through its supports.
They also propagate along the shaft,
inducing flexural,
axial and torsional shaft vibrations.
Final effects are also found in the hull as a whole body
and in some local structures.
c) Both the whipping forces and the springing ones may
cause vibration of the entire hull or extended parts of
it.
While the whipping, forces may affect the vibratory
behaviour of the hull, the springing ones are of no
particular concern,
in consideration of the particular
situation under which they develop.
1.4.3 The receivers
The abovementioned forces, propagating according to the
schemes illustrated, affect several ship areas causing
vibration effects.
In connection with the receiving area,
the effects can be classified as follows:
a) The hull-beam vibration
At low frequencies of excitation (slightly differing
from ship to ship), main vibration occurs in a vertical
plane according to the shapes shown in Fig. 1.10, which
represent the first modes of the ship-system (see Ch.3).
Assuming
a
reference axis corresponding with the
water-line,
the first vertical mode will be a curve
intersecting twice this reference axis (two-nodes mode:
a)),
the second will intersect the axis three times
(three-nodes mode: b))
and so on, up to a generic
N-nodes mode: c)).
Occasionally different-type beam modes
will
occur
showing longitudinal, horizontal or torsional shapes (or
a mixing of all),
interspersed with the regular series
of i-nodes vertical vibration.
For all the shapes the points of a same cross-section
are supposed to undergo the same vertical displacement,
so that the ship pattern can be represented by its
In general the model

longitudinal axis, t.i. a beam.
adopted to predict the natural frequencies and modes in
this range will be just a beam.
b) The superstructure vibration
At higher frequencies (up to 15-20 Hz) practically all
the modes found involve the superstructure in various
ways,
basically
for
a
combination
of the own
deformation, the deformation of the supporting structure
and also for the induced effect of the hull motions.
The longitudinal component
of
the
superstructure
vibration will be of utmost importance because of the
resulting annoying effects on the crew.
The main components of the superstructure motion are
shown
in
fig.
1.11,
with no need for further
explanation.
In practice the real motion of
the
superstructure
dur'ing
the
vibration
will
be a
composition of the simple schemes there shown.
The model required for predicting the characteristics of
the system (natural frequencies, modes) will be complex
and will require a detailed definition of the structure
involved in the anticipated motion. Recourse is made in
several Shipyards to the Finite Element Method (FEM), by
modelling the structure involved through a fine mesh of
panels.
c)
The local vibrations

Some vibrations also occur within some restricted ship
areas, mostly concerning structural components (parts
of the double-bottom, bulkheads ...).
The engineering approach for their prediction varies
according to the type of area involved, the stage of the
design, etc.
Often Finite Element simplified models are used.
1.4.4 The hull-beam parameters

Referring to the basic concepts illustrated in Ch.3, the
ship behaving as a girder (hull-bean) will be compared to
an N - degrees - of - freedom system, with masses - springs
dampers settled along a longitudinal axis and able to
undergo vertical (flexural) displacements, as in Fig.l.5.
A problem will arise in modelling the ship about which
equivalent mass(es) - damper(s) - spring(s) will have to be
adopted to properly simulate the ship behaviour and obtain
reliable results.
1.19
BEAM MODES
HULL
a)
b)
- - - - -
r . . -. - .L- -
-.
---
- -- -
- -- -
-- - - - -- ---
a) Two -Nodes
b) Three-Nodes
-Nodes
C) N
,.--,
-------
----------
Fig. 1.10
SUPERSTRUCTURE MODES
*IL*I. VeIhiC=l vCraziln -rtOIl. J~ rockang Inc
bi Hull i gi!u
tcina' vibra3io ftgid body orC
e and aft rons auon
r
I
elstic bor.&ng dcfomution

C
aCz
JSi( U,.
.',I~_ Vbf.[
cj
t}r~~r
,tjr,5Iru
-li
!-
-Fig
---
T. 20
Iton
Fig. 11
a)
mass
Three mass components will have to be considered in

ship:
-
the
structures, equipment and arrangements;

added external mass of the entrained sea water;
added internal mass of the cargo (behaviour similar to
the previous one if the cargo is fluid).
b) Damping
Four types of damping components are considered:
-
Structural damping, due to the frictional effects of

the structures and their connections;
Hydrodynamic damping,
due to the energy spent in
the
formation of waves;
Radiated damping in the surrounding fluid;
Internal
Damping,
connected
to the friction of the
cargo;.
However the prevailing one is the structural damping,

pratically the only one taken into consideration.
c) Stiffness
Basically two components are considered:
-
Structural stiffness;
Stiffness due to machineries
When modelling the ship to obtain natural frequencies

and modes according to the beam-hull scheme,
the
previous properties will have to be evaluated as mean
values for each longitudinal
ship portion included
between two adjacent sections of the model.
The longitudinal weight distribution for structure,
outfitting..
will be. assumed
for the
ship
mass
evaluation and lumped into the representative points in
the model;
the fluid added mass contribution will be
evaluated according to conventional formulae, each valid
for a specific expected mode.
The structural stiffness will be evaluated according to
the W of the "sections represented in the model.
The damping coefficient is always neglected for the
evaluation of natural frequencies and modes of hull-beam
models, while -in the calculation of forced vibration
under external excitation- a mode-dependent coefficient
taken by the literature is usually assumed.
For the preliminary design purposes, where the problem
is basically that of avoiding resonance of the ship hull
with any
of the engine or propeller excitation
components,
the
above simple calculations can be
sufficient, complemented sometimes by verifications of
particular local structures of interest.
1.21
For a deeper insight of the vibrational behaviour at

higher frequencies, involving the superstructure, more
complex models will be developed, applying the Finite
Element Method.
in
This will be made at more advanced design stages and,
dimensions/
superstructure
special
for
particular,
for
concern
the
suggest
which
arrangements
superstructure resonances.
1.4.5 Natural Frequencies for ship types
In order to give an idea of the order magnitude of the
first natural frequency *for different ship types, some
values are reported in the table herebelow. It shows that
the natural frequencies for the first hull modes vary
according to the ship type:
SHIP TYPE
Tankers
Bulkcarriers
Containerships
Cargo liners
Ferries
2 NODES
0.6-1.5
0.6-1.5
0.8-1.3
1.2-2.5
1.5-4.0
3 NODES
1.5-2.8
1.2-3.0
1.5-2.7
2.4-4.0
2.5-5.5
4 NODES
1.8-4.0
1.5-4.5
2.2-4.0
3.5-5.0
3.2-6.5
It is easy to detect that -for each ship type- the ratio

between the natural frequencies of the first three modes
are close to the numbers 1, 2, 3 for each ship type.
Only for the ferries, having high values for the 2-nodes
frequency, the ratios are lower.
Namely:
behave according to the hull-beam model
- Tankers:
for a high number of nodes
modes
vertical
first
the
- Containerships: between
to
modescorresponding
occasional
occur,
vibration,
torsional
or
transverse
due to the large openings (hatches..)
Double Bottom vibration occur at low
- Ferries:
frequencies, due to the reduced number of
bulkheads. Because of the high number of
of
the height and the lack
decks,
appear
modes
structural simmetry, complex
frequencies,
first
the
at
just
in
pattern
different
a
originating
respect of the traditional ships.
1.22
1.5
NOISE DESCRIPTORS
1.5.1 "Amplitude" description

If a wave propagating in air is taken into consideration,
then it will be shown later that the more appropriate
physical
quantity
to
describe
pressure fluctuation".
The human ear is able to detect
the range
20"10E-6 Pa
it is the "amplitude of
pressure
20 Pa
fluctuations
in
(I Pa = 1 N/m')
so, in most of the common problem of acoustics, a very wide

range of pressure is to be considered: for this reason, a
logarithmic scale is appropriate, so that the whole range
of human perception can be covered (fig. 1.12).
PI
MIt
T. ON -
PA IN-
IMRE
SOLO
I
I
0
T"
I
1 '0
vO
I.SA
(S OtO
I I
I
3SnmiC. PT S S Uta
a
I
tSoO040
iI
I-
t10 O to
.0
Lojsahmir p ..... eo
sc/r.
Fig. 1.12 /2/

Moreover, the sensitivity of the ear fits very well
the logarithmic scale, in the sense that the "reaction" of
the
ear and
the brains is quite proportional to the
logarithm of the pressure amplitude.
This can be seen for example in fig. 1.13, where the curves
(iso-phon) representing the same ear
perception
are
plotted
vs.
frequency: f.i., at 1000 Hz, to rise the
response of the "average ear"
from
40
to 50 units
(phons) an increase of pressure
from 2'10E-3 Pa to
6.3*-0E-3 Pa is needed.
-L\]'-L
I
-
"*sPHON
I I HI1/,
00-1
oIso
- .ot
so
ii
20
ll.l.
l*liooll
100
1000
Fig. 1.13 /2/
1.23
I-1i-o
sil
5000 1000
NZ
For the abovementioned reasons a logarithmic scale was

developed to measure the amplitude of waves (in air as
in any other medium):
level [decibels]
10 Log (E/Eo)
where:
E is a quantity representing the energy of the wave
Eo is
the
reference value
of
such a quantity,
generally assumed equal to the lowest
value
of
interest,
so that the level becomes 0 when E is so
small as to equal Eo.
It should be borne in mind
that, . due
to
the
logarithmic definition
of
decibel
[dB],
direct
numerical addition
or subtraction of dB levels cannot
be applied when considering
the interaction between
sources,
but the operation should be
carried
out
logarithmically, as it will better shown later.
From what above mentioned, the use of dB units implies, for
each type of phenomenum, the choice of:
- a physical quantity related to energy
- a reference value of the same quantity
Let's
use
now consider the most common physical quantities in

in
the fields of noise (see also fig. 1.14)
waves in solids:
a) velocity level Lv = 10 Log (v/vo)2 = 20 Log (v/vo)
where: v 2 = mean square velocity (proportional to Energy)
vo= reference value (5.10 E-8 m/s)
b) acceleration level La = 10 Log (a/ao) 2 = 20 Log (a/ao)
where: a = effective acceleration (a2 proport. to E)
ao = reference value (10 E-5 m/s:)
In the case of a simple harmonic motion, the relationship
between acceleration a and velocity v is expressed by:
a = 2n fv
(f=frequency)
Therefore,
acceleration level La and velocity level Lv,
if the frequency range is specified, may be related by
the
following equation, which takes into account also the
reference values above reported:
Lv = La + 20 Log (100/nf)
S*.24
c) force level:
Lf - 10 Log (F/Fo)'
20 Log
(F/Fo)
where: F = effective force

Fo = reference value (10 E-6 N)
waves in fluids:
a) sound pressure level: SPL=l0 Log (p/po)'= 20 Log (p/po)
where: p = root mean square of the pressure variation in
the fluid
po= reference value (in air:
2 E-5 N/m 2
in water: 10 E-6 N/m 2)
b) sound intensity level: IL is10 Log (J/Jo)
where: J = sound intensity
Jo= reference value (10 E -12 W/m)
c) power level:
PL = 10 Log (W/Wo)
where: W = sound power radiated by a source

Wo= reference value (I PW = 10 E-12 W)
It is to be noted that the same sound source can be
characterised in a different way by means of different type
of levels:
the sound power level depends on the source only, while the
sound pressure level at a certain distance from the source
depends also on the environmental characteristics.
Amer-can NaticnaJ Standaro (AmSI $1.1. 1969) fir AC-ustical Levels and
Prelerred Reference QtiUoltiln lr Acoushical Levels
The Rtfercrwnr Quanutle, Amr i L'nmis of Fie Sc$1mw Ir'irrs'.'til
, 'l, ,a h,
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1.25
:]n--
n0o
. .....
..
inSrWn
i".,.
,.
..
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1.5.2 "Frequency
description /2/
The other typical quantity of a wave is its frequency.

It
is
considered
that the human ear can detect
oscillations between about 20 and 20000 Hz.
As it will be seen, this is also a wide variation,
so
that a logarithmic scale is used also for frequency,
when
plotting sound levels.
Again
this
choise *is related to the
huinan
ear
sensitivity
(the concept of "octave" was in fact well
defined since a long time in the musical field,
even if
not yet correlated with
its actual significance of a
doubling in frequency).
To have an idea of the frequency distribution of
the
energy content of a wave, the frequency scale is
divided
into portions and the energy within each portion
is
measured.
Such portions of the frequency scale are called "bands".
Bands
of
different widths can be used,
the most
practical subdivision for noise and vibration but
in ships are
octave and one-third octave bands (fig. 1.15)
dS
OCTAVE SAND LEVEL
SPECTRAL LEVELS
31.5
121
63
0
250
2000
8000
1000
4000
FREOUENCY
[x.
Fig. 1.15 /2/
1.26
In an octave band the following properties are present (see

fig. 1.16) :
the upper limit frequency is twice the lower limit
frequency
- the centre frequency is defined as the geometric mean
upper and lower limit
of the
centre frequency of an octave is twice the centre
- the
of the previous one.
frequency
-
In a third octave band similar properties hold

- the upper limit frequency is equal to lower limit
multiplied by ". 2 power 1/3 ";
- the same relationship hold: between the centre bands of
subsequent bands;
two
- the centre frequency is the geometric mean of the upper
lower limit.
and
Center and Approximate Cutoff Frequancios to, Standard S1oof
COntiluou.,Octav. and OnaIlhid-oclavg Sands Covering the Audio
Frequency Rang.I
Freq.e,wv. H,
,rnd
12
Lo. e
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band
b.Wnd
lihrytit
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51.5
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56.2
2.18
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30
51
32
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35
36
37
38
39
88
125
177
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141
177
250
355
T244
282
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1'.420
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2.840
2.840
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5.680
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I1.360
11.360
16.00
22.720
43
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"wl
562
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1.12?
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L.778
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14.130
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Fig. 1.16 /1/
1.27
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21
22
23
24
25
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7
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14.1
22
.
22
.r.....
1
enrnmi
34
13
15
Centir
to
be measured,
frequencies in a given band are
When
filters are used to filter the signals from the
electronic
transducers.
to
measured
be
allow the signal to
filters
The
frequencies
other
the content of
and attenuate
pass
(fig.l.17, regarding an octave band filter)
A
I 0.ca
07
1.0,,
d8
-10
Fig. 1.17 /2/

-20
- 30'I
035
0.7
141
OCTAVE BAND
2.1m,
1.5.3 Reference curnes (Noise Rating Numbers)

To be able to match the octave band
noise with the
sensation
registered by ears and brain,
several noise
rating reference curves have been proposed over the years.
These curves
are simplified versions
of the
"equal
loudness contour" curves illustrated in fig.l.13.
As an example,
ISO R 1996 Noise Rating Curves
in octave
bands are reported in fig. 1.18.
so
Noise ,.:Lng crv
1.8
\"
(NowrvesJ.
Fig.
1.18 /2/
Each curve is designated with the letters

NR followed by a
number representing the level reached
by the curve in band
no.6, with a centre frequency of 1000
Hz.
ISO
NR reference curves are widely used
in requirements
and recommendation
regarding noise on board of ships, but
in some cases
also different curves are adopted,
with
patterns modified to a certain extent.
1.5.4
Characterization
a single quantity
of the whole frequency range by means

of
Very often a more sinthetic representation

of
the
sound
pressure
level - in
a given location is required: to give
an idea of the whole energy content
of
a signal with
only one figure,
sometimes the highest value of the NR
in
the various bands is taken.
For instance,
fig 1.19 shows the comparison between
two
surveys performed
in different positions: in fig.a the
maximum NR value of 70 is experienced
in band 2, while in
fig. b the maximum is 105 in band 6.
120
120
-
so
M1100H0
----------------N 90
I
Go
0l.r16
40--1
-N
0N0
-J-
N 70
Ms
-
123456780
A. Nevigall-9
90
0
sI
o II I 1
6
0Ns
1434$6789
brideo
b,. At
usillslry
fe~lnos
Fig.1.19 /2/
The two values are called "Noise Rating

Numbers" and
can
ne -szumed
as
representative of the the two
surveys.
Theiefore it can be said that reading
-a" is 35 dB better
than "b".
In the methodology above reported,
only the contribution
of a singli band is taken into account
(the one with the
maximum NR).
To
account for the energy content of the
whole frequency
range, other methodologies can be applied:
dB linear
Instead of measuring in octave bands,
the collective energy
over the whole frequency range can
be recorded
(more
correctly
that part
of
the frequency range that the
microphone and measuring instruments
can measure). This
sound pressure level
is called dB(linear) or dB(lin).
1.29
As it can be seen, with this method no attention is paid

in the sense that the energy
perception,
to
the ear
content is taken regardless to the frequency that can
be also out of the ear sensitivity.
dB (C)
the audible part
1.20),
By
use of the C filter (fig.
of the spectrum is allowed to pass through almost without
restrictions (it attenuates the sound in the first octave
somewhat).
Most of the part of the energy that falls
in the audible range is therefore measured with this
method. This magnitude is called dB(C).
In most cases the sound levels measured in dB(C) and
dB(Lin) will have nearly, the same value, so both of these
values have been used to describe the overall sound
pressure level..
dB(A), dB(B)
dB(C)
levels do not give any information about the
distribution in frequency of the energy, while this is an
important item since the human ear is differently sensitive
to the various frequencies.
To
overcome
this problem, the sound is measured over
the whole frequency range, but the signal is passed
through a filter before the indicating meter.
In
fig 1.20
two filters "A" and "B" are reported,
showing an attenuation
of the low frequencies
(bass)
more
or
less corresponding to the sensitivity curves
of fig. 1.13 and to the noise rating curve of fig. 1.15.
io
10-C
t-to
4-
---
Fig. 1.20
-50
/
a-O
/2/
-70
10'2
5 10*2
5 1O2
Pequency
Alle.nagioa
lnt
/aittes
fors
5 12
Hm
, A.
ansd C.
By using this type of filter, a measure of the sound

level approximately as it is perceived by the ear is
obtained in the various bands.
These
levels
are then summed to express in a single
value the whole perception in the entire frequency field.
As stated before, this summation of logarithmic values
will
be performed logarithmically (see the following
paragraph).
The measured magnitudes are designated as
dB(B) depending on the type of filter used.
1.30
dB(A)
or
dS(A)
filter is the most widely in use today, even
if
recently it has been put under discussion,
because
it is
considered not
to take into proper account the strong low
frequency content present on board.
In
fig.
1.21 some ordinary
sound
sources are reported
with
the corresponding dB(A) levels
do
130
i:f
C--
-Th,.*h~bd
t00
to0
tnl
o,
0.m
11.
Peeling
ft
1200nM height
Nola
*f
COCf
hA
*ill
hlghw..,
ssanc)
.110
CmI
so
at 2t
Ordnar
ipac
Im
die
40
30
3
20
ligt 4, d
~wlng
..
,,,-'a
"
7-..
*
"-.",,
The decibel scole ill~Ju'ed by Je,
Fig.
1.21 /2/
1.31
o*dkwvy
"..d W .,.
ist r
1.6
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
1.6.1 Sumation of levels

As
illustrated
in the previous Chapter,
the
summation
of
logarithmic quantities must be performed according
to
their definition.
The summation concerns the argument of
the logarithmic
expression, t.i.
the energy:
Ltot [dB]
10'Log SUM
(10 E(Li/10))
where Li are the levels to be summed.

It should be
noted that the above formula
is
valid
only
in
the case of "inconsistent sum-,
t.i.
when
energy contents are added without considering the phase
relationships among the various component waves.
In other words, the formula neglects
any interference
effect that can occur among the various waves.
In the case of two levels only, the formula is replaced in
a quick and
practical way by fig.
1.22,
where a curve
is reported showing how much is the increment DL in
total
level
if
a source with a level L2 is added to a source
with
a
(higher or equal) level Lb: the increment DL is
plotted vs.
the difference L2-Ll.
In the following paragraphs some examples
are reported
d8
dB
LLo*
LL
3fl
0
0
DIFFERENCE
Cai
9
L 1-Li
2
(dB)
/0 calcuaini
C
g h1r rnultsna
iound level fron0 o sound
orce" w'A' levb Lj and L 2
Fig.l.22 /2/
1.32
of
applications
1.6.1.1 Sum of levels within the same band
Sum of equal levels

The result of summing two sources with the same level Lx
is shown in fig. 1.22: entering with a difference equal to
zero, DL = 3 is obtained; thus:
Ltot = Lx + 3
The same result is reached by the use of the above formula:
Ltot = 10 Log [2*10 E(Lx/10)J
10 Log (2) + Lx = Lx + 3
Sum of very different levels

If the level L2 of the weaker source is more than 10 dB
less than the level of the stronger one, than fig.
1.22
shows
that the influence of L2 on the total
level
is
negligible.
Noise from several noise sources
A couple of examples are given below to explain the basic
principles of noise and the use of decibels.
*Example 1
A noise level of 100 dB is measured at a point
in the
engine room (Fig.l.23).
This noise level is due to three
equally powerful noise sources. This, however, is not known
beforehand.
AUX.E
M.E.
HJ.M.
jH.M.
jM
N.M
Pump
Pump
3 Equally a ro'
o$.e oCe.
On
HJ.M
HJ.M.
so* re
rvduced C
Pump
2 ourca.
i r*dted
DO0
dS
Pump
All *oIrc
rvdu.d 30dB
Ati,nnotion of 3 eqgiall powe'lmd nOisy ".,ca,
Fig. 1.23 /2/
1.33
a) By applying special measures, one noise source can be

attenuated 10 dB. A further noise measurement shows that
the total noise level has
only been reduced 1.5 dB,
because the two other not modified noise sources now
determine the noise level.
b) If
instead we attenuate two of the noise sources by 10
dB each, the resultant noise level is 96 dB.
c)
The full effect of the noise reduction measures.is only

obtained when the three noise sources are attenuated by
10 dB each, whereupon the resultant level is 90 dB.
When making arrangements to overcome noise it is important

to keep this phenomenon clearly in mind.
Efforts to
eliminate a noise source which is 10 dB lower than other
existing noise sources will be completely abortive because
its effect on the total noise level is negligible.
*Example 2
A noise level of 100 dB is measured in an engine room. This
level is the result of two noise sources,
one producing 93
dB and one giving 99 dB: If it is wished to attenuate the
noise sources,
it is of little use starting with that
emitting 93 dB.
If it is attenuated by 10 dB, the final
result will be 99 dB instead of 100 dB. If the strongest
source is attenuated 10 dB the final result is 94.5 dB,
which is a significant improvement.
These examples illustrates an important factor in
reduc ing
noise on board ships.
The dominant noise source in the
different localities must always be located, if one intends
to reduce the noise level. There is a ver-y large number of
noise sources in ships.
The air conditioning plantmay be
the dominant source in one place - the propeller, auxiliary
engines, or the funnel in others.
It should not be expected that a reduction of, for example,
20 dB in a dominant noise source will give 20 dB reduction
in
the sound pressure level.
It will generally be found
that other noise souces will become dominant.
It has been
found,
for example, that although a reduction of about 15
dB has been made in propeller noise,
the noise from the
engine room caused the effective reduction in a cabin to be
only 5 dB.
1-.34
1.6.1.2 Sum of
levels of different bands
Commutation from 1/3 octave band levels to 1/1 octave

ones
The
same kind of operation as described before for sums
of different contributions on the same frequency
band is to
be done when
converting 1/3 octave bands levels to
1/1
octave band levels:
In
this case the energy content of three 1/3 octave
bands
is
to be summed up to have the energy content of
the
octave band.
In
the particular case of three equal and consecutive
1/3
octave band levels:
L(1/1) = 10 Log
[3 * 10 E (.L (1/3) /10)
= L(1/3) + 10 Log (3) = L(l/3) + 4.8
NR curves converted in dBtA)
With an octave band noise which corresponds to curve
N-50
in all bands,
the corresponding measurements are shown by
the circles in Fig.1.24.
If this
noise is now passed
through
an
A
filter the
results per band will
be
approximately as indicated by the crosses in Fig.l.24.
120
J
100
iFig.
Go
2 3
dB (A)
N-S
a0 t
1.24 /2/
7
a(S)
-57.2
tnr
,
ji
lurled by .s A like,,
It will be seen that the resultant picture of the

noise
is
approximately flat, i. e. the sound pressure level
is the
same in all octave bands.
The reading that the
instrument
now will record (in dB(A)), can be calculated by
adding the
noise level
in all the bands with the before mentioned
methodology
On adding the values obtained
in Fig.l.24
by filtering
through the
A filter, we find that N-50 corresponds to
about 57.5 dB(A). This calculated dB(A) value is
thus about
7.5 dB higher than the value of the N curve at 1000
Hz.
1.35
This calculation of the dB(A) value is approximate, since

the attenuation of the filter varies within one and the
same octave band. It is now usual to reckon that a dB(A)
level corresponds to an N curve being 5 dB lower, that is,
N-50 is taken as 55 dB(A) and so on.
Octave band readings are a more reliable
basis
of
assessment than dB(A) values and they should therefore
always be measured. In doubtful cases, octave band readings
should be used as the basis of assessment.
1.6.2 Subtraction of levels.
The same methodology before mentioned for sums can be
applied also for subtraction of levels, remembering that
the quantity to be subtracted is the argument of the
logarithm.
A typical application is the subtraction of the background
noise from the survey of a source in an ambient with other
unwanted sources.
In this case, the background noise should not be less than
3 dB below the total noise for reasonable accuracy to be
attained (condition corresponding to a signal-to-noise
ratio of 1)
Fig.l.25 shows in a simple way how the sound pressure level
of a sound source L2 can be found from a measurement of the
total sound pressure level Ltot and the background noise
Ll.
da
IL:
Lo
DiFFERENCE
(LTOT-
12
LI) d
C..,", for dehermining the woud prae ,e e"el L 2

o.1
not
ftom the total 1oel L... ao d the bockgound sound premre kt,, LI
Fig. 1.25
1.36
/2/
source
t Example
The sound pressure level in an octave band, measured in the

engineers workshop with the main machinery running is 103
dB.
When the main machinery is stopped (but
other
conditions remaining the same),
a sound pressure level of
99 dB is recorded in the same octave band.
It is then seen
from the curve that:
Ltot - Li = 103 - 99 = 4 dB
The sound pressure level due to the main engine alone is:
L2
103
-2.2
100.8 dB
1.37
101 dB.
1
BIBLIOGRAPHY
<1)
P.M. Morse, "Vibration and Sound", McGraw-Hill, New York
{2)
(Ed.),
Harris
C.M.
McGraw-Hill, New York
{3}
L.L. Beranek, "Acoustics", McGraw-Hill, New York
<4)
L.L. Beranek, "Noise Reduction", McGraw-Hill, New York
(5)
Lord Rayleigh, ;'Theory of

New York (1945)
<6)
J.S. Dondat and A.G. Piersol, "Measurement and Analysis of

Random Data", Wiley, London
(7)
"Random
Crandall,
S.H.
Massachussetts: M.I.T. Press
(8)
"On the fatigue failure of strucrures due to

A Powell,
vibrations excited by random pressure fields", Journal of
Acoustical Society of America, Vol. 30, pag. 1130.
J9)
R.B.Randall, "Frequency Analysis", Bruel & Kjaer, Sept.1977
J10}
AA.VV.
"Handbook
Sound"
of
(two
noise
control",
volumes),
Vibration",
Dover,
Cambrigde,
'
- Bruel
Kjaer Publications on Noise and Vibrations
E.E.Ungar,
"Structure-Borne-Sound"
ill)
M.Heckel,
L.Cremer,
Springer Verlag 1973
f12)
Procedings of the "International Conference

Control Engineering (Inter-Noise) 1979 - 91
{13}
of the "International Conference

Procedings
Control Engineering (Noise-Con) 1983 - 91.
1.38
on
on
Noise
Noise
REFERENCES
/1/
Sev Authors,
"Noise and Vibration Control" Edited by
Beramek McGraw-Hill 1971
L.L.
/2/
Sev.
Authors,
"Noise
Control
in Ships"
NTNF
B.0930.4502.1
Norwegian
Council
for
Technical
Scientific Research (NTNF) Oslo (Norway) 1975
rep.
and
/3/
"Guide to Ship Noise Control" Nippon Kaiji Kyokai 1986
1.39
GLOSSARY
THE SOURCES TO THE PRESENT GLOSSARY ARE AS FOLLOWS

1I)
[2]
SO/DIS
2041
Noise Measurement" Gemrad

"Handbook of
Peterson,
A.B.G.
Inc. Concord, Massachussetts USA 1980
1.40
function
AUTOCORRELATION : A measure of the similarity of a
itself as a function of the
with a disclaced version of
time
displacement. The displacement is usually in terms of
zero, the value of the
is
when the displacement
and,
the
autocorrelation is equal to the mean square value of
function. [2)
the
A spectrum with
SPECTRUM)
(POWER
AUTOSPECTRUM
square of
coefficients of the components expressed as the
the magnitudes. [2]
BACKGROUND NOISE : The total of all sources of interference
in a system used for the production, detection, measurement,
or recording of a signal, independent of the presence of the
signal. [2]
10.
BEL : A unit of level when the base of the logarithm is
levels of quantities
restricted to
the bel is
of
Use
proportional to power. [2]
COMPLIANCE : The reciprocal of stiffness. [1)
independent
COUPLED MODE : Models of vibration that are not
influence one another because of energy transfer
but which
from one mode to another. [1]
CREST FACTOR : The ratio of the instantaneous peak value
a wave to its root-mean-square value (rms). [2]
of
CRITICAL DAMPING; CRITICAL VISCOUS DAMPING : For a single

degree-of-freedom system, the amount of viscous damping
the limiting condition between an
which corresponds with
free
oscillatory and a non-oscillatory transient state of
vibration. [1]
that
rotating system
speed of a
A
SPEED
CRITICAL
corresponds to a resonance frequency of the system. (2]
CROSS-SPECTRUM : A measure in the frequency
similarity of two functions. (2]
1.41
domain
of
the
GLOSSARY
ACCELERATION : A vector that specifies

of velocity. [1]
the
time-derivative
AMPLITUDE : The maximum value of a sinusoidal vibration. [1]

AMBIENT NOISE : The al!-encompassing noise associated with a
being usually a composite of sounds from
given environment,
many sources near and far. (2]
AMPLITUDE DISTRIBUTION
(PROBABILITY FUNCTION)
FUNCTION)
(DISTRIBUTION
FUNCTION
(CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY FUNCTION)
the
that
time
of
fraction
the
giving
function
A
instantaneous pressure, voltage or other variable lies below
a given level. [2]
ANALYZER ; A combination of a filter system and a system for
through the
passed
indicating the relative energy that is
The filter is usually adjustable so that the
filter system.
signal applied to the filter can be measured in termns of the
of
relative energy passed through the filter as a function
response-vs-frequency
filter
the
of
adjustment
the
as
This measurement is-usually interpreted
characteristic.
giving the distribution of energy of the applied signal as a
function of frequency. [2]
(FREE-FIELD ROOM) : A room whose boundaries
ANECHOIC ROOM
thereon, thereby
absorb effectively all the sound incident
affording essentially free-field conditions. [2]
APPARENT MASS (EFFECTIVE MASS) : The complex ratio of force
to acceleration during simple harmonic motion. (1]
(THRESHOLD
AUDIOGRAM
hearing-threshold level
[2)
AUDIOMETER
level. (2]
A
AUDIOGRAM)
function
(HTL) as a
showing
graph
frequency.
of
An instrument for measuring hearing
1.42
threshold
CYCLE :The comnplete range of states or values through which

phenomenon or function passes bef ore repeating
periodic
a
itself identically. (1]
(CYCLIC) FREQUENCY
period. [1]
The
FREQUENCY
DAMPED NATURAL
of a damped linear system.
reciprocal
of
fundamental
the
:The frequency of free vibration

[1).
DAMPING :The dissipation of energy with time
or
distance.
DECIBEL :One-tenth of a bel. Thus, the decibel is a unit of

the base of th~e logarithm is the tenth root of
level when
ten, and the quantities concerned are proportional to power.
[2]
DIRECTIVITY FACTOR
ratio of
1) Of a transducer used for sound emission is the
and
distance
fixed
at some
pressure squared,
sound
the
at
pressure
sound
mean-,square
the
to
snecified direction,
the
from
directions
all
over
averaged
distance
same
the
transducer. The distance must be great enough so that the
appears the diverge spherically from the effective
sound
otherwise
Unless
sources.
center of the
acoustic
reference direction is understood to be
the
specified,
that of maximum response [2)
of
2) Of a transducer used for sound reception is the ratio
in
produced
open-circuit voltage,
the
of
square
the
direction
specified
a
in
arriving
response to sound waves
a
to the mean - square voltage that would be produced in
diffused sound field of the same frequency and
perfectly
mean-square sound pressure. (2)
DISPLACEMENT; RELATIVE DISPLACEMENT :A vector quantity that
or particle,
a body,
specifies the change of position of
(1]
frame.
reference
a
with respect to
A frequency at which a maximum value
DOMINANT FREQUENCY
occurs in spectral density curve. [1)
1.43
DYNAMIC STIFFENESS;
CONSTANT, K.
(1)
DYNAIMIC ELASTIC CONSTANT;
The ratio of change of force to change

under dynamic conditions.
(2) The complex ratio of

harmonic motion. [1]
of
DYNAMIC SPRING
displacement
force to displacement during simple
EARPHONE (RECEIVER) : An electroacoustic transducer intended

to
be closely coupled acoustically to the ear.
Note: the
term "receiver" should be avoided when
there
is
risk of
ambiguity. [2]
EFFECTIVE SOUND-PRESSURE (ROOT-MEAN-SQUARE SOUND PRESSURE)
At a point is the root-mean-square value of the istantaneous
sound pressures,
over
a
time interval at the point under
consideration. In the case of periodic sound pressures, the
interval must be an
integral number of
periods or an
interval
long
compared
to a period.
In the case of
non-periodic
sound pressures, the interval should be long
enough to make the value obtained essentially independent of
,small changes in the length of the interval.
Note: The term
"effective sound pressure" is frequently shortened to "sound
pressure'. [2]
EQUIVALENT
SOUND
LEVEL (L.)
: The level of the mean-square
A-weighted sound pressure over a given, time
interval. The
time
should be
given
in hours or else the unit must be
specified.
If a weighting different
from A-weighting
is
used,
it must be specified. The reference pressure squared
is (20pPa)'. (2]
FFT
(FAST-FOURIER TRANSFORM)
: Any of
a
number
of
calculation
procedures
that yields a
set
of
Fourier
coefficients (component amplitudes) from a time-series frame
with much less computational effort for large
frame sizes
than
is possible by
the classical approach of successive
calculation of each coefficient. (2]
FILTER : A device for separating components of a

signal on
the basis of their frequency. It allows components in one or
more frequency bands to pass- relatively unattenuated, and it
attenuates components in other frequency bands. [2]
1.44
(FREE FIELD) : A field in a homogeneous,

FIELD
SOUND
FREE
In practice it is a
isotropic medium, free from boundaries.
in which the effects of the boundaries are negligible
field
pressure
The
actual
Note:
of
interest.
over the region
electro-acoustic transducer)
on an object (e.g.,
impinging
differ from the
will
placed in an other-wise free sound field
the object
point with
that
pressure that would exist at
removed, unless the acoustic impedance of the object matches
the acoustic impedance of the medium. [2]
Vibration that occurs
FREE OSCILLATION
FREE VIBRATION;
after the removal of excitation or restraint. (1]
FUNDAJ4ENTA-L FREQUENCY,:
a periodic, quantity,
(1) Qf
fundamental period.
the
reciprccal
of
the
the lowest natural frequency.

(2) Of an oscillating system,
associated with this
vibration
mode of
The
normal
frequency is known as the fundamental mode. (1)
: The mode of
VIBRATION
NATURAL MODE OF
FUNDAMENTAL
frequency.
natural
vibration of a system having the lowest
[See fundamental frequency]. [1]
The ratio of a harmonic excitation of a system
IMPEDANCE
both of which are
response (in consistent units),
to its
whose arguments increase
both of
and
complex quantities
term generally
The
rate.
same
linearly with time at the
(1)
applies only to linear systems (mechanical impedance).
capacity of a system to
in
the
reduction
:A
ISOLATION
respond to an excitation attained by the use of a resilient
isolation is
vibration,
In
steady-state forced
support.
of
complement
the
as
quantitatively
expressed
transmissibility. [2]
LEVEL
logarithm
quantity
reference
[2)
a quantity is the
of
level
the
acoustics,
In
to a reference
that quantity
of the ratio of
the
The base of the logarithm,
of the same kind.
quantity, and the kind of level must be specified.
of numbers characterizing a noise

LEVEL DISTRIBUTION :Set
the
time that
length of
the
gives
which
exposure,
level
sound-pressure level dwelled. within each of a set of
intervals. [2]
1.45
response
A system
in which
the
LINEAR
SYSTEM
proportional to the magnitude of the excitation. [1)
is
LOUDNESS : The intensive attribute of an auditory sensation,

in' terms of which sounds may be ordered on a scale extending
from soft to loud. Note: Loudness depends primarily upon the
sound pressure of the stimulus, but it also depends upon the
frequency and wave form of the stimulus. (2]
MASS APPARENT
: see APPARENT MASS
MASKING
1.
The process by which the threshold of audibility for one

(masking)
sound is raised by the presence of
another
sound.
2.
by which the threshold of audibility of a

The amount
(masking)
of another
sound is raised by the presence
sound. The unit customarily used is decibel. [2]
MECHANICAL
IMPEDANCE
: see' IMPEDANCE
complex ratio of the

The
(MECHANICAL) MOBILITY, Yij
velocity, taken at a point in a mechanical system, to the
the same or another point in the system,
at
taken
force,
during simple harmonic motion. [i]
comprising
matter
aggregate of
KECHANICAL SYSTEM : An
[1]
damping.
and
stiffness
mass,
of
defined configuration
An elettroacoustic transducer that responds to

MICROPHONE
sound waves and delivers essentially equivalent electric
waves. [2]
MODE OF VIBRATION : In system undergoing vibration, a mode
nodes
of vibration designates the characteristic pattern of
assumed by the system in which the motion of
and antinodes
simple
is
for " a particular frequency,
every particle,
systems) or has corresponding decay
linear
(for
harmonic
patterns. [1]
1.46
MODE SHAPE :The mode shape of a given mode of vibration of

a mechanical
system
is given
by
the maximum change in
position,
usually normalized
to
a
specified
deflection
magnitude at a specified point,
of its neutral surface (or
neutral axis) from its mean value.
The mean
value
is
the
mean for the given mode of vibration only. 11
NATURAL NODE OF VIBRATION ;A mode of vibration assumed by a
system when vibrating freely. [1)
NODE: A point, line or surface in a standing wave where some
characteristic of
the
wave
field
has
essentially
zero
amplitude. (1)
NOISE
1. Any undesidered
sound. -By
extension,
noise
is
any
unwanted disturbance within a useful frequency band, such
as
undesired electric waves in a transmission channel or
device.
2. An
erratic,
oscillation.
[2)
intermittent,
or
statistically
random
NOISE LEVEL
1. The
level of noise,
the type of which must be indicated
by further modifier or context.
2. For airborne sound
unless
specified
to the
contrary,
noise level
is the weighted sound pressure level called
sound level; the weighting must be indicated. [2]
NORMAL MODE
system. [1]
natural
mode
of
an
undamped
mechanical
OCTAV'E
1. The
interval between two sounds having a basi1c frequency
ratio of two.
2. The pitch interval between two tones such that
one
tone
may
be regarded as duplicating the basic musical import
of the other tone at the nearest possible higher
pitch.
[2]
1.47
(THIRD OCTAVE) :The interval between two

ONE-THIRD OCTAVE
of
ratio
cube
frequency ratio of the
basic
a
tones having
two. (2]
of the
usually with time,
variation,
The
OSCILLATION
specified
to a
respect
a quantity with
magnitude of
is alternately greater and
the magnitude
reference when
smaller than some mean value. [1)
PASCAL :A unit of pressure commonly used in acoustics.
Pascal is equal to newton per square meter. [2)
One
PERIOD :The smallest increment of the

FUNDAMENTAL
PERIOD,
the
for which
a periodic quantity
of
variable
independent
function -repeats itself. [See periodic vibration]. [1)
PERIODIC VIBRATION :A periodic quantity the values of which
independent
the
of
increments
equal
certain
for
recur
variable. [1]
The
a sinusoidal vibration)
(of
PHASE
PHASE ANJGLE;
through which a sinusoidal.
a period
part of
fractional
the
from a value of
vibration has advanced as measured
(1]
reference.
a
as
variable
independent
PHON :Unit of
loudness
level.
(2)
:Noise whose noise-power-per-unit-frequencY

PIHX NOISE
to frequency over a
inversely proportional
interval is
specified range. (2)
is 10 times the logarithm to the
POWER LEVEL :In decibels,
power.
base 10 of the ratio of a given power to a reference
The reference power. must be indicated. [2]
at a particular
sound
a
Of
SPECTRUM LEVEL
PRESSURE
frequency is the effective sound-pressure level of that part
of the signal contained within a band 1 hertz wide, centered
has
this
Ordinarily
frequency.
particular
the
at
significance only for sound having a continuous distribution
energy within the frequency range under consideration.
of
The reference pressure should be explicitly stated. [2)
1.48
RANDOM NOISE :An OsciIl&laion whose

instantaneous
magnitude
is
not
sPecified
for
any given
of
time.
The
instantaneous magnitudes of a random instant
noise
are Specified
only
by
probability distribution
functions
giving the
fraction of the total
time
that
the
magni tude,
or
some
sequence of magnitude., lies within
a specified range. Note:
A
random
noise
whose
instantaneous magnitudes
occur
according to Gaussian distribution
is called Gaussian random
noise. [2J
RATE OF DECAY :The time rate at
which the
sound
pressure
level
(or other stated characteristic)
decreases
at a given
point and at a given time.
A commonly used
unit is
the
decibel per second. (2]
RESONANCE
Resonance of
a system in forced oscillation
exists when any change,
however Small,
in the frequency of
excitation causes a decrease
in a response of the system.
RESONANCE FREQUENCY
:A frequency at which resonance

exists.
RESPONSE (OF A SYSTEM) :A quantitative

output of the system. (1]
expression
of
the
REVERBERATION
1. The persistence
of
sound
in
an enclosed space,
as a
result of multiple reflections
after the sound source has
stopped.
2. The sound that persists in an
enclosed space, as a result
of repeated reflection or scattering,
after the source of
sound has stopped. [2]
SIMPLE
HARIMONIC VIBRATION.
periodic vibration,
that
is
independent variable. (1)
SINUSOIDAL VIBRATION
A
a sinusoidal function of the
SIMPLE SOUND SOURCE :A source

that radiates
in all
directions under free-conditions.
[2]
1.49
sound uniformly
SIMPLE TONE (PURE TONE)

the instantaneous sound pressure of
1. A sound wave,
is a simple sinusoidal function of the time.
sensation
2.A sound
pitch. [2]
characterized
by
which
its singleness of
SOUND
particle
stress,
pressure,
in
oscillation
1. An
displacement, particle velocity, etc., in a medium with
or -the
viscous),
(e.g.elastic,
forces
internal
alterations.
superposition of such propagated
2. An auditory sensation evoked by the oscillation described
above. [2)
The
SOUND ABSORPTION
other form, usually heat,
striking a surface. [2]
INTENSITY
SOUND
DENSITY)
(SOUND
change of sound energy into some

in passing through a medium or on
POWER
DENSITY)
(SOUND-ENERGY
FLUX
In a specified direction at a point is the average rate of

sound energy transmitted in the specified direction through
point
the
a unit area normal to this direction at
2 ).
E
considered.
SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL :In dB, is 20 times the logarithm to
the base 10 of the ratio of the pressure of the sound to the
be
shall
The reference pressure
reference pressure.
explicitly stated. [2]
A description of
SPECTRUM
frequency or wavelength. (1)
a quantity as a function of
SPECTRUM LEVEL (ACOUSTICS) : Ten times the common logarithm

the ratio of the squared sound - pressure per - unit of
bandwidth to the corresponding reference quantity. [2)
STEADY-STATE VIBRATION :A steady-state vibration exists
the vibration is a continuing periodic vibration. [1]
if
The ratio of change of force (or moment) to the

STIFFNESS
rotational)
(or
corresponding change in translational
displacement of an elastic element. [1]
1.50
SYSTEM
An aggregate
parts of a device. [1)
of the relevant and/or constituent
TONE :
a) A sound wave capable of exciting
having pitch.
an
b) A sound sensation having a pitch.
(2]
auditory
sensation
TRANSDUCER
A device
capable of being actuated by waves
from one or more transmission
systems
or media
and of
supplying
related waves to one or more other tansmission
systems or media. Note : The waves in either input or output
may be of the same or different
types
(e.g.,
electrical,
mechanical, or acoustic). [2]
TRANSIENT VIBRATION : The vibratory motion of a system other
than steady-state or random. (I1
ULTRASONICS
: The technology of sound at frequencies above
the audio range.
Note : Supersonics is the general
subject
covering
phenomena associated with
speed higher than the
speed of sound (as in the case of aircraft
and
projectiles
traveling
faster than
sound).
This term was once used in
acoustics synonimously with "ultrasonics"; such usage is now
deprecated. [2)
UNCOUPLED MODES : Modes of vibration that can exist
in a
system concurrently with and independently of other modes,
no energy being transferred from one mode to another. [1]
UNDAMPED NATURAL FREQUENCY (of a mechanical system)
A
frequency of free vibration resulting from only elastic and
inertial forces of the system. [1)
VELOCITY RELATIVE VELOCITY : A
vector
time-derivative of displacement. [1]
that
specifies
the
VIBRATION
Variation with time of
the magnitude of a
quantity which is descriptive of the motion or position of a
mechanical system, when the magnitude is alternately greater
and smaller than some average value or reference. [1)
1.51
the
for
An apparatus
(VIBROMETER)
METER
VIBRATION
a
of
velocity, or acceleration
measurement of displacement,
vibrating body. (2]
: The dissipation of
VISCOUS DAMPING; LINEAR VISCOUS DAMPING
or a part of a vibration
energy that occurs when an element the magnitude of which is
by a force,
resisted
is
system
the
and
of the element
velocity
the
to
proportional
the
of
direction
the
to
is opposite
which
of
direction
velocity. [1]
is
interval
per-unit-frequency
Power
WHITE NOISE
specified
a
over
frequency
substantially independent of
[2]
random.
be
not
need
noise
range. Note: White
1.52
LESSON 2
16th WEGEMT SCHOOL
SESSION
CHAPTER
LESSON
TEACHER
COMPANY
COUNTRY
Noise and vibration

: 1. INTRODUCTORY LECTURES
: 2. Human response to sound and vibration
Marinus J.A.M. DE REGT
TPD (TNO Institute of Applied Physics)
PO Box 155
2600 AD Delft
THE NETHERLANDS
ABSTRACT
Where people have to live and work in an environment, subjected to noise and vibration, there is a serious risk that noise
and vibration may cause discomfort, may interfere with speech
communication or even may cause hearing damage or injuries.
The problem we address in this Lesson is to find measurable
descriptors of noise and vibrations that show an efficient
correlation with the judgement regarding annoyance of the
persons involved.
AUTHOR'S BIOGRAPHY
The author was born in 1941 and joined the Ship Acoustics
Department of the TNO Institute of Applied Physics in 1966. He
was involved in research on the transfer of sound through
ships' structures, sound level prediction methods and acoustical measures in ship accommodation areas.
As senior consultant he is engaged in the prediction and
reduction of shipboard noise during the design and construction stages of new buildings.
He is member of ICMES TC-5 and the CIMAC Working Group on
airborne noise, author of several publications and involved in
lectures on acoustics at the Maritime Faculty of the TU-Delft.
2.1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.1
Introduction
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4
2.2.5
2.2.6
Noise
Noise characteristics
Noise and hearing
Effects of noise on speech and masking of signals
Annoyance by noise
Rating of noise annoyance
Annoyance by low-frequency noise
2.3
2.3.1
2.3.2
vibrations
Vibration characteristics
Evaluation of vibration annoyance
2.4
Evaluation of combined noise and vibration
2.5
Future limits for accommodation spaces
References
Tables and Figures
2.2
2.1 INTRODUCTION
On board of most ships and offshore structures noise
and
vibration are a continuous environmental condition.
Crew
members, and on inland-navigation vessels often also
their
families, are subjected to noise and vibration during
24 hours
per day.
Intense noise may cause hearing damage with a delayed
effect,
viz, the inability in later years to carry on a normal
conversation. Noise may seriously interfere with speech
or with
warning sound signals and noise and vibration may be
most
annoying or may cause mental strain ~or decreased proficiency.
2.2 NOISE
2.2.1 NOISE CHARACTERISTICS
The response of people to noise (as unwanted sound) depends

on
the character of the noise with respect to peak factor,
spectrum character, duration and fluctuation.
with respect to the time dependency of the noise one may
discern (/2.1/):
steady noise: a noise with negligibly small fluctuations
of
level within the period of observation.
- fluctuating noise: a noise whose level
varies continuously
and to an appreciable extent during the period of observation.
The noise dose may be described by an equivalent continuous
sound level (L~q) which would cause the same sound energy
to be
received as due to the actual sound.
where:
T
=measurement
time
p.(t)= A-weighted instantaneous sound pressure
P0
= 20 JIPa (reference level)
impulsive noise: a noise consisting of one ormore bursts of

sound energy each of a duration less than about 1 s.
-
With respect to the frequency spectrum one may discern:

- a continuous spectrum (the sound energy is
rather evenly
distributed over a large part of the audible frequency range);
- a spectrum with audible discrete tones.
Most of the shipboard machinery produce steady noise: diesel
engines, gas turbines, gearboxes, propellers under normal
sailing conditions, fans, compressors, etc.
Exceptionally the noise may show large fluctuations in
strength, as in the case in bow thruster operations or at the
use of winches or cranes.
2.3
Impulsive noise might be related to specific equipment or

operational conditions e.g. pile driving or rock breaking.
Gearboxes, exhaust turbines of diesel engines and hydraulic
systems may show pure tones related to speed and number of
teeth, rotor blades or number of pistons.
2.2.2 NOISE AND HEARING
hearing impairment
As an introduction to hearing impairment this chapter starts
with a short description of the anatomy and function of the
ear.
Anatomically the ear consists of three major parts:
- the outer ear collects the sound waves and converts the
pressure fluctuations in the air into vibratory motion of the
ear drum;
- the middle ear mechanically couples the ear drum via three
tiny bones to the oval window, which forms the entrance to the
cochlea of the inner ear;
in the inner ear the nerve signals originate before transmission to the brain. The nerve fibers for hearing terminate
in the cochlea, which has the shape of a snail shell. Along
the "basilar membrane", which runs the length of the cochlea,
the nerve excitation mechanism is distributed. The frequency
of the exciting sound wave determines which part of this
basilar membrane is maximally excited. The stimulation of the
nerve endings involves the "organ of Corti" on the basilar
membrane. The inner and outer hair cells of the organ of Corti
play a role in the nerve stimulation process. Damage to these
hair cells appears to be related to noise-induced hearing loss
(see /2.2/) . In fact, the location of maximum damage on the
basilar membrane relates closely to the frequency at which the
greatest loss of hearing is observed.
Figure 2.1 (from /2.2/) shows the ear component~s together with
a functional diagram of it.
loss of hearing
There are various circumstances that might cause more or less
hearing loss:
increasing age:
Presbycusis is the loss of hearing that takes place with
increasing age. For an average person presbycusis may begin to
appear as early as the twenties, occurring mainly at high
frequencies. For an average 40 years old person the loss of
hearing is at frequencies higher than 4000 Hz approximately 10
dB, increasing with roughly 1 dB each year. Figure 2.2, derived from /2.3/, illustrates this efffect. The figure includes
the range of~the most important speech frequencies and it can
be seen that even in old age, the hearing loss in this frequency range is not severe. However together with noise-induced hearing loss it may be a serious handicap in later life.
2.4
- acoustic trauma:
This appelation for an immediate organic damage to the ear
from excessive sound energy is restricted to the effects of a
single exposure to very high sound levels. For example, an
explosion may rupture the ear drum or damage the bones in the
middle ear. Extremely intensive sound, reaching the structures
of the inner ear may cause a complete breakdown of the organ
of Corti.
- noise-induced treshold shift:
When one is exposed to high noise levels for a longer time the
hair cells in the inner ear may become fatigued and the signals to the brain may get weaker. The noise may be heard for
instance 10 dB weaker than normally. This is called a temporary treshold shift (TTS) . This shift increases with the sound
pressure level and the duration of the exposure. After a
proper hearing rest in a quiet environment one can hear again
in a normal way. Hiowever, if one is exposed too often or for a
too long time period to high noise levels, the hair cells may
become worn out, resulting into a permanent treshold shift
(PTS) . This remains throughout the lifetime of the affected
person, without possibility of further recovery.
Noise-induced hearing loss first appears in the region of 4000

Hz and is relatively independent of the spectrum of the noise.
With increasing number of years of exposure the hearing loss
at 4000 Hz increases and spreads over a wider frequency range,
causing for instance problems in understanding speech (see
Figure 2.3) . The effect may be even more severe because the
reduction of hearing sensitivity with increasing age (Figure
2.2) should be added to that of the noise-induced hearing
loss.
The major danger, necessitating audiometric programs, is in
the fact that noise-induced hearing impairment is a gradually
increasing long-term process. People who experienced an acoustic trauma will know exactly how and at what time the hearing
impairment took place, but people subjected to high noise
levels over a long time period get accustomed to the situation
before, too late, being confronted with the consequences of
severe hearing impairment.
Fundamentally there is a relation between noise exposure
(combination of noise level and exposure time) and noise-induced hearing impairment, but the treshold shifts also depend on
the noise spectrum and temporal pattern of the exposure at
intermittent, fluctuating or impulsive noise. moreover the
sensitivity to noise-induced hearing damage is highly individual.
Although the forementioned factors make precise predictions of
hearing damage not feasible, extensive investigations in
various industries give, at least for steady noise, a good
indication on the risk of severe hearing loss as function of
exposure time and sound level.
The A-weighted sound energy of the noise appears to be a good
descriptor of noise hazard and forms the basis for a method of
assessing potential hearing impairment from noise. The concept
of A-weighted sound energy is also embodied in the equivalent
2.5
continuous sound level Leq (see chapter 2.2.1).

In ISO 1999 (/2.4/) a procedure is given to calculate the
equivalent continuous sound level in case the sound is intermittent or shows fluctuations. Composition of exposure time
and sound level-A gives so-called partial noise exposure
indices, which, combined to a composite noise exposure index,
are related to a continuous sound level. In ISO 1999, Annex B,
a survey is given of the relation between that equivalent
continuous sound level during work in 0 to 45 years and the
risk of hearing impairment for conversational speech. From
this table it turns out that with an exposure time of 40 hours
a week over a time period of 10 years at a level of 85 dB(A)
the risk is 3%, increasing to 10 % at a level of 90 dB(A).
For the purpose of ISO 1999, the hearing of a person is considered to be impaired if the permanent treshold is shifted by
25 dB or more averaged over the test frequencies 500, 1000 and
2000 Hz.
The A-weighted sound energy received during a noise exposure
can be deduced from the product of the noise level in dB(A)
and the duration of the exposure. A doubling of energy represents an increase in noise level of 3 dB. Thus, for example,
exposure of 40 hours a week to a steady sound of 85 dB(A) is,
in terms of sound energy, equivalent with exposure of 20 hours
point of a
a week to a sound of 88 dB (A) . So with a starting
40
hours
a week
dB
(A)
during
level
of
85
noise
permissible
following permissible equivalent continuous sound levels for

an 8-hour working day can be given:
sound level in dLB(A) :
permissible exposure time per day:

8 hours
4
2
85
88
91
100
15 minutes
etc.
etc.
personal hearing protection

In certain locations on board, e.g. in engine rooms, steering
gear room, pump rooms, etc. it is not always practical, economical or feasible to reduce the noise levels all over the
place to within acceptable limits. In these situations, the
sound level may be reduced to acceptable levels by applying
personal hearing protection. The most commonly used protection
means are ear plugs and ear muffs.
.1 Ear plugs are available in a re-usable form or as disposable. The former type is generally made of soft rubber or
plastic. In order to obtain a good seal in the ear canal it is
very important that the correct size is used. Some people may
Disposable ear plugs
require a different size in each ear.
generally are made from mineral wool or waxed cotton wool.
2.6
They are intended to be used only once and then thrown away.
They can fit any size or shape of ear canal. Because every
time fresh material is used they may be more hygienic than the
permanent ear plugs.
.2 Ear muffs are hard cups which fit more or less tightly over
the ea. The interior is separated from the exterior noise by
means of soft cushion seals. The avantages, compared to the
ear plugs, are that one size will fit most people, that usually more protection is provided and that they are easy to
remove and replace. The insertion loss of an earmuff largely
depends on the quality of the seal. The "liquid seal" type
comprises a soft annular tube filled with liquid, which gives
an excellent seal with only a slight pressure against the
head. Other cushions generally are filled with soft plastics
foam.
The noise reducing properties of ear protectors are, of course, frequency dependent, but at least a rough indication can
be given on the effect in normal shipboard noise as in diesel
engine rooms. Correctly fitting earplugs may give a reduction
of some 10 - 15 dB(A), whereas the gain with earmuffs is 15 30 dB(A).
2.2.3 EFFECTS ON SPEECH COMMlUNICATION AND MASKING OF SIGNALS
.1 effects of noise on speech
One of the most serious consequences of noise is that it
prevents us from understanding part or all of what other
people say when they talk to us directly or by means of telephone or public-address system. Accidents due to noise sometimes occur on ships, but is seldom given as the main reason in
accident registers. That may be the case during mooring when
someone doesn't understand the instructions above fan noise or
bowthruster noise or during manoeuvring when a helmsman misunderstands the pilot. Speech intelligibility depends on physical aspects as the level of the speaker's voice, the distance
from the speaker to the listener and the background noise
level, but moreover other aspects may be of importance, such
as the listener's familiarity with the words the speaker uses,
the redundancy of the speech to be understood, the dialects of
talker and listener and so on.
An indication on speech communication capabilities in relation
to the sound level-A of the background noise is given in Table
2.1. The distance at which speech is intelligible depends
mainly on the sound pressure levels of the background noise in
the octave bands with centre frequencies 500, 1000 and 2000
Hz. This is taken into account in the so-called (preferred)
speech interference level (PSIL) which is equal to 1/3 (Lp 500
+ Lp 1000 + Lp 2000) .
The correlation between audibility
distance and P5Th is given in Table 2.11, derived from ISO/TR
33 52 (/2.5/).
2. masking noise
Masking by noise means that sounds we want to hear are drowned
out by other sounds. A specific example of masking noise is
?.7
the background noise in speech communication (see 2.2.3.1).

Another example is in the audibility of acoustic signals of
other ships under bad weather conditions. Exhaust and ventilation noise mainly determine the background noise level at a
listeners post. To prevent that a too high background noise
level would mask the warning signals (fog horns or bells) of
other ships, in various regulations limits have been set for
the background noise level at the listener's post. More information is given in Lesson 4.
2.2.4 AN~NOYANCE BY NOISE
Some noise related aspects, as hearing damage and communication interference have been rather extensively investigated.
Much data is available on the relation between the strength
and character of the noise and their effect on man.
The situation is quite different for noise annoyance, however.
As anybody is entitled to feel annoyed by a sound, even by the
faintest, or amused, even by the strongest, a wide range of
noise levels considered as acceptable for a specific situation, will result from investigations. moreover, there is a
great variety of non-measurable factors influencing the annoyance. Some of the them are:
- the interest of the subject, the listener, in the sound
source;
- the knowledge of the listener that the noise is unnecessary
or abnormal;
- the degree to which the listener is willing to overcome the
noise interference;
- the activity with which the noise interferes: sleep, recreation, manual work, etc.;
of the listener and of his environment.
- the characteristics
To give an example: modern, well furnished cabins with the
same sound levels as older, dark, badly ventilated cabins, are
considered to be less noisy.
These last aspects present some special difficul.ties. For
example, passengers may experience the ship as acceptable, or
even thrilling, when there is a fairly high noise level,
whereas the crew, having to live on board, may consider the
ship as annoyingly noisy.
This illustrates the main difficulty with noise annoyance:
'does there exist a good correlation between the presence or
absence of complaints and the annoyance people feel actually,
and if so, is it therefore justified to consider complaints
alone as adequately representing annoyance?
Noise criteria, whether for subjective or for objective effects, are physical measures of noise levels for assessing the
probable degree of complaints, or discomfort, or the risk of
reduced safety.
A practical method to try to find a general criterion for the
noise is to make inquiries on board ships which by common
sense may be considered representative.
2.8
2.2.5 RATING OF NOISE ANNOYANCE

A noise rating system has to give an answer to the question
if
a certain noise is acceptable or not. Depending on the utilization of the location the acceptability has to be judged
in
view of annoyance, speech communication, audibility of signals
or hearing conservation. Hearing conservation comes under
discussion only if noise levels are very high and have nevertheless to be accepted.
With respect to noise annoyance generally two different types
of rating systems have been adopted. One type uses octave
band
spectra and rating curves, the so-called NR- and NC-curves
and
more or less equivalent curve-systems. The other type uses
weighting networks integrated with the equipment, like the
A-,
B- or C-weighting.
Of forementioned systems the A-weighted sound level (dB(A))
and the NR-curves are the principal ones and are found particularly useful for rating steady state broadband industrial
noises. A description of these two systems has been given
in
Lesson 1. In national and international regulations there
is a
preference for using the sound level-A over the NR-system,
which may be explained by the ease of use. Only one figure
has
to be given in stead of nine, and the sound level meter is
cheap in comparison with octave band analyzers.
However, the dB(A) method has serious disadvantages. The
first is its single-number-character: the sound level-A gives
no information on the frequency content of a spectrum. For
efficient noise abatement measures, information on the spectral composition is however a first requirement. The use of
the dB(A) is therefore limited to simple checking procedures.
The second disadvantage of the dB(A) system is the fact that
the accuracy of the dB(A)-meter, as required by the international recommendations, is poor in the low frequency region
even
if a precision sound level meter is used. Maybe the most
serious disadvantage however is the fact that signals are
always "weighted" in the same manner whatever the sound pressure level may be. In certain locations of the ship, e.g.
on
bridge wings and in wheelhouses, but also in accommodation
spaces close to strong low frequency sound sources, one may
find high noise levels in the low frequency range. The A-network has been designed for use at low levels so it may be
doubtful if the A-weighted sound level correlates with annoyance in these situations.
A noise with a sound pressure level of 85 dB in the 1000
Hz
octave band and with appreciably lower levels in the other
octave bands gets the NR-number 85. The dB(A) reading is
also
85 because there is no attenuation in the frequency range
of
interest. Another noise, now having 113 dB in the 31.5 Hz
octave band and less than 60 in the other octave bands gets
also the NR-number 85; the dB(A) meter however reads 74 dB(A).
So for the two noises the NR-numbers are the same, but the
sound levels-A differ largely. Conversely, two signals with
equal sound levels-A but different frequencies may show a
difference of up to 10 NR-numbers. It is clear that in case
of
high level noises with predominating low frequencies a large
2.9
disagreement between the two rating systems may occur.

A basic property of a rating system should be that it at least
enables the user to predict, from the physical characteristics
of two noises, which is the more acceptable one. From experiments on noise annoyance on bridge wings exposed to strong low
frequency noise it could be concluded that the NR-numbers
related very well with subjective findings, but that the sound
levels-A even could be in contradiction with them (see /2.6/).
In the accommodation spaces the sound pressure levels are (or
should be) lower than those on bridge wings. As the reverse of
the A-weighting curve has nearly the same shape as the NR-55
curve, a better agreement between the two methods may be
expected here than for rating bridge wing noises. So in general both methods are usable for noise rating purposes with
respect to cabins.
Some remarks should be made to the way limits given in dB(A)
and NR are related to each other. In many proposals on noise
limits (see Lesson 4) it is assumed that the NR-number of a
spectrum is numerically 5 less than the sound level-A. This
especially is supposed to be true for noise occuring in accommodation spaces. From a large collection of spectra measured
in cabins it was investigated by which octave band the NR-number of the spectra was determined (/2.7/). The collection was
divided into two groups; one containing all spectra of which
the NR-number was determined in the low frequency range (31.5
125 Hz), the other group containing the spectra of which the
NR-number was determined by the sound pressure levels in the
octave bands with centre frequencies 250 Hz or higher. The
relations between the sound level-A and the NR-number of both
groups of data are given in the Figures 2.4 and 2.5. From
Figure 2.4 it appears that 60 dB(A) equals NR-58, from Figure
group contai2.5 that 60 dB(A) equals NR-56. Where the first
ned 56 % of the spectra it can be stated that at least for a
very large percentage of cabins on board the NR-number is
numerically just 2 numbers lower than the dB(A) value. So the
generally accepted assumption of a numerical difference of 5
between dB(A) and NR is certainly not applicable to shipboard
accommodation noises.
2.2.6 ANNOYANCE BY LOW-FREQUENCY NOISE
Since Buiten already in 1969 reported (/2.6/) that the
A-weighted sound level is a poor descriptor for the annoyance
by strong low-frequency noise, many other investigations in
transportation noise led to this conclusion (/2.8/ ...
/2.10/). Some authors propose to use an additional quantity,
e.g. Lc-L, (wherein Lc and LA are the C-weighted and A-weighted
sound level respectively) to judge if the noise has a predominant low-frequency character. From statistical investigations
on a large number of spectra measured in ship's cabins it
appears that there is only a weak correlation between Lc-LA and
the frequency of the NR-determining octave band (/2.6/).
In general the use of combinations of weighted levels seems
not to offer reliable and objective information on the presence of low-frequency annoyance on board ships. One of the
reasons that limited investigations do not result in signifi-
9. TO
cant distinctions may be the fact that the subjective reaction

of people on low-frequency noise may differ much from one
person to the other (e.g. abt. 1.5 dB). This may mean that a
firm and well-defined boundary value only may be obtained
based on extensive investigations. Because the NR-curve system
is adopted by the International Maritime Organization (IMO)
for judging noise at low frequencies, it is worthwhile to
consider the results of recently executed investigations
concerning this low-frequency region. In Figure 2.6 findings
of some authors are summarized. From this figure it appears
that it is possible that the NR-curve may allow too high
levels in the 31.5 Hz octave band. When low-frequency noise
annoyance occurs it might be possible, especially aboard low
speed diesel engine powered ships, that the annoyance is
caused by sound pressure levels in the frequency region below
the 31.5 Hz octave band. In this region, called the
infra-sound region, the difference between the threshold of
hearing and levels causing annoyance is very small. Infra-sound annoyance may moreover be experienced as vibration
or "chest pressure". A first impression whether high
infra-sound levels occur, may be obtained by measuring the
unweighted sound level (so-called "Linear" or "All pass").
Figure 2.6 also illustrates that the limit of 60 dB(A) allows
for very high levels at low frequencies. It is often found,
and this may serve also as an indication of lowfrequency
annoyance, that in these situations the NR-number is often
numerically approximately 5 units higher than the sound level-A.
2.3 VIBRATIONS
2.3.1 VIBRATION CHARACTERISTICS
Vibrations influence the general comfort aboard a ship as well
as noise. It has been found several times that complaints
about noise annoyance appear to relate to vibrations and vice
versa (see /2.11/). As noise does, also vibrations can cause
discomfort, fatique, annoyance or even pain. All vibrations
affect in one way or another the human body (Figure 2.7 from
/2.12/.
1. very low frequencies:
At very low frequencies (below 1 Hz) the human body reacts as
a whole to the vibrations: it follows the movements of the
ship. Under certain conditions this may lead to motion sickness (sea-sickness).
2. whole-body vibrations:
Vibrations experienced in the frequency range of approximately
1 Hz up to 80 Hz and which are due to vibration of the floor,
a chair or other supporting surface for the body are called
whole-body vibrations since they may induce vibration phenomena over the whole human body. These vibrations, transmitted to
the body, may be amplified at certain frequencies because of
resonance phenomena with parts of the body and organs (massspring systems, see Figure 2.9 from /2.12/).
The disturbances caused by vibration in the body depend, among
2.II
other things, on the frequency, the strength, the exposure

time and also on the direction of the vibration in relation to
the body. Therefore in vibration evaluation the relative
direction of excitation is taken into account.
3. hand/arm vibration:
Vibrations in the higher frequency range mostly are caused by
direct (hand-) contact with tools or vibrating equipment. A
too long exposure may lead to blood circulation difficulties
at the direct contact places.
2.3.2 EVALUATION OF VIBRATION ANNOYANCE
In vibration regulations for ships and offshore structures no
requirements are given on hand/arm vibrations. For completeness sake it is mentioned here however that evaluation systems
are described in ISO DIS 5349 (/2.13/). Moreover national
regulations exist (see /2.14/).
The methods that are used to evaluate whole-body vibrations
are based on the measurement~of the velocity or acceleration
levels of the supporting surface of the body giving the vibration level that is transmitted to the body. The acceleration
levels should be measured in different directions, which are
related to the position of the body (standing, sitting or
lying) . A specific problem in measurement and evaluation is
the fact that in some guidelines the root-mean-square value of
the measured quantity is used, where others use the peak
value, in which the crest factor of the signal should be taken
into account. Moreover the bandwidth is not always well defined. Generally the measurements are taken in the frequency
range from 1 Hz up to 80 or 100 Hz, the-upper limit depending
on the requirements, and the measurement data are compared
with frequency dependent curves. The numerical values in
certain evaluation systems include exposure time and criteria
as:
"exposure limits", concerned with the preservation of health
or safety;
"fatique-decreased proficiency boundary", concerned with the
preservation of work efficiency;
"reduced comfort boundary", concerned with the preservation
of comfort.
2.4 EVALUATION OF SIMULTANEOUS NOISE AND VIBRATION

with one rating system for noise as well as for vibrations it
would be possible to determine which of the two annoying
factors should be attacked first in order to improve the
Because, if the wrong
situation with respect to annoyance.
factor (the less annoying one) will~be reduced, the complaints
will stay.
At the moment no satisfying rating systems for vibrations are
available. The sometimes disappointingly low correlation
between a vibration descriptor alone and the judgement by
people on the annoyance might be improved by some procedural
2.12
alterations:
- the vibrations should be measured not only on decks (floors)
but also on other significant locations: beds, tables, writing
desks.
- the vibration dose should be expressed on a scale
that is
matched to a noise dose descriptor scale, because people on
board experience noise and vibration as coherently annoying.
Based on the NR-curves, Janssen (/2.11/) matched a vibration
rating scale. The corresponding vibration boundary spectra are
identified by means of vibration rating numbers (yR-numbers).
The highest numerical value in VR or NR determines the annoyance and the total annoyance is a summation of the respective
sound and vibration rating levels. The NVR-systexn turns out to
be a practical approach capable of solving major problems,
although refinement may be necessary.
Laboratory investigations by Howarth and Griffin (/2.15/) also
indicate that there may be an interaction between noise and
vibration annoyance, but the effect may not be simple or
consistent. They also conclude that a reasonable approximation
of the total annoyance caused, by a combination of noise-and
vibration can be determined from a summation of the effects
of
the individual stimuli.
2.5 FUTURE LIMITS FOR ACCOMMODATION SPACES

Some national legislations demand for 5 - 10 dB(A) lower
levels than are recommended in the "IMO Code on noise levels
on board ships" (/2.16/, see also Lesson 4) . A tendency is
observed to achieve lower levels in the-future. Several authors proposed already in the past 10 NH or dB(A) lower limiting levels for accommodation spaces. Also from time to time
owners specify limits that are clearly lower than requiired in
the Code. These are all indications that the desirable levels
would be lower than the adopted ones. in fact the limits have
been based on existing noise levels aboard ships about twenty
years ago, and based on noise reductions attainable at that
time. The prognosis of the noise levels, the knowledge about
the noise sources and the influence of noise abatement measures have reached a reasonable degree of accuracy nowadays
which results in the possibility for the yards to be aware of
the extent and costs of the acoustical countermeasures. Since
technical and financial risks can be excluded nowadays in this
area to a great extent, it is no longer necessary to specify
high noise limits and some freedom will be present to look
after desirable limits.
This means that the time has arrived to reconsider the noise
requirements of crew members aboard ships. Now we know that

when studying the acceptability of noise levels at least
vibrations have to be included and that infra-sound cannot be

ignored it is time to start with serious extensive investigations about workable noise and vibration descriptors. The
investigation into the acceptability
of noise doses for
people aboard many types of ships can then be started. The
2-13
wide demand for well-defined limits for other types of ships

than the large sea-going ones (e.g. fishing vessels, working
vessels, dredgers, small coastal vessels etc.) can then be
rewarded.
REFERENCES
/2.1/ ISO 2204, "Acoustics - Guide to International Standards

on the measurement of airborne acoustical noise and evaluation
of its effects on human beings", International Organization
for Standardization, 1979.
/2.2/ Harris C.M. (editor), "Handbook of noise control",
chapter 8, New York, 1979.
/2.3/ White R.G and Walker J.G., Noise and Vibration", ch.29,
Chichester 1982.
/2.4/ ISO 1999, "Assessment of ocupational noise exposure for
hearing conservation purposes", International Organization for
Standardization, 1975.
/2.5/ ISO TR 3352, "Acoustics - Assessment of noise with respect to its effect on the intelligibility of speech", International Organization for Standardization, 1974.
/2.6/ Buiten J., "A proposal on noise criteria for sea-going
ships", Netherlands Ship Research Centre TNO, 1969.
/2.7/ Buiten J., Janssen J.H., "Noise and vibration annoyance
on board ships", Symposium Ship-Trans-Port Rotterdam 1982
/2.8/ Leventhall H.G., "Annoyance caused by low-frequency/low
level noise", Proceedings Conference on low-frequency noise
and hearing, 7 -9 May 1980, Aalborg.
/2.9/ Panel discussion of the Conference on low-frequency
noise and hearing, 7 -9 May 1980, Aalborg, Denmark
/2.10/ Fidell S., "Predicting annoyance from detectability of
low-level sounds", J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 66(5), 1979.
/2.11/ Janssen J.H., "Hypothesis on simultaneous noise and
vibration annoyance rating in shipboard accommodation", Noise
Control Engineering, volume 16, number 3, 1981
/2.12/ Berg P., Brafelt 0. and Folkeson C., "Noise and vibration on board", Joint Industrial Safety Council Publication,
ISBN 91-7522-123-3, Stockholm 1987.
/2.13/ ISO DIS 5349, "Principles for the measurement and
the
evaluation of human exposure to vibration transmitted to
1979.
hand", International organization for Standardization,
2.14
/2.14/ Griffin M.J. "Vibration injuries of the hand and

arm:
their occurrence and the evolution of standards and limits",
Health & Safety Executive Research Paper 9, ISBN 0118832719,
1980.
/2.15/ Howarth H.V.C., Griffin M.J., "Subjective response
to
combined noise and vibration: summation and interaction
effects", Journal of Sound and Vibration (1990) 143(3).
/2.16/ IMO, "Code on noise levels on board ships. Resolution
A.468(XII)", London 1982.
2.15
Table 2. 1
Speech communication capabilities versus A--weighted sound

level of the background noise
Communication
Below 50 dB(A) 50-70 dB(A)
(from /2.2/).
70-90 dB(A)
90-I00dB(A)
110-130 dB(A)
Facc-to-face
4unanmplified speech)
No-nal voice
at distances up
to6,n
Raised vice, Very loud or shouted Maximum voice level Very difficult to irnposlevel at
voice level at dis.
at distances up to
sibi,. even at a disdiitances
tances up to 50cm
25 cm
Unite, of I cm
upin 2n
Telephone
Good
Satisfactory Difficult to
to slightly
unsatisfactory
difficult
Intercom system
Good
Type of earphone to
supplement
loudspeaker
None
Sansfactory
Unsafisfactory using Impossible wuing
Impossible using
to difficult
loudspeaker
loudspeaker
loudspeaker
Any
Use amy earphone
Use any in muff or
Use insert type oroverhelmet escept bone
ear earph ones in helconduction type
met or in muffs: good
to 120 dB(A) on
short-tern,basis
Public Address System
Good
Satisfactory
Type of microphone
required
Any
Any
Satisfactory to
difficult
Any
Usepnrss-t-ttalk
switch and an
acoustically
trated booth
Use special equipment
Difficult
Very difficult
Any noise-.cancling
microphone
Cood noise-canceling
microphone
Table 2. 11
Maximum distance at which normal conversation or conversation

in a raised voice level is considered to be satisfactorily
intelligible, as a function of the speech interference level
(from /2.5/).
Spe"d,"nnrtion
intedfirce Inl
Maximum disanm
at w'lid noirml
i
cnsidred to be
satisfactority
intelligible
Maximum distance
t which mnverftion
in raised voic is
consideed to be
stisfactorily
intelligible
m
dB
35
7,5
40
4.2
8,4
45
2.3
4.6
so
1.3
2,6
55
0.75
1,5
60
0.42
0.85
65
0.25
0.50
70
0.13
0.26
2.16
15
OUTER
EAR
MIDDLE
EAR
INNER
EAR
MIDDLE EAR
BONES
PINNA
OVAL WINDOW
COCHLEA
EAR
NERVE
tRAUDITORY
W%~CANAL
, DRUM
CEAR
(o1
ROUND
EUSTACHIAN
TUBE
FLUID
AIR
__._____,.___
7-
Functional diagram of ear. Sound waves impinge on outer ear and cause ear drum to vibrate.
Vibrations are conducted via lever action of middle-ear bones (ossicles) to oval window, which actuates
fluid-filled inner ear. Inner ear portion shows cross section of unrolled cochlea with nerve endings
distributed along basilar membrane of cochlea. Frequency-selective excitation initiates nerve impulses
which are carried via discrete fibers of the auditory nerve to the brain. (From C. T. Morgan ct al.)
Figure 2.1
Ear components together with functional diagram of the ear,
according to /2.2/.
2 17'
0
z
2 yr
~ll,(
10
20
*c
30
.'7
40
-0
50
old
o
0
Approximate ran e of
speechftrequengies
----
60
"-J
200
500
1000
20003000
6000
Figure 2.2
Audiograms showing the typical -reduction of hearing sensitivity with increasing age. The approximate range of speech frequencies is also shown. From /2.3/.
noexpomsune
0
10~ |
0 yrs
e,
10
20
____re
30
C-I50Approximate
"
6
60i
70
speech
----frequency range
''
200
500
1000
2000 3000
6000
Frequency Hz
Figure 2.3
Audiograms showing the typical reduction of hearing sensitivity as a result of long-term exposure to industrial noise,
excluding effects of age. From /2.3/."
2.18
70
65
/
/
NR(<250) 60
0/
55
/ *
*1/
/00.
.. /.
7%
50
n=90
*e
0/S
0-
45
50
- -
55
60
65 dB(A)
LA
Relationship between sound level A and NR-number
of the spectra in 90 cabins aboard 14 ships. The
NR-numbers of the spectra are given by the sound
pressure levels in the 31,5, 63 and 125 Hz-octave
bands. The 95% confidence interval is given by
dashed lines.
Figure 2.4,
obtained from /2.7/.
2.19
65
/
/
600
60
",
NR(?250)
~2.
0
55
//
50
n:70
45
"/
50
Relation
55
between
60
L
65 dB(A)
sound
level A and NR-number of

those spectra in 70 crew cabins aboard 14 ships from
which the NR-numbers are determined by the sound
pressure levels in the octave bands with centre
frequencies
of 250
Hz and higher.
The 95% con-
fidence interval is given by dashed lines.
Figure 2.5, obtained from /2.7/.
2.20
dBre 20
110
Pa
%N
%%
SN0
.
100
100.
Lp
90
dB(A)
80
A
threshold
70
NRM55
6050
NR55-,
8
16
31,5
-
Maximum
63
125 250 500
Hz
frequency
levels allowed by the IMCO-code for single
frequencies, or narrow band-noise compared with the

results of investigations of several authors:
N:
Laboratory measurements reported by Nakamura

[B 12],
Y:
levels causing "very much annoyance".
Laboratory experiments
reported by Yamada et
al [B 13], levels at which "people feeling ill".

NRM 55: on experience based proposal for a modified NR-curve [B 14]
threshold:threshold of hearing at low frequencies as
Figure 2.6,
given for different types of noise by many
obtained from /2.7/.
investigators, see e.g.
2.21
[B 11].
1 Hz
under way the motion of the
sea affects balance and diminishes work capacity. There
arepills but sea-sickness is
something that, as a rule,
must be lived with.
10 Hz
called whole-body vibrations
(1-80 Hz) and felt throughout
the body. Cause muscle strain,
tirejoints and spine. Affect everyone on board, both at rest
and work.
1000 Hz
vibrationsthat affect blood circulation can
cause numbness. Iftools cannot be replaced it
is good to use soft gloves which "eat up" part
of the vibration.
Figure 2.7
The figure shows disturbances in the human body caused by
vibrations depending on the frequency range of the vibrations.

/
2.*22
head (axial motion)

(approx 25 Hz)
eyeball
(30-80 Hz)
_S
shoulders
lung
volume
forearm
chest
(approx 60 Hz)
midHz)
midsection -bdomen
handarm
(10-12 Hz)
(4-8 Hz)
hand
(50-200 Hz)
s itting
legs
(varies from
approx 2 Hz
to 20 Hz
depending
on position)
standing
The human body can be likened to a system consisting
of
a large number of interlocking springs.Different parts
of
the body are sensitive to different frequencies.
Figure 2.8
The human body "mass-spring"-systems (from
/2.12/).
2.23
LESSON
3
16th WEGEMT SCHOOL
SESSION
CHAPTER
LESSON
TEACHERS,
COMPANIES &
BIOGRAPHIES
Noise and Vibration

1. INTRODUCTORY LECTURES
3. Introduction to Ship Acoustics
Francesco MARULO - UNIVERSITA' DI NAPOLI
Facolta' Ingegneria-Istituto Progetto Velivoli
Via Claudio, 21 - 80125 Napoli
He was graduated at the University of Naples
"Federico
II"
in Aeronautical Engineering in 1981.After
his
graduation he joined the Aircraft Design Institute of the
same University, where he started studying structural
dynamics and aeroelasticity problems. He also did research in the acoustic field, mainly using Finite Element
codes and structural acoustic analogy to approach fluidstructure interaction problems.
* Enrico Rizzuto - UNIVERSITA' DI GENOVA
Istituto Policattedra di Ingegneria Navale
Via Montallegro 1 - 16145 Genova
Born in 1962, graduated in 1986 from the University of
Genova in Naval Architecture and
Marine Engineering.
Hydrodynamic department of CETENA from 1986 to 1990;
after, researcher at the University of GENOVA.
Activity:
propeller
design and
verification
with
particular reference to the radiated pressure field,
analysis of noise surveys in model and full scale on
board and in water.
Presently involved in experimental research on non-linear
effects in marine structures (in steel and in composites
materials).
COUNTRY
ITALY
ABSTRACT
Some basic concepts involved in the ship acoustics are

reported 'in the lesson.
The main noise sources on board are briefly overviewed as
well as the typical transmission paths along which noise
can
be transmitted to a receiving
position.
The
peculiarities of the ship context with respect to other
industrial environments are outlined.
Some problems connected with the characterization of the
various sources strength are presented.
The basic concepts of noise reduction
(absorption,
damping, isolation) are overviewed together with some
quantities commonly used to describe the effectiveness
of different counter-measures adopted on board.
3.1
3.1 SOURCES, TRANSMISSION PATHS. RECEIVING AREAS

The approach to noise problems requires careful consideration
of three elements.:
sources, transmission paths and receiving
areas, schematically represented in the following figure.
ISOURCE
Trnmsin-RECEIVER
fig.3.l
3.1.1 Sources
On board ships several devices are devoted to convert energy
from one form to another:
f.i. main propulsion and auxiliary
engines convert chemical energy into rotational mechanical
energy,
electric generators convert mechanical energy into
electric
one,
propellers,
pumps
and
fans
transform
rotational mechanical energy into fluid translational motion.
During each of these processes a portion of the energy
is
transferred to the ambient in form of acoustic energy.
Noise sources have often very low acoustic efficiency:
that
means that the acoustic emission can represent a negligible
part of the total amount of energy of the source,
but even
these very small quantities can have strong effects on the
human body.
For these reasons, each of the above-mentioned devices can be
a significant
"noise sourcen and has to be quantified as
regards this aspect.
A broad classification of noise sources can be attempted
according to the characteristics of their spectrum /1/: there
are noises with a continuous spectrum, in which the
energy
content is evenly distributed over wide frequency ranges, and
"lines" of noise, in which the energy is concentrated in a
certain number of frequencies or within very narrow bands.
spectra are often a combination of these
two
Real
sources
cases:
in fig.3.2 (reproduced from 12/) a typical propeller
in
the
spectrum
tohcws
a few lines
cavitation
source
blade harmonics rising
frequencies corresponding to --- first
above the continuous part of i
spectrum.
in
Usually,
line contributions Et' due to axial asymmetries
shaft
(propeller wake irregularities,
devices
rotating
in
unbalances, gear teeth contacts), to unbalanced forces
reciprocating machines, to excitation of natural vibrational
modes of machine parts or plates.
3.2
-&AM
RATE '
LNES
PEAK FREOUENYSLP-O8CTV
Typical propeller cavitation source spectrum
fig 3.2 from 121,131

A continuous contribution to the spectrum can be given by
mechanical rubbing of sliding parts (bearing, pads etc.)
or
by cavitation or turbulence in pipes, valves, pumps or fans.
Obviously, the more a machine is complex, the higher is the
number of parts that can radiate noise, so that a very large
number of noise lines can rise, 'foaing an apparently
continuous
spectrum. In this case, a "narrow band" noise
analysis is needed to enhance the single line contribution.
Another classification of noise sources on board ships can be
attempted according to the delivered form of acoustic energy:
one
can
then distinguish
water-borne
noise
sources
(propellers,
bow
thruster, flow around the
hull
or
appendages), structure-borne noise sources (main engines,
diesel generator, pumps, auxiliaries in general, etc.)
and
air-borne noise sources
(vents, ducts of heating or air
conditioning systems, etc.).
It must be pointed out, however, that this classification is
not so clear, because the same source can radiate in
different ways and each of them has to be considered.
Propellers, for example, are the main water-borne noise
sources: their radiation is to a great extend associated with
cavitation phenomena on the blades, from where acoustic
energy is radiated through water to the hull. However, they
act also as direct structural sources due to the bearing
forces transmitted through the shaft.
3.3
they are
Another example is given by propulsion engines:
usually the main structure-borne noise sources, but they also
radiate a considerable amount of air-borne noise in the
engine room and adjacent spaces.
We can then conclude that the same source may need
characterized with regard to different kinds of
emission.
to be
noise
3.1.2 Transmission paths

If we define a closed surface which contains an acoustic
source and we are able to define the source strength on this
surface, we can define as transmission path each line
connecting such a surface to any given "receiving position".
The transmission paths can pass through any medium (liquid,
solid or gas). According to the type of medium we can
distinguish on board ships water-borne, structure-borne and
air-borne transmission paths.
These different kinds of transmission paths can act in series
or in parallel, with a commutation of the energy flow from
aeroacoustical to vibrational or hydroacoustical forms and
vice-versa (Figg. 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5).
_,,__,_,,-,
propeller
___
ihull plating I
accomodation
O
iba-mdto
pn
S
IWU Me' o -
Istructural
elements
pal
ar-born-
pain
a~ir-borne path
5adjacent
sain
spaces
-born-
ar.oome
oat,
i er-home par,
structural
vibration
j
a-borne
of partitions
fig. 3.3: schematic representation of possible transmission paths from the propeller to an accomodatlon
space.
3.4
ship
.;
pt
structure
F
generator 1i
pan
t"lr-b.
cc-romodation
t-u.
I. =foundattion
adjacent.."
spjacestI
P=,
we_,_Stnjcf
~b .thr
a;,b Pa .h
Lii:sabm
hull
(adjac. comp.)
1i9.3.4 :schematic representation of possible transmission paths tram a machine to
an accomodation area
SECTION AT FRI fl
SECTION
AT FRO
___E ..deck
O..demak
C..deck
*tructuf'-eibrtne
air.-borne
sound
sound
path
path
BY COURTESY OF TNO (NQ)
fig .3.5
3.5
high
paths are characterized by very
source
the
from
flow
energy
the
that
so
losses,
transmission
to the receiver along that path can be neglected, as well as
the path itself. In principle, however, every path gives a
contribution to the noise in the receiving position.
should be born in mind when considering a problem of
This
noise transmission from a source: some connections of the
source with its nearest environment, even if negligible or
even nonexistent from the point of view of structural
strength, can result as important transmission paths.
For example, when the transmission of noise from a dieselis
structure
to the surrounding ship
set
generator
machine
of
the
the
feet
through
the
path
only
considered, not
to the foundation shall be taken into account, but also the
air-borne path originating on the machine surface and the
other structural paths through minor connections.
Fuel, oil and refrigerating water pipes, air intakes and
exhaust outlets ducts, -even electric cables can all be
effective noise transmission paths to be evaluated for
predicting noise in the receiving position(s).
Obviously,
some
In the study of the various kinds of noise propagation the

crucial points are represented by discontinuities along the
infinite
the model of propagation in a homogeneous,
path:
medium would be quite simple, while the real case includes
finite dimensions, geometrical and. material discontinuities
and the problem of fluid-structure interaction.
The air-borne path includes consideration of 'border effects"
with
interaction
reflection, diffraction and
as
such
analogous
from
not
differ
do
the structure. These subjects
and
problems
environment:
the industrial
in
situations
solutions are similar.
can
noise paths in a ship environment
The
structure-borne
but
situations,
transports
other
have some cannon points with
the
and
dimensions
to
the
they have peculiar aspects due
to
and
superstructures
and
complexity of the ship structures
and
the presence of the hull, a (comparatively) homogeneous
low-impedance wave guide characterized by spatially periodic
stiffening frames.
a
is
presence around the hull of water, that
The
(comparatively) dense and low-impedance fluid, creates strong
differences with the case of a structure in the atmosphere
because not only the air-structure interaction is to be taken
into account, but also the water-structure coupling, which is
stronger 13/:
-
radiation loading of hulls is associated with the

The
inertia forces exerted by the entrained mass of water which
modify the hull plating response.
3.6
Because
of the high sound velocity in water,
the
coincidence frequency of ship hull plating lies in the
ultrasonic range:
therefore,
flexural waves radiate from
areas where wavenumber conversion occurs, viz, drive points
and impedance discontinuities.
(the coincidence frequency, as it will be better explained
in a subsequent lesson, is the frequency at w.hich the
bending wave length in a plate is equal to the wave length
of sound in air:
above this frequency the radiation
efficiency of the plate increases).
Once launched, however, the water-borne acoustic signal

*suffers
propagation losses which are small compared to
those encountered in the atmosphere.
The water-borne path can then partially short-circuit
structural impedance discontinuities such as bulkheads,
which, in the atmosphere, would constitute
effective
barriers to structure-borne noise propagation /3/.
3.1.3 Receiving areas

The aim of acoustic investigations and studies on board can
be different: obviously the most important concern is the
human health safety, in terms of hearing damage prevention,
but
the
attention is
recently
shifting
toward
the
consideration also of habitability of working
spaces and
comfort in the living areas.
The various Maritime Authorities have-then fixed limitations
in the maximum noise levels in such spaces
(limits often
expressed in dB(A)).
The rising standards of cruiser ships have brought the Owners
to fix severe specifications for the new constructions in
terms of very low noise levels in the cabins.
In all these cases the "receivern is the human hear, so the
limitations are set on the air-borne noise levels and the
considered noise paths end with an air-borne part:
this is
the most frequent case in acoustic studies on board.
Sometimes the final target is to achieve low structural noise
near sonars or similar delicate electroacoustical devices
(this happens not only in naval units but also in fishing or
research vessels):
in this case the receiving area is a
portion of the hull and the transmission ends with a
structure-borne path.
Typical of naval units is the study of the acoustic signature
of a vessel, that is the characterization of the whole ship
as a single underwater source: in this case the receiving
position is in the water, far away from the ship.
t3.7
3.2
IDENTIFICATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF THE SOURCE STRENGTH

The characterization of the source strength is one of the two
keypoints of every acoustic problem (the other one being the
characterization of the transmission paths to a
given
receiving position).
The first problem is to choose a
to characterize a
source independently from the environment: in
other words,
the
source should be identified in itself by a quantity not
varying with different arrangements.
This would permit a comparison between different sources in
order to select the optimal solution from an acoustical point
of view and would also allow a theoretical prediction of the
final noise level in a given receiving position.
This would permit, in the first steps of the design, to
investigate different
solutions in the arrangement or even
in the position of the various machinery and/or working or
living spaces in order to achieve pre-determined results.
-way
3.2.1 Air-borne noise sources

When dealing with air-borne noise sources, it is important to
stress the difference between sound power and sound pressure
levels:
f.i.,
the sound pressure levels around a diesel
engine are affected not only by the air-borne emission of the
source itself, but also by the characteristics of the
reverberant field due to the ambient in which it is placed.
Consequently,
the sound pressure levels experienced during
tests at Manufacturer's facilities can be very different from
those surveyed after installation on board.
Therefore,
sound pressure levels
are not an
efficient
"descriptor' for the source, while sound power levels are a
better one, being related to the acoustic energy delivered by
the
source, which can be considered independent from the
environment.
3.2.2 Structure-borne noise sources

Even more difficult is the characterization of structureborne noise sources, because the connection between the
source and its nearest surrounding
(resilient mountings,
foundations) is more strict.
The relatively low impedance of foundations and structures in
the ship context further complicate the problem.
If we consider a single degree of freedom system, the rate at
which energy flows out of it can be expressed
as
(harmonic
excitation):
<7>= 1/2 Re [V F*J
3.8
V - complex velocity
F - complex excitation force
F*- complex conjugate of F
Where V and F should be measured simultaneously.
One of these two "active" quantities can be expressed as a
function of the other one through the definitions of the
mobility Y and of impedance Z (these two complex quantities
express
the
relationship between the source
and
the
environment at the contact points and can be calculated
for
different excitations, provided the system is in its linear
field):
Y
V/F
->
<7r>
-1/2
Z - F/V
->
<7r>
IFI2 Re(Y*J
1/2 1V12 Re[Z*]
The same relationship can be expressed in spectral terms for

amplitude and phase in the case of a random excitation /4/.
If we consider the real case of a source with N
contact
points each of them with 6 degrees of freedom, we will find
that,
to calculate
the delivered power,
the
following
quantities are necessary:
-
6N velocity spectra and 6N~force spectra or:
6N velocity spectra and
6N force spectra and (6N)2 impedance spectra.
(6W)Z
mobility spectra or:
Even if, in suitable hypotheses, the total number of the

required data can be reduced, from what briefly up reported
it can be concluded that:
complete description of the structure-borne noise
radiated by a real source would require an enormous amount
of data and surveys that are technically possible, but very
time-consuming
-the
a description cannot be independent of the boundary of

the
source itself,
because the forces and the velocities
experienced at the contact points are mutually related
through the boundary &~onditions (this relationship being
expressed by the mobility or impedance matrices).
-such
The problem is somehow managed on a practical basis

neglecting phase relationships and surveying the amplitude
a certain amount of components of forces, velocities
accelerations at the various contact points (e.g. the feet
a machine) in standardized restraint conditions.
3.9
by
of
or
of
The choice of both the components to be evaluated and,

in
the
of
the restraints to be used
consequently,
and
experimental tests, is still matter of discussion
different methodologies have been developed by
various
Institutes on the bases of their own experience in specific
fields of application.
3.2.3 Water-borne noise sources

As stated before, the main water-borne noise source is the
propeller, whose emission is mainly due to
cavitation
phenomena.
Such emission is caused by growing and collapse of vapor
bubble due to the unsteady hydrodynamic pressure field
exerted by the blades profiles in relative motion with water.
The radiation is monopole-type, acoustically very efficient,
and represented by a pulsating spherical volume.
The propeller is often schematized as a single monopole
source with a volume time history corresponding to the total
cavitation volume on the blades (as it will be explained in a
subsequent lesson).
3.3
NOISE REDUCTION
Noise reduction
basically with:
in
a receiving position
can
be
achieved
- reduction of the noise source strength

- modification of the transmission paths
- protection and isolation of the receiving areas;
3.3.1 Actions on the sources

The reduction of noise source levels requires interventions
in the design, installation and maintenance phases (see also
/22/):
suitable approaches will be illustrated in detail in
the subsequent lessons. Here below some very basic concepts
are reported.
air-borne noise sources: optimize cooling systems of machines
in order to reduce the requirements for cooling fans, reduce
air velocity and install sound attenuators in ventilation
ducts, install dampers in hydraulic pipes, provide silencers
systems and enclosures for noisy machines in
for exhaust
general.
isolate vibration sources
structure-borne noise sources:
within a machine, remove gear meshing and shaft unbalances,
chose correctly flexible mountings and flexible connections
3.I0
at any structural path from a machine to the structure,

increase the mass and stiffness of machinery foundations.
water-borne sources:
reduce cavitation on the propeller
with a careful hydrodynamic design of the blades
and
a regularization of the water inflow to the screw.
3.3.2 Actions on the transmission paths
As regards the transmission paths, interventions for noise
reduction are mainly based on three different concepts:
damping, absorption and isolation.
Roughly
speaking,
damping and absorption
consist
in
dissipating vibrational energy into heat, respectively in the
case of structural and air-borne noise, while isolation means
interruption
in
the transmission path
attained
with
discontinuities
interposed in the geometry or in
the
propagation medium.
damping /23/
Panels and plating have an infinite number of natural
frequencies for bending vibration. If the frequency of the
pulsating exciting force coincides with with one of the
natural frequencies, the dynamic amplification will cause
intense noise radiation in the resonant zone. In many cases,
therefore, it will be desiderable to reduce the resonant
peaks by applying additional damping in the form of a
viscoelastic layer (damping layer).
In a ship context, damping layers will have little effect
because the plates are thick and only a few areas on the
plates will be in resonance simultaneously. When thin plates
are
set in resonance vibrations, like f.i. in
light
enclosures around loud noise sources, they can be effective
(fig.3.6 /23/).
E_UNTLET
i
--
PANEL
o--J
o 70
=
Z50) 80
--
l00 120 140 160 10 200

Hz
inFREQUENCY.
Example o! the action of damping layers.
fig 3.6, from /23/
3.11
absorption
Sound absorption materials are often used for the control of
reverberant and
transmitted noise: they absorb the sound
waves and significantly reduce the reflected energy.
The two mechanisms related to sound absorption are viscous
dissipation in the air cavities and friction due to the
vibrating fibres: they both convert sound energy into heat.
Consequently, absorption materials are either porous or
fibrous and must let the sound wave move about in the
material /5/.
isolation
As mentioned before, the isolation of a noise source consists
of decoupling of the source itself from the receiver, by
insertion of structural or geometrical discontinuities.
When a wave propagating-in a medium meets a medium with a
different impedance, part of the energy will be reflected
back at the boundary surface (fig.3.7 /23/); the same effect
is
observed in the case of geometrical discontinuities
within the same medium (fig.3.8 /23/)
AIR
STEEL
B JLKHEA
AIRE
//
A.BULKHEAD
/'
B. ISOLATOR
Reflection at different media.
II1
S. Air dvt
A. frame
Reflection at geometrical changes.
figg. 3.7, 3.8
3.12
rOUN OATIO
from /231
The techniques for isolation of noise sources are

the above mentioned effects, both in the case of
and structure-borne noise.
based on
air-borne
a) air-borne noise /23/

A
sound wave impinging on a wall induces
mechanical
vibrations in the structure. The vibrating wall radiates
acoustical power. Most of the incident power is reflected,
the
remainder is either transmitted or dissipated
as
frictional losses in the structure.
A characteristic property of sound is that it is reflected
very effectively from hard surfaces. A steel plate reflects
about 99Z of the sound and this is largely independent of the
frequency.
If a noise source is in the open air,
the sound
energy
transmitted horizontally and upwards will not be
reflected.
But if the noise source is placed in an enclosure, part of
the radiated power will bd reflected back towards the
source
and added to the power directly radiated.
The total energy inside the enclosure increases, while the
sound pressure level will be lower in the space
surrounding
the enclosure.
To reduce this indesiderable accumulation of sound energy,
part of it can be converted to heat by absorption.
An other example of reflection of air-borne noise
is
represented by integral steel bulkheads:
they can reduce
effectively the noise transmission from one compartment to
the adjacent one, provided that no air gaps or openings. are
present (fig.3.7A).,
Sudden variation in the section of air ducts have again a
back-reflecting effect on air-borne noise (fig. 3.BB)
b) structure-borne noise
Also structure-borne noise can be combated trying to reflect
energy back to the source.
Again the first method that can be applied (as for air-borne
noise) is to insert in the transmission paths components
(isolators, floating floors ...) with acoustic impedances
different from that of steel in order to stop the propagation
of structure-borne noise (fig. 3.73).
The greater the difference from the acoustic impedance of
steel, the more effective this action will be.
The
effect
of the reflection of
structure-borne
by
geometrical discontinuities is illustrated in fig. 3.8A /23/.
it
can have a strong influence on the form of
the
transmission paths along the hull: for example, in a ship
with transverse framing the noise is transmitted more easily
upward than forwards along the shell plating,
because the
frames represent changes in acoustic impedance whicIf reduce
the propagation of noise in a longitudinal direction.
3.13
3.3.3 Receiving positions

An obvious intervention to limit noise levels
in
the
receiving spaces is to move such spaces far from the the
noisiest sources: this can be done, of course, only in the
very early steps of the ship design, on the bases of suitable
prediction results.
Other noise counter-measures to be adopted directly in the
receiving areas, acting on the last parts of the transmission
paths are: the use of floating floors, suspended ceilings and
high absorption materials in the cabins, the installation of
whole accomodation on floating bases, the adoption of hearing
protection (f.i. by engine room personell), etc.
A detailed analysis of the above-mentioned noise countermeasures is reported in Ref. /13/.
More detailed informations can be found in Refs. /17-21/.
3.4
EFFECTIVENESS OF NOISE COUNTER-MEASURES

Some
quantities
are used in order to
describe
the
effectiveness of noise-counter measures.
They are always
dependant on frequency and are often
reported in 1/1 or 1/3 octave bands
(particulary when
experimentally determined).
Some examples will be shortly illustrated in the following.
1) partition between two adjacent reverberant rooms
This a typical situation represented in fig.3.9
(source room = 1 receiver room = 2):
Sound transmission from one room to another.
n,,
F121
Receiver room
Source room
ni
Partition
fig 3.9 from /5/
3.14
Noise Reduction
NR
Lpl - Lp2 = 10 Log Cpl/p2)
Sound Transmission Losses
TL
10 Log (ril/rt)
where:
pl,p2 - mean square pressure at the given frequency

LplLp2 - corresponding sound pressure levels
=i
- power incident to the source side of partition
rt = power transmitted through the partition
As it can be imagined, sound transmission loss is a quantity

representative of the partition only, while NR depends also
on the reverberant field characteristics of the receiving
room.
In a steady-state condition, neglecting flanking transmission
through mechanical connection or air gaps, the following
relationship arises /5/:
NR
TL -10 Log ES / (S2 m2 + T S)]
2) acoustic enclosures
Acoustic enclosures are commonly used in industry to box
noise sources in. Such a counter-measure does not eliminate
or reduce the noise source: it just constrains the noise and
should be considered as a last resort for good engineering
practice.
For an evaluation of the performances of an enclosure the
following definitions arise (fig.3.10.from /5/)
Shemliic illus.ratioa of tle difrencc heinn ILNR .nd TL.

Enclosure
" Lpl~~~
L (wth e ecloure
L, (inside enclosure )
LO(~
fig. 3.10 /5/
3.15
IL .L.
L.
insertion loss (IL) = difference between the pressure level

in a point of the receiving room with and without the
enclosure fitted around the source
transmission loss
(TL) - difference between the intensity
levels at the internal and external surface of the enclosure
noise reduction (MR) = difference between the pressure levels
inside and outside the the enclosure
In this case TL is again peculiar of the panels used for
the enclosure, while IL depends also on the characteristics
of the reverberant field inside the enclosure and on the
dimensions of the enclosure itself
In the case of large fitting enclosures (i.e. when enclosures
are not fitted directly on to the sources and they are at a
suitable
distances from source's major surfaces),
and
neglecting
possible effects due to resonances of
the
enclosure itself, to structure-borne sound through flanking
paths, air gap likages, vibrations and ventilation, the basic
relationship for primary enclosure design is /5/:
IL
TL - 10 Log Se + 10 Log [Ae ae/(l-oe)]
where; Se = outer surface of the enclosure

Ae = total internal surface
(enclosure and source)
exposed to the reverberation field internal to
the enclosure
me = average
absorption
coefficient
inside
the
enclosure
3) isolators
The simplest scheme for the study of an isolator
is
represented in fig.3.11
The
performances
of such a system
can
be
derived
theoretically
/5/
and
are presented
in
terms
of:
trasmissibility (TR)
ratio between the exciting

transmitted force
and
the
As it can be seen, TR decreases when the excitation frequency

exceeds the natural frequency of the isolator: so, in order
to minimize transmissibility, isolators are selected so that
their natural frequency wn is lower enough than the exciting
frequencies (fig.3.12).
The subject of resilient mountings will be better developed
in a subsequent lesson.
3.16
Fig. 4.26. Single-degree-of-freedom forced excitation model for vibration isolation.

Transmitted force,
I II
II
II j
I I
YTOt
I I I I I J/
I
Damper
Spring
Displacement x(t)
I.t.
Excitation Force F(t) = F sin wt
fig 3.11 from /5/

Fig. 4.27. Transmissibility versus frequency ratio for a single-degree-of-freedom system.
10.0
2=0
(=0.2
=0.5:7
1.0.
1;=0.1
;
0.1l
0.0!
0.1
1.0 "42
fig.3.12 from /5/
3.17
10.0
REFERENCES
/il/R.J. Urick "Principles of underwater noise" McGraw
Hill 1983
/2/ N.A.
Brown "Cavitation Noise Problems
and
Solutions"
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Shipboard
Acoustics 1976, J.H. Janssen editor, Elsevier Amsterdam (NL)
1977
/3/ M.C. Junger "Shipboard Noise: Sources, Transmission
Control"
Noise Control Engineering Journal Vo134,
Jan.1990.
/4/ C.M. Harris and C.E. Crede. "Shock and
vol.1 Mc Graw Hill
Vibration
and
N.1
Handbook"
/5/ M.P. Norton "Fundamentals of noise and vibration

for engineers" Cambridge Univ. Press 1989
analysis
/6/ L.E. Kinsler, A.R. Frey, A.B. Coppens and J.V.

"Fundamental of Acoustics' John Wiley & Sons 1982
Sanders,
/7/
ISSC, "Vibration and noise", Rep. of Committee 11.4, Proc.

of 9th Intern; Ship Structures Congress, Genoa, 1985.
/8/
E. Brubakk, "Noise and Vibration Criteria for Ships and

Offshore
Constructions" Proceedings ICMES 90
Maritime
Systems Integrity, Newcastle 19+21 Sep. 1990
/9/
L. Ricciardiello and E. Rizzuto, "Characterization

of
structure-borne noise sources:
state of the art",
CETENA
rep. 3750, Nov. 1989.
/10/ M.J.A.M. de Regt,

"On Sound Paths from Resiliently Mounted
Machinery" Proceedings ICMES 90 Maritime Systems Integrity,
Newcastle 19+21 Sep. 1990
/11/ J.W. Verheij, "Multi-path Sound Transfer from Resilient
Mounted Ship Board Machinery", TPD/TNO, Delft, 1982
/12/ J.H.
Janssen,
"International
Acoustics, 1976 TNO-TH, Delft.
Symposium
on
Shipboard
/131 A.C. Nilsson,

"Attenuation of structure-borne
sound in
superstructures on ships"; Journ. of Sound and Vibration,
55,1, 71-91, 1977.
/14/ A.C. Nilsson, "Reduction of structure-borne sound in simple
ship structures: results of model tests",
Journ. of Sound
and Vibration, 61, 1, 45-60, 1978.
3.I8
/15/ A.C. Nilsson, "Method for the Prediction of Noise and

Velocity Levels in Ship Constructions" Det Norske Veritas,
Report No.LI.103, 1983.
/16/ M. Heckl,
"Reduction of Structure Borne
Inter-Noise 85, Munich, 1985.
Noise",
proc.of
/17/ A.C. Nilsson, "Some Acoustical Properties of Floating-floor

Constructions", Det Norske Veritas Publication No.103, Sept
1977.
/18/ J. Buiten, "The Effect of a Floating Floor as an Acoustical
Measure on Board a Ship", Netherlands Maritime Institute,
M30, Feb.1979.
/19/ S. Weyna,
"Vibro-acoustic Tests of Ship Cabin
Inter-Noise 79, Warszawa, Sept.1979
Ceilings",
/20/ M.J.A.M. de Regt, "Transfer of Structure-borne Sound

Ship's Cabins", Inter-Noise 79, Warszawa, Sept.1979
to
/21/ J.J. Jensen, H. Holm, "Noise Reduction in the Accommodation

of Ships by Means of Constrained Damping Layers",
InterNoise 79, Warszawa, Sept.1979.
/22/ P. Calcagno, E. Rizzuto, "Practical Suggestion for the
Design, Construction and Maintenance of Vessels with High
Acoustical
Performances" Proceedings ICMES 90 Maritime
Systems Integrity, Newcastle, 19+21 Sep. 1990
/23/ "Noise control in ships" NTNF Rep. B.0930.4502.1, Norwegian
Council for Technical and Scientific Research, Oslo 1975
3.19
LESSON 4
16th WEGEMT SCHOOL
SESSION
CHAPTER
LESSON
Noise and vibration

: 4. Standards, requirements, recommendations on
noise and vibration on board ships
TEACHER
COMPANY

PO Box 155
2600 AD Delft
THE NETHERLANDS
COUNTRY
ABSTRACT
Noise limits for shipboard noise in work- and accommodation
spaces have been introduced in many countries. Most of these
limits are in good agreement with the Code on noise levels on
board ships, issued by the International Maritime Organization. Today this Code is increasingly considered as an international standard for an acceptable noise environment for seafarers. With regard to vibration limits on board ships ISO
Standard 6954 is mostly referred to.
For offshore structures the noise and vibration limits as
issued by the UK Department of Energy can be regarded as most
generally applied.
In this Lesson forementioned standards and recommendations are
described and commented on. Moreover information is given on
national legislation or recommendations with respect to noise
on board ships and offshore structures.
AUTHOR'S BIOGRAPHY
4.1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Noise criteria
4.2.1 Noise limits for ships
4.2.2 Noise limits for offshore structures
4.3 Vibration criteria
4.3.1 Vibration limits for ships: ISO 6954
4.3.2 Vibration limits for offshore structures
Acknowledgment
References
Tables and Figures
Appendix 4.1
4.2
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In recent years growing attention has been paid to noise and

vibration problems in relation to social and environmental
conditions. High levels of noise and vibration in working and
residential areas are regarded as a health problem, a communi-.
cation and safety problem or simply a nuisance, depending on
the level and period of exposure.
For ships and offshore structures which are both a working and
dwelling place, the operating personnel may be obliged to
live with noise and vibration 24 hr a day, for weeks or
months. Thus the problem may be much more acute than in any
land-based combination of working and living area.
A sign that noise and vibration problems on board ships and
offshore structures are clearly recognised is the large number
of suggested norms from maritime and offshore authorities in
various countries. This paper will be focused on international
codes and standards for noise and vibration; in Appendices
surveys are given of national legislation or recommendations
in this field.
4.2 NOISE CRITERIA
Both for ships and offshore structures, the relevant statutory
requirements and regulations have been established on basis of
following noise aspects:
1.
Hearing damage.
Reduce or eliminate the risk of hearing damage due to
exposure to high noise levels.
2.
Interference with warning signals.
Ensure that warning signals (alarms, public address
systems, etc) are audible and understandable.
3.
Interference with speech communication.
Allow adequate speech, telephone and radio communication
and ensure that all messages may be clearly understood.
4.
Disturbance of rest and sleep.
Ensure that noise levels in the accommodation and sleeping areas will be sufficiently low to allow adequate rest
and sleep facilities.
.
Because of this common basis, the statutory regulations, in
use in most countries, are in reasonably good agreement with
one another. However, the noise and vibration limits for
offshore structures, in particular for the accommodation
areas, are considerably lower than for ships. In our opinion
there is no good reason why on board long-distance ships more
noise and vibration should be allowed than in off-shore structures, however.
The various ranges of noise levels are given in Table 4.1. It
is seen that for the last two categories of noise criteria,
'Speech communication' and 'Rest and recovery', the differences between the ship and offshore regulations are considerable. If the very stringent USSR limits are excluded, the noise
limits for offshore structures are in the range of 15 dB(A)
lower than for ships.
4.3
Table 4.1:
Comparison of various noise limits in dB(A) for

ships and offshore structures.
Offshore
Ships
Hearing damage
-
Manned machinery space (ref. 8 h

working day)
(Excluding USSR criteria)
80
Ear protectors required above
85
-90
85
-90
80
90
70
90
Warning signal audibility

-
Listening posts
75 - 70
65
65 -80
70 - 80
55 -60
45
Speech communication
-
Control rooms
Offices
60
Radio room
55 -65
70
60
65
55
45 -55
Rest and recovery

-
45
70
Cabins
55
70
Mess/recreation rooms)
55
60
74
74
45
50
-55
4.2.1 NOISE LIMITS FOR SHIPS

Since the Recommendation 141 was adopted by the International
Labour Conference (30th October 1970) by which the authorities
of maritime countries were invited to 'establish provisions
for the reduction of, and protection of seafarers from excessive and harmful noise on board ships' in many, especially
European countries, limits for noise levels were defined. In
Appendix 4.1 a survey of the most important regulations are
given. As indicated in the table, in only a part of the countries the limits have a legal character, in other they are
used as a recommendation.
In 1978 the International Maritime Organisation (IMO; at that
time called IMCO) started work with respect to noise limits
which resulted in the adoption of the 'Code on noise levels on
(19 November 1981) /4.1/, hereafter referred to
board ships'
as 'the Code'.
The main objective of the Code is to be used as a 'guidance to
Administrations on maximum noise levels and noise exposure
limits' as is stated in the Preamble of the Code.
4.4
Since the issuance of the IMO Code, several maritime countries

have applied it as national regulations and required standards
for newbuildings. Amongst these countries Liberia, with its
considerably sized fleet, may be mentioned, and other countries, such as the Netherlands which recently changed from own
requirements in favour of the IMO Code. This development is
also expected for other countries and therefore the IMO Code
will be discussed more in detail in the following.
IMO Code
The IMO Code has been based on the national noise limits and
experience of the member countries at that time (1978) and has
provided an international standard for an acceptable noise
environment for seafarers.
1.
Application.
The Code applies to ships of 1600 grt and above and for new
ships of less than 1600 grt as far as reasonable and practicable. Fishing vessels and work-ships are amongst others
excluded.-
2.
Units.
The noise limits are specified in terms of A-weighted sound
levels.
In accommodation spaces where the dB(A) limits are exceeded
and where there is a subjective annoying low frequency sound
or obvious tonal components the ISO Noise Rating (NR-)
number should also be determined. The limits specified may
be considered as satisfied if the ISO Noise Rating (NR-)
number does not numerically exceed the specified A-weighted
value minus 5. For a description of the NR-system see Lesson
1.
Comment:
This paragraph suggests in the first place that it

is possible to fulfil NR-55 in cabins when exceeding
60 dB(A) in the case of annoying low frequency sound
and in the second place that it is possible to- decide without any doubt, whether there is an annoying
low frequency sound or not.
From surveys of measurements on board (see lesson 2)
it is found that 60 dB (A) equals NR-58 as an average
value in the case that the NR-number is determined
by the sound levels in one of the octave bands with
centre frequencies 31.5, 63 or 125 Hz. So when the
sound has a low frequency character it is very unlikely that NR-55 is not exceeded when 60 dB(A) is.
The second suggestion will give a lot of problems in
practice. It may be expected that in 50% of the
cabins the NR-curve is determined by the sound levels in the 63 of 125 Hz octave bands (see Lesson 5,
Figure 5.6) . So in 50% of the cases the sound in a
cabin has a low frequency character. Nevertheless
complaints about roaring cabins are more scarce than
this percentage would suggest and better criteria
have to be used to be able to arrive at the distinction wanted.
4.5
From the text of the paragraph of the Code mentioned

above it appears that NR-curves are to be used in
case obvious tonal components are present. When this'
situation occurs we highly recommend to measure 1/3octave band levels. When the level in one band is 10
or more dB higher than the levels measured in the
two contiguous 1/3-octave bands the tone is certainly detectable and NR-curves should be used as
limits.
3.
Equipment.
Sound level meters manufactured to the IEC publication 651
(1979) should be applied. Octave filters sets should conform
to IEC publication 225 (1966).
Calibration procedures are prescribed.
4.
Operational conditions.
The sound measurements should be taken under normal design
service conditions at sea as well as during operation in
port with ship's cargo handling equipment running. All
auxiliary machinery, navigation instruments, etc. should
operate throughout the measurement period.
5.
Noise exposure limits.

The limits of the Code result in an LA.q. 24 less than 80
dB (A).
LA.q,24 stands for the A-weighted equivalent continuous
level considering an exposure period of 24 hours. The L.q
results to the same amount of sound energy as it would be
the case for a varying level during the same time period.
Comment:
6.
When wearing ear protectors a sound level of 120

dB(A) or an L,.q,24 = 105 dB(A) may not be exceeded.
The latter level is equivalent to an exposure level
of 110 dB(A) during an exposure time of eight hours.
This will not often occur: Goethe et al /4.2/ reported that only ca. 3% of engine room assistants of a
total amount of 174 were exposed to L.q's higher than
105 dB(A). However, still the general tendency
exists that the manufacturers of diesel engines
build engines which produce higher sound levels than
some years ago due to increasing power and speed of
particularly the auxiliary diesel engines. Secondly
a great part of the duty time of engine room personnel is spent outside low-level spaces and in the
third place it is very common that more than eight
hours a day are spent in the engine rooms. The chance that in many cases LA.q,24 exceeds 105 dB(A) may be
expected to increase in the future.
Therefore it would be worthwhile to'consider requirements with respect to the arrangements of engine
rooms by the Administrations to avoid sound levels
higher than 85 dB(A) during maintenance work.
Measurement procedure.
The measurement is on the whole in accordance with ISO
2923 (1975): - Acoustic measurement .of noise on board vessels.
For fluctuating noise levels, or if the sound is cyclic,
4.6
irregular or intermittent, an integrating sound level meter

should be used. For the various spaces a survey of positions
is given, at which measurements should be taken.
Noise level limits
7,
The noise limits for various spaces are specified in Table

-
4.11.
Table 4.11
Noise limits in dB(A) for work- and accommodation spaces on
board ships according to the IMO Code on noise levels on board
ships.
Work spaces
.1 Machinery spaces (continuously manned)**
.2 Machinery spaces (not continuously manned)**
.3 Machinery control rooms
.4 Workshops
.5 Non-specified work spaces**
90
110
75
85
90
Navigation spaces
65
.1 Navigation bridge and chartrooms
.2 Listening post, including navigating bridge* wings
70
and windows
.3 Radio rooms (with radio equipment operating but not
60
producing audio signals)
65
.4 Radar rooms
Accommodation spaces
.1 Cabins and hospitals
.2 Mess rooms
.3 Recreation rooms
.4 Open recreation areas
60
65
65
75
.5 Offices
65
Service spaces
.1 Galleys, no food processing equipment operating
75
.2 Serveries and pantries
75
Normally unoccupied Bpaces**
90
Spaces not specified
is made to IMO resolution A.343 (IX) which also

the maximum sound pressure levels in the 250 Hz
i.e.
applies:
and 500 Hz octave band, measured at 3/4 of the normal service
speed, should as a guidance not be higher than 68 d.B and 63 dB
*Reference
respectively.
**
Ear protectors should be worn when the noise level is

above 85 dB(A).
8.
Survey report.
A noise survey report should be made for each ship. The
report should comprise information on the noise levels in
the various spaces on board. In the Code a survey is given
4.7
of particulars that should be mentioned in the noise survey

report. A model format for noise survey reports is set out
in Appendix 1 of the Code.
9.
Airborne sound insulation.
The partitions in between cabins and between public rooms

and cabins should fulfil following airborne sound insulation
index (I.) according to ISO Standard R717 /4.3/.
-
cabin to cabin
I. = 30
-measrooms, recreation rooms to cabins,
hospitals I* = 45
As a rule the 18 -values are numerically the same as the

weighted sound insulation indices &.-values of* (the revised
version of) ISO 717/1 (/4.4/).
The sound insulation properties should be determined by
laboratory tests.-in accordance with ISO standard R140 /4.5/.
Care should be taken in the construction of accommodation
spaces to ensure that the sound insulation properties not
significantly are impaired.
4.2.2 NOISE LIMITS FOR OFFSHORE STRUCTURES
Compared to the number of countries that have issued noise

criteria for ships, those issuing statutory regulations for
offshore structures are rather few. in Table 4.111 (/4.6/) a
summary of the most frequently used and well defined criteria
is shown.
For countries where no specific statutory requirements exist,
the standards for ships are often applied on offshore structures, particularly in connection with mobile offshore- units
(drilling/accommodation rigs) . In addition, the major oil
companies usually have their own specifications for noise
limits. These are applied irrespective of the country in which
the installation is located.
The limits for the various oil companies' internal standards
are not given in this lesson. However, the specified levels
agree more or less with the limits specified by the UK Department of Energy. Of oil companies which have applied this type
of standard, the following may be mentioned: Shell, BP, Mobile, Statoil, Elf, Hydro.
The UK Department of Energy' s noise criteria seem to have
become a trendsetter for statutory noise regulations offshore.
UK Department of Energy's noise limits
Since 1975 all fixed and mobile installations operating in the
UK sector of the Continental Shelf must have a 'Certificate of
Fitness' . The Department of Energy (DOE) is responsible for
detailing the certification and issued a guidance document in
1977, specifying the noise and vibration criteria. The 4th
edition has been issued in 1990 /4.7/.
Measurement surveys for both new installations and those
4.8
entering UK waters for the first time should be carried out

when the installation becomes operational for the first time
in UK waters.
The noise limits have been divided into three main groups:
1.
General work area noise limits;
The highest allowable limits for the general work areas are
based on equivalent continuous noise (L.q) criteria, making
allowance for not only the magnitude of the noise level but
also the duration. Referring to the 12 h shift system offshore, the work area limit is 88 dB(A). An increase of 3 dB(A)
is permitted for each halving of the exposure time. This
implies that 90 dB(A) is permitted for 8 h per day, 93 dB(A)
for 4 h, etc.
2.
Specific work area noise limits

control rooms, etc);
(workshops, stores,
Noise limit
dB (A)
Workshops
General Stores
Kitchens
Control rooms
Offices
Laboratories
Radio/Communication
rooms
3.
70
70
60
55
55
55
45
Sleeping/recreation area noise limits.

Noise limit
dB (A)
Washing facilities
Changing rooms
Toilets
Dining rooms
Theatre/meeting
rooms
Television rooms
Sleeping areas
Medical rooms
Quiet rooms
60
60
60
55
50
45
45
45
45
Note: Noise levels in corridors should not generally be more

than 5 dB(A) greater than the noise limits in adjoining rooms,
with a maximum level of 60 dB(A) in any corridor.
Comment:
In the DOE Regulations no requirements are given on

the airborne sound insulation between accommodation
4.9
spaces.
The consequences of that may be shown by following
example.
In cabins the background noise level must be according to the rules equal to or less than 45 dB(A).
Lightweight separation bulkheads and ceilings may
lead to a weighted airborne sound insulation index
of R~, <= 25 dB.
This involves (see also Lesson 20) that speech in
adjacent cabins clearly will be understood and use
of bathroom equipment may be annoying and sleep
disturbing.
4.3 VIBRATION CRITERIA

Regarding vibration acceptance criteria for machinery, components and structures, a number of national and international
standards are available and these standards may also be applied in connection with ships and offshore structures. However only a few maritime authorities have presented criteria
with respect to human reaction to vibration.
For the purpose of assessment of vibration for ship and offshore structures, one is concerned with criteria for wholebody vibration, i.e.
vibration in the frequency range of
approximately 1 - 80 Hz. In this frequency range the major
body resonances occur. Exposure may result in annoyance and
discomfort to personnel and may interfere with the efficient
performance of their duty.
Various guidelines regarding human susceptibility to vibration
on boards ships have been presented from organisations connected with the construction of ships (classification societies,
research institutes, etc) . After the issuance of international
standards by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO),
which will be discussed here, the former guidelines
seldom are referred to.
4.3.1 VIBRATION LIMITS FOR SHIPS:
ISO 6954
In connection with ships structures the ISO 6954 standard

(/4.8/) entitled:
'Mechanical vibration and shock guidelines
for the overall evaluation of vibration in merchant ships', is
most frequently referred to. The first
draft proposal was
published in 1977 and the standard issued in 1984. In this
guideline the vibration level measured on the structure (i.e.
on the deck in a cabin) is used as the basis for evaluation of
the vibration environmental standard. The proposed engineering
reference lines have been based upon data collected on hull
vibration, as measured on ships throughout the world. The
reference lines are intended to reflect the current state-ofthe-art
(representative for hull vibrations of similar ship
types), giving due regard to the ability
of man to perform
effectively in this shipboard environment.
4.10
The scope and field of application of the guidelines are that

they may be used-as reference for the evaluation of:
hull and superstructure vibration in crew accommodation
1.
and work spaces (regularly occupied), other than that
usually related to structural or mechanical integrity;
collection of shipboard vibration data useful for deve2.
lopment and improvement of hull vibration reference
levels.
The guidelines treat vertical and horizontal vibrations as
equal in severity on the human body. The standard is shown in
Figure 4.1. As can be seen, the vibration severity is divided
into three zones:
'Adverse comments probable' for vibration values above 9
1.
mm/s (above 5 Hz);
'Adverse comments not probable' for vibration values
2.
below 4 inn/s (above 5 Hz);
A transition zone between the two zones, with no evalua3.
tion.
The vibration curves are given as the maximum repetitive value
(the peak value) of the velocity (in inm/s). In case the vibration signal is built up by several harmonics, the most severe
one with respect to amplitude and frequency is used for the
vibration rating.
A problem is that the definition of this so-called "maximum
repetitive vaue is rather vague and it is difficult to
analyze the signal according to this specification.Often timeaveraged rms values are measured and these values should be
converted to the "maximum repetitive value" according to:
maximum repetitive value = crest factor times rms value.
The crest factor (ratio of peak to ntis) should either be
determined by measurement or assumed to be approximately equal
to 2.5. However it is experienced that often the measured rms
value is multiplied with 1.41, the crest factor for a pure
sinusoidal signal. This implies that then in fact the guidelines become less stringent than originally meant.
It should be noted that in building specifications ISO 6954 is
frequently referred to, but too often without specifying the
limits or reference lines. This may be rather unfortunate
since many will interpret the acceptable vibration level as 9
mm/s maximum, while complaints from the crew will, most probably, already be reported for vibration levels above 6-7 mm/s.
One needs therefore to specify an acceptance level in addition
to the reference to the guideline.
Comment:
No specification is given in ISO 6954 to the type of

vibration transducer (displacement, velocity or
acceleration) that should be used in the mesurements. This may lead to a large scatter in resulting
dose. descriptor values for one measured vibration
depending on type of transducer and instrument.
In ISO 6954 (and also in ISO 2631/1 for offshore) no
clear specification has been given of measurement
4.11
positions. The ship structure (and not the removable

or easily interchangeable furniture) should be rated
at those places where people is under normal conditions in contact with it, e.g. at the floor at the
position of the chair, at the bed if it is fixed to
the wall, at writing desks , chart table, etc.
4.3.2 V15RA-TION LIMITS FOR OFFSHORE STRUCTURES

The basic guidance in setting the offshore vibration limits
has been ISO 2631: "Guide for the evaluation of human exposure
to whole-body vibration'. The standard was first published in
1974 and resissued as ISO 2631/1 in 1985 (/4.9/). The guideline is based on laboratory tests measuring the vibration level
which is transmitted into the human body. Vibration of the
feet of standing people, buttocks of sitting and back of lying
persons have therefore to be measured. The acceptable vibration levels are different for horizontal and vertical direction
(directions related to a co-ordinate system of the body).
Moreover the exposure time is taken into account. Limits are
given for use according to three generally recognised criteria: comfort, working efficiency and safety or health. ISO
2631/1 is regarded as the basic guideline for the evaluation
of whole-body vibration in general.
Based on ISO 2631 vibration limits have been proposed in the
UK Department of Energy's "Offshore Installations: Guidance on
design, construction and certification". The vibration limits
are given as (rms) acceleration values over the frequency
range 'from 1 - 80 Hz. The limits are specified separately for
vertical (2-axis) and horizontal (x- and y-axis) components
and are presented graphically in the Figures 4.2 and 4.3 for
five different categories. A -description of the categories is
given in Table 4.IV.
In the same way as for the noise requirements the vibration
limits are divided into three groups:
1. general work area: category III
2. specific work areas (control rooms etc.) : category IV
3. sleeping/recreation area: category V.
The quantity to be measured is the rms acceleration on the
surfaces designated as normal access for standing and sitting.
Non-sinusoidal, random or broad band vibration should be
analyzed using narrow-band filters
with a bandwidth not exceeding 1/3-octave. The limits are then appropriate to the centre
frequency of that band.
In cases where the crest factor is greater than 3, the recommended limits should be regarded as tentative.
Acknowledgment
The author is grateful to mr. Brubakk for his permission to
use parts of his contribution to the ICMES 90 Conference
(/4.10/).
4.12
REFERENCES
/4.1/ IMO, "Code on noise levels on board ships. Resolution
A.468(XII)" and "Recommendation on methods of measuring noise
levels at listening posts (Resolution A.343(IX))", London
1982.
/4.2/ Goethe H. e.a., "Larmbelastung auf See- und Binnenschiffen (Noise exposure on board sea-going and inland vessels)";
Forschungsbericht nr. 201, Bundesanstalt fur Arbeitsschutz und
Unfallforschung, Dortmund 1979.
/4.3/ ISO Standard R 717
dwellings.
/4.4/
- Acoustics - Rating of sound insula-
ISO Standard 717/1
Rating of sound insulation for
tion in buildings and of building elements - Part 1: Airborne

sound insulation in buildings and of interior building elements.
/4.5/ ISO Standard 140 - Acoustics - Measurement of sound
insulation in buildings and of building elements.
/4.6/UEG Publication UR25 (volume 1, 2), "Noise & vibration
control offshore"; The research and information group for the
underwater and offshore engineering industries CIRIA UEG,
London 1984. ISBN: 0860172295, 086172295.
/4.7/ Department of Energy, "Offshore installations: Guidance
on design, construction and certification", fourth edition
1990.
/4.8/ ISO Standard 6954 - 1984(E) - Mechanical vibration and
shock - Guidelines for the overall evaluation of vibration in
merchant ships.
/4.9/ ISO Standard 2631/1 - 1985(E) - Evaluation of human
exposure to whole-body vibration - Part 1: general requirements.
/4.10/ Brubakk E., "Noise and vibration criteria for ships and
offshore constructions", ICMES 90 Conference, Newcastle upon
Tyne 1990.
4.13
Table 4.111
Summary of noise and vibration limits for
Offshore Installations (December 1983)
(from /4.6/)
OVnddin
limit
Genera work
area Limit for
112 hour shift
United Kingdom,
Norway
135 dB Lin
110 d(A)
88 d(A)
83 d(A)
Control
Workshops/
Sleeping
Radio
roomgt
Offices
Stores
Vibration
10oo1,
rooms
limits
55 dB(A)
55/60 dB(A)
70 MAI
S3dB(A)
45 d(A)
45SdB(A)
45 dB(A)
S0 dB(A)
1S02631
Limit:
for
any worker
90 dB(A)
Leq
Denmark
Netherlands
-85
France
90 dB(A)---
West Germny
85 d(A)
Eire
-90
United Sotws
of America
Canada
Newfoundland
C~anada
115 d(A)
-
dB(A)
55 dB(A)
--
-45
dB(A)
55 dB(A)
ISO 26311
UK DEn
Refer to UK
DEn
-
IS0 2631
----
d(A)-----
87.5 M(A)I
(900d(A)
for 8 hours)
83 dB(A)
SNAME (based
on ISO 2631)
55 d(A)
85-90Odb(A)
-----
-.
85/90 dB(A)
---
7048(A)
450d(A)
45 d(A)
852 DD32
Other Starts
Australia
Includes specific regulations for offshore installations, or other limits where these have been stated to apply by the appropriate authority.
4.14
Table 4. IV
Description of vibration limit categories for
Offshore Installations (from /4.7/)
Description
Category
Restricted area (less than 4 minutes exposure) vibration limits.

Short exposure to levels about these limits may create a health
hazard and cause difficulty in walking. These high levels of
vibration usually cause such alarm and discomfort that action is
immediately and intuitively taken by persons subjected to the
vibration. Vibration levels above these limits should be treated as
prohibited.
II
Just acceptable locally to equipment, although vibration limits for

machinery may be more restrictive than these levels. Annoyance
and discomfort may be experienced.
III
Recommended design vibration limits for all general work areas.

Vibration levels are easily detectable but not uncomfortable.
IV
Recommended design vibration limits for office, control rooms

and similar areas.
Recommended design vibration limits for sleeping, recreation and

similar areas in living accommodation. These vibration levels are
just detectable.
Table A52.5
Restricted exposure periods to high vibration levels
a1/a,
Allowable exposure time,.
1.00
0.92
0.76
0.59
0.42
0.29
0.18
0.11
0.08
1-4 minutes
8 minutes
15 minutes
30 minutes
1 hour
2 hours
4 hours
8 hours
12 hours
Note (i):
t is the allowable exposure time for vibration level at
Note (ii):
a, is the restricted area vibration limit (category I) for 1-4

minutes' exposure.
4.15
10mms
*x
I/X
\\W/v
i\<\
1/1 17N
00
it0
. ....
X\X\\IK/
ADVERSEz
/K
FREQUENCY
Figure 4.1
ISO 6954
Guidelines for vertical and horizontal vibration

in merchant ships (peak value)
(see /4.8/).
-
4.16
V)
C:
0
0I0
4-4
41 01
0)
*3r4 1(U
.i-H
(N
>
C)4J> I
E4;Uj~
VINi
I(rw
INQIIV1fl)23IV
IrN
1p,~
02
144
4--
0~
4-)
r
-0 0
44
0)fO
7,SW
SWJ) NlI1VH31303VC
o4
ci
0
Appendix 4.1
Survey of noise limits on board ships
Spaces
accomnodation
IwO
ref./2.1/
Canada
Denmark
/2.2/
/2.3/
towing
vessels
dB(A) 1 t) NR dB(A)
dB(A) NR
1981 R**) 1969 R 1975 L
Federal
Republic
of Germany
/2.4/
dB(A)8 NR
1981 L
Finland
/2.5/
10
sleepng cabins
private day rooms
meeting rooms
messrooms
offices
hospitals
galleys
pantries
recreation rooms
hobby rooms
corridors,
bathrooms
60
55
70
60
555
609
--
--
--
--
--
74
--
65
65
60
75
75
65
60
60
55
70
70
60
74
65
606
74
.
74
--
--
--
70
.-70
70
65
70
65
65
-65
65
60
70
65
60
70
-.
..
Engine rooms
control room
present
1102
continuously manned 85
control rooms
75
workshops
85
stores
85
changing rooms
non-specified work
spaces
90
Navigation areas
bridge wings
wheelhouses and
chartrooms
105
80
70
80
80
55 7014 6514
-- 7014 6514
75
7060 75
70
60--55 7014 6514
65 --70 65
55 65 -
110 105
90 85
75 70
85 80
105
--
75
70
85
70
653
70
70
657
70
-3__
60
65
60
65
60
60
55
'65
-60
60
55
radar
65
60
--
75
804
70
--
70
65
Operating
conditions
**)
"*t)
85
65
Onen deck areas

recreation areas
work areas
6014
6014
6014
6014
-6014 6014
85
radio rooms
stations
6014
6014
6514
6514
-_
100
90
75
90
--
dB(A)
1978 L
11
12
13
--
80% MCR .*)
80% MCR
foot notes
R - recommendation
P - proposal
L - legally enforceable limits
MCR - maximum continuous rating
4.18
100% MCR
80% MCR
Appendix 4.1 (continued)

Spaces
German
Democratic
Republic
/2.6/
NR
accommodation
1964 L
sleeping cabins
55
private day rooms meeting rooms
messrooms
55
offices
55
hospitals
50
galleys
pantries
recreation rooms
55
hobby rooms
corridors,
bathrooms
EnQine rooms
control room
present
control rooms
75
workshops
85
stores
85
changing rooms
non-specified work
spaces
Navigation areas
bridge wings
wheelhouses and
chartrooms
radio rooms
radar stations
Open deck areas
recreation areas
work areas
operating
conditions
Israel
/2.7/
NR
1976 R
55
Norway
/2.9/
Poland
/2.10/
dB(A) 8 NR
1974 L
60
555
dB(A)
NR
1973 L
60
55
65
65
-
65
65
606
60
--
7019
7019
7019
7019
65
65
65
65
60
65
60
55
75
80
65
55
60
55
50
70
75
60
85
70
75
85
110 105
90
85
75
70
85
80
90
85
90
75
85
70
--
90
85
65
60
60
55
--
70
65
55
55
-
60
60
65
65
60
60
--
70
65
--
--
100%
80% MCR
4.19
Appendix 4.1 (continued)

Spaces
Sweden
United
USA
USSR
Kingdom
/2.11/
dB(A) 2 0
accomodation
1973 L
sleeping cabins
55
private day rooms meeting rooms
messrooms
65
offices
5521
hospitals
galleys
6522
pantries
6522
recreation rooms
65
hobby rooms
65
corridors,
bathrooms
Engine rooms
control room
present
100
control rooms
79
workshops
7523
stores
75
changing rooms
non-specified work
spaces
-Navigation areas
bridge wings
wheelhouses and
chartrooms
radio rooms
radar stations
Ooen deck areas
recreation areas
work areas
Operating
conditions
/2.12/
dB(A) NR
1978 R
60
55
-
65
65
60
70
65
65
60
60
55
65
65
60
60
80
75
110
90
75
90
90
105
80
70
85
SNAME
/2.13/
dB(A)
1978 P
60
/2.14/
dB(A)
1980 P
60
60
65
60
65
65
--
--
....
65
65
....
/2.15/ /2.16/
dB(A) 2 0 dB(A) 20
1962 L 1975 R
5025
50
-
50
50
50
65
--
-....
-
70
85
85
85
75
....
--
55
55
45
65
70
.
.
100
85
70
70
..
105
85
70
70
..
..
65
--
65
60
65
65
65
55
-
--
85
75
85
85
75
85
85
--
70
__3
65
55
.....
65
60
60
55
65
65
75
90
80% MC?
MkRAD
70
85
80% MCR
4.20
65
60
.....
..
.
-.....
--
Foot notes to Appendix 4.1
1.
limits are exceeded

and where there is a subjective annoying low frequency sound
or obvious tonal components the ISO noise rating (NR) number
should be determined. The limits specified may be considered
as satisfied if the ISO noise rating (NR)
number does not
numerically exceed the specified A-weighted value minus 5.
2.
LAeq,24 not exceeding 105 dB(A).

When subjective high frequency sound is present NR
105
should not be exceeded; if this is the case the acceptability
should be determined by the Administration.
3.
4.
In accommodation
spaces where the dB(A)
Ear protectors should be worn when the noise level is above

85
dB(A).
68 dB in the 250 Hz octave band and 63 dB in the 500
Hz
octave band not to be exceeded at 3/4 of normal ship's speed.
If LAeq,24 exceeds 80 dB(A) suitable ear protection should
be
5.
used.
NR 60 is allowed for the octave bands with centre frequencies
6.
31,5 and 63 Hz.

NR 65 is allowed for the octave band with centre frequencies
7.
31,5 and 63 Hz.

Stands for octave bands with centre frequencies equal
higher than 500 Hz.
8.
If the sound levels are exceeded the octave band spectra

have
to be determined which will be compared with the NR-curves
by
9.
to or
the
Administration;
NR
measuring position.
The average value of the
105 may
not be exceeded
levels of all
at any
cabins located at one
deck may not exceed 60 dB(A); for a single cabin 63 dB(A)

is
allowed. When in a cabin 60 dB(A) is exceeded octave
band
levels must be determined which will be compared with NR
55
10.
11.
by the Administration.
For ships of 65-399 tons gross tonnage; in ships less than
65
tons 70 dB(A) may not be exceeded in sleeping quarters
while
in other spaces the limits can be permitted to be exceeded.
For ships of 400-1999 tons.
4.21
Foot notes to Appendix 4.1
(continued)
12.
For ships of 2000-10000 tons.
13.
For ships above 10000 tons.
14.
The limits may be increased with 5 dB(A)

noise at sea or in port e.g.
15.
Global
control
data;
need
NR-number
if
to
when loading or unloading.
5 dB(A)
be
in case of temporary.
be
lower
levels are
determined,
in
other
measured
cases the
NR-curves give the limiting data.

16.
For
messrooms
NR
65
is
allowed if
the NR-numbers
octave bands with centre frequencies 500,
for the
1000 and 2000 Hz do
not exceed 55.

17.
Also the sound
level
A limit
may not be exceeded; ear pro-
tectors must be worn.

18.
Without
ear
protectors
the
maximum
exposure time
is eight
hours.
19.
Background
noise;
sound
levels produced
equipment may not exceed 75 dB(A) resp.

20.
Global control data;
by food processing
NR 70.
also frequency-dependent
limiting curves
are given, which deviate from NR-curves.

21.
Propulsion
max,
22.
65 dB(A)
stopped;
during
loading
and unloading
permitted.
Background noise; noise caused by food processing equipment

max.
23.
machinery
70 dB(A).
Background noise;
sound levels caused by installed equipment
should not exceed 85 dB(A),

24.
Background
noise;
installed equipment should not individually
produce noise levels exceeding 80 dB(A)
(or NR 75) measured
at 1 m distance from equipment.

25.
The
regulations
are
complicated
consulting the original
text.
and cannot be used without
The data given
refer to normal
merchant ships sailing for longer periods than 24 hours.
4.22
References of Appendix 4.1

2.1
Code on noise levels on board ships;

IMCO-Cocument A XII/Res. 468, January 1982
2.2
K.D. Harford, Development of the proposed Canadian noise

level regulations for vessels engaged in towing;
Consulting engineering division of Aero Acoustic Systems Ltd.,
Vancouver BC.
2.3
Forslag til bekendgorelse om forskrifter mod st~j I skibe;

Lovtitend a. no. 258, June 1975.
2.4 Unfallverhitungsvorschift LCrm fijr Seeschiffe;

See-Berufsgenossenschaft Hamburg, 1979.
2.5
Highest permissible noise levels in crew accommodation aboard

ships;
Finnish National Board of Labour Protection, 1976 (obtained
from IMCO-document DE/287 d.d. 13 March 1979).
2.6
VorlIufige Vorschriften fWr die L.rmbekiimpfung auf Schiffen;

Deutsche Schiffs-Revision und -Klassifikation, 1964.
2.7
Recommended maximum noise and vibration levels;

Shipping notice no. SHN 4176, State of Israel,
Transport, Department of Shipping & Ports, 1976.
Ministry of
2.8
Guidelines for the prevention of noise annoyance on vessels;

Netherlands Shipping Inspectorate, 1978.
2.9
Forskrifter on vern mot stij om bord i skip;

Sj~fartdirektoratet, 1973.
2.10 Rules of Polish Ministry of Shipping 1973.

2.11 Sj5fartverkets bestlmmelser och tekommendationer am skydd
mor buller pS fartyg;
Sjbfartsverkets Meddelanden, 1972.
2.12 Code
on practice for noise levels in ships;

Trade; London 1978.
Department of
2.13 SNAME-project
HS-7-1, Ship Vibration and noise guidelines

(draft);
Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, August
1978.
2.14 SNAME-project HS-7, Ship vibration and noise guidelines;

Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 1980
2.15 Limits for noise levels aboard seagoing ships;
Russian Sanitary Rules, no. 416-62, USSR 24/IX, 1962
2.16 Provisional shipboard noise limits on basis of international
recommendations and agreements with Eastern European countries; 1975
4.23
LESSON 5
16th WEGEMT SCHOOL
SESSION
CHAPTER
LESSON
TEACHER
COMPANY
COUNTRY
Noise and vibration

: 5. Representative figures of noise in ships
PO Box 155
2600 AD Delft
THE NETHERLANDS
ABSTRACT
In this lesson representative figures of noise in ships are
given. A general overview over various types of ships is
presented together with data on spectra ocurring in the various locations on board.
Some specific equipment is discussed and typical examples are
illustrated.
AUTHOR'S BIOGRAPHY
5.1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Survey of sound levels-A onboard various types of ships
5.2.1 inland cargo vessels
5.2.2 (coastal) cargo ships
5.2.3 fishery vessels
5.2.4 dredging equipment
5.3 Noise spectra in various locations on board ships
5.3.1 engine rooms
5.3.2 workshops, stores
5.3.3 accommodation spaces
5.3.4 wheelhouse, radio room
5.3.5 open deck areas
5.4 Specific equipment
5.4.1 bow thrusters
5.4.2 hydraulic equipment
5.5 Noise levels on board offshore installations
References
Tables and figures
5.2
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Noise levels on board ships depend on a large amount of factors including size, type of propulsion machinery, arrangement
of engine rooms and accommodation, type of acoustical measures
etc. So no generally applicable precise description can be
given. On the other hand ships may be subdivided in groups of
approximately the same size, type of propulsion and arrangement and these various groups may show their own specific
acoustical characteristics.
5.2 SURVEY OF SOUND LEVELS-A ON BOARD VARIOUS TYPES OF SHIPS
in Table 5.1, derived from /5.1/, a survey has been given of
sound levels-A measured on board of some 400 ships. These
ships were fitted with standard linings and with improved
insulation in the control rooms.
Based on such a survey Brubakk concludes in /5.2/:
- For ships over 50 000 dwt the IMO Code noise limit of 60
dB(A) for cabins generally is met without specific acoustical
measures.
- For ships in the 5 000 to 50 000 dwt range with engine room
and deckhouse placed in the aftship the average level in
cabins on the Maindeck is in excess of 60 dB(A). For the 1st
Poopdeck, about 20 % is estimated to be in excess of 60 dB(A).
Above this deck all cabins may meet the limit.
For cabins in excess of the limit, rather simple noise reducing measures as floating floors, should be sufficient to meet
the 60 dB(A) limit. If cabins are arranged below the Maindeck,
the excesses will increase to about 10 dB(A) and extensive
countermeasures will be needed.
- For cargo ships of 1 000 to 5 000 dwt, with engine room and
accommodation in the aftship, the 60 dB(A) limit is exceeded
for all cabins at the Maindeck and for some 50% of the cabins
at the 1st Poopdeck. It may be clear that for this group of
ships comprehensive acoustical measures are needed to fulfil
the noise requirements.
Ships with the accommodation positioned in the fore part of
the ship normally may fulfil noise requirements without specific measures, except for equipment that is installed in the
accommodation itself (air conditioning and ventilation, equipment in galley, wheelhouse and radio room).
Depending on operational conditions of the ship the bowthruster(s) may form however the major sound source (see 5.5).
What has been mentioned for the cargo ships of 1 000 to 5 000
dwt of course also applies to inland vessels, fishing ships,
coastal vessels etc., with the accommodation in the aftship
directly above engine room and propeller(s).
In the next paragraphs some types of ships, which require
rather comprehensive acoustical measures, are shown with their

typical arrangement and noise characteristics. In Lesson 24
noise control on board some (other) types of ships will be
discussed extensively.
5.3
5.2.1 Inland cargo vessels

Inland vessels often show following arrangement (see Figure
5.1):
the living room is situated in the aft of the ship above the
propeller(s) and the bed rooms are situated just above the
propulsion diesel engine(s). The total propulsion power ranges
up to 1400 kW (one engine) or up to 2x800 kw at engine speeds
of 750 - 1800 rpm. Especially the increasing propeller load is
a problem. Because of the shallow water requirements the
diameter of the propeller is restricted to 1700 mim (Rhine
cargo ships) . This results into a relatively strong structureborne sound excitation of the aftship.
In general with application of floating floor structures with
low natural frequency (between 20 and 30 Hz) and with mounting
of the whole accommodation system on that floating floor, free
from the steel structure, noise limits of 70 dB(A) for the
living room can be kept in. The noise limit for bedrooms of 60
dB(A) often necessitates moreover resilient mounting of the
main engines, which is no problem from the technical point of
view. Some typical spectra are also given in Figure 5.1.
Since for a lot of these ships the accommodation is a family
house following practical problem is raised. Materials for the
interior carpentry are chosen on basis of aesthetics rather
than on basis of acoustic quality, a problem which also applies to leisure yachts.
5.2.2 (Coastal) cargo ships
A typical example of a coastal container ship is shown in
Figure 5.2. The accommodation is concentrated just above the
propeller and the propulsion engine, which is generally a
medium speed (600 - 1000 rpm) diesel engine with a power
output of 2000 - 4000 kW. All crew cabins, measroom and galley
are positioned upon the Maindeck which is embodied in the
hull.
Comprehensive acoustical countermeasures are needed to fulfil
the IMO noise requirements of 60 diB(A) for the cabins. In all
accommodation spaces floating floors together with additional
measures with respect to the insulation plan, the ceilings,
type of lining material,, windows, etc. are needed (see also
Lesson 20).
Moreover resilient mounting of the main engine may be necessary and the acoustic (structure-borne sound) quality of the
gearbox may be decisive in the end. This is illustrated in
Figure 5.2, where the pure tones from the gearbox, although
not determining the sound level-A, are clearly audible in the
accommodation spaces at Maindeck.
5.2.3 Fishery vessels
Up till now high noise levels are usual on board fishery
vessels, a.o. due to the fact that in most regulations exception is made for these ships.
Figure 5.3 shows a fishing cutter with, for this type of ship,
the usual arrangement of the accommodation with the bedrooms
more or less pinned between propeller and propulsion engine.
For the various accommodation spaces the separate contributions in sound caused by airborne sound from engine room, ex-
5.4
haust stack and steering gear room were determined by means of

loudspeaker transmission measurements. The airborne sound
contributions turn oue to be for the berthing area and cabin,
over 10 dB less than the total sound level. That makes clear
that for this ship, provided with relatively simple acoustical
countermeasures, the transmission of structure-borne sound is
by far determining the sound levels-A in the various accommnodation spaces.
5.2. 4 Dredgingr equipment
As for fishery vessels, also dredging equipment is not included in noise regulations. However, especi.ally for large seagoing dredging equipment, shipowners may specify the IMO
proposal or national regulations.
Figure 5.4 shows an example of a trailing hopper dredger with
a propulsion power of 2x 5000 kW, provided by two medium speed
(600 rpm) diesel engines.
With a balanced arrangement (work spaces at the Maindeck and
cabins only at higher decks in the deckhouse, together with an
adequate package of acoustical countermeasures in the accommodation the IMO noise limits can be kept in. In this case the
ECR was installed resiliently and in the ECR a floating floor
and lining was provided.
The sound pressure levels averaged over the cabins on the
various decks in the deckhouse show how the structure-borne
sound in the low frequency range hardly decreases with increasing number of decks (some 2 dB per deck). In the mid- and
high frequency range the decrease per deck may be some 5 dB.
5.3 NOISE SPECTRA IN VARIOUS LOCATIONS QN BOARD SHIPS
5.3.1 Engine rooms
Noise spectra in engine rooms, as caused by diesel engines,
are typically rather flat, with some differentiation depending
mainly on the speed of the engines. Medium speed and high
-speed diesel engines show higher noise levels in the mid- and
high frequency range than slow speed engines of the same
power, resulting in higher sound levels-A in engine rooms
equipped with medium and high speed diesel engines.
Examples of typical noise level distributions within engine
rooms are given in /5.3/.
5.3.2 Workshops, stores
Most workshops are bare steel structures, with only limited
amount of lining material or absorbant materials.
Structure-borne sound radiated by the steel surfaces will
determine the noise spectrum and because this radiation is
very efficient in the higher frequency range (see Lesson 17.)
the spectra show relatively high contributions in the mid- and
high frequency range.
5.3.3 Accommodation spaces
Noise spectra in accommodation spaces normally show a slope
from high levels in the low frequencies to low levels in the
5.5
high frequency range, for various reasons.

As illustration Figure 5.5 shows a flat velocity level for the
description of the structure-borne sound level of the sound
source. Such a flat curve is rather normal for diesel engines;
for propellers the velocity level decreases with increasing
frequency.
The transmission loss for structure-borne sound in the
ship's structure is frequency dependent and increases with
frequency.
- Acoustical measures taken in the accommodation spaces are
more effective in the higher frequency than at low frequencies.
So the resulting spectra in the cabins may follow more or less
the NA-curves or the shape of the (inverse) A-weighing network. Examples are also given in the Figures 5.1 - 5.4.
Figure 5.6, taken from /5.4/, shows that for cabins on board
sea-going ships the HR-numbers of the spectra in 90 % of all
cases are determined by the sound pressure levels in the
frequency range that covers the 63, 125, 250 and 500 Hz octave
bands. In 98 % of all cabins the HR-number is determined in
one of the octave bands with centre frequencies ranging from
63 ...
1000 Hz.
This means that the strength of the sound sources and the
transfer of the structure-borne sound from these sources to
the accommodation are of dominant importance in the above
mentioned frequency range. Noise control for accommodation
spaces should be focussed on that frequency range and calculation models should show high accuracy in that frequency range.
5.3.4 Wheelhouse, radio room
The shape of spectra measured in wheelhouses and radiorooms is
generally similar to those in accommodation spaces. Major contributions in 250 ...
2000 Hz octave bands may be found as
caused by (local) equipment noise (cooling fans, clear view
screens, ventilation, radio equipment).
Exhaust noise of slow speed or medium speed diesel engines, in
case the funnels are situated close to the wheelhouse, may
cause low frequency noise annoyance. This may, due to standing
wave effects, vary largely over the various positions in the
room.
5.3.5 open deck areas
For open deck areas the main sound contributions are caused by
exhaust noise of the (diesel) engines and ventilation noise.
Especially attention has to be paid to ventilation noise in
case the air intake openings are rather near to listening
posts (bridge wing) or near to passenger or crew leisure
places.
For high speed vessels wind noise and noise induced by water
against the hull may also be of importance.
5.6
5.4 SPECIFIC EQUIPMENT

5.4.1 Bow thrusters
On many types of ships the bow thrusters are operated for long
time periods (e.g. dredging equipment, offshore support vessels, ships with dynamic positioning systems such as pipe
laying vessels, workover vessels and research ships).
In accommodation spaces in the fore ship above the thrusters
normally low noise levels will occur with the thrusters out of
operation; especially for larger ships with the propulsion
machinery situated in the aft ship, the sound levels in the
fore ship may be some 45 dB(A), mainly depending on the acoustical quality of airconditioning and ventilation systems, etc.
In these situations operation of the bow thrusters may cause a
considerable increase in sound level. Some typical spectra of
bowthruster noise and data on the source levels have been
given in /5.5/. Figure 5.10, taken from /5.7/ shows sound
levels-A measured on board offshore support vessels, without
and with acoustical measures in the accommodation spaces. It
should be noted that for these ships, because of the small
distance to the propulsion machinery, the background noise
levels in the cabins "in transit" are relatively high. Still
the noise levels are increased with approximately 15 dB(A) in
case "thrusters operating".
5.4.2 Hydraulic equipment
Hydraulics are often used on board to power cranes, winches,

cargo pumps, thrusters, fans, etc. The hydraulic pumps show
high structure-borne sound levels and pressure pulsations in
the fluids may be transmitted via the piping system throughout
the wole ship structure. Generally the (annoying part of the)
radiated sound consists of pure tones related to plunger
harmonics.
frequencies with their
Figure 5.8 shows a 1/3-octave band airborne sound spectrum
measured near to a hydraulic pump with plunger frequency of
200 Hz.
5.5 NOISE LEVELS ON OFFSHORE INSTALLATIONS

The results of sound measurements carried out on a large
number of offshore units are summarized in Figure 5.9, taken
from /5.7/. The highest sound levels are found in the (diesel)
engine rooms, at the drill floor and in the mud pump and
cement pump rooms. Moreover specific hydraulic machinery may
cause high structure-borne and airborne sound levels. Depending on the type of rig and position of the accommodation
comprehensive acoustical measures may be needed in the structure-borne sound paths from machinery to the accommodation
spaces.
A specific problem deals with helicopter traffic which requires a very good airborne sound insulation of the outer walls
of the accommodation spaces.
Noise requirements for offshore installations not only apply
to drilling rigs or production platforms, but may also be
required for workover vessels or for vessels that may function
5.7
as "flotel" (floating hotel) in an offshore working area.

An example of such a workover vessel is given in figure 5.10.
In the pontoon structure the engine room and the accommodation
have been positioned at the same deck level. Resilient mounting of all reciprocating machinery together with comprehensive measures in the accommodation spaces result into levels
that comply with the noise requirements.
The dynamic positioning system of the ship using steerable
azimuthal propellers and duct thrusters forms the major problem especially in case the-duct thrusters are in operation.
REFERENCES
/5.1/ Berg P., Brafelt 0., and Folkeson C., "Noise and vibration on board", Joint Industrial Safety Council Publication,
ISBN 91-7522-123-3, Stockholm 1987.
/5.2/ Brubakk E., "Noise and vibration criteria for ships and
offshore constructions", Proceedings ICMES 90 conference,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne 1990.
/5.3/ Buiten J., "Noise exposure of engine room personnel",
Proceedings Internoise 83, Edinburg 1983.
/5.4/ "Discussions and closures", Ship vibration symposium
1978, Arlington, Va., published by SNAME, New York 1979.
/5.5/ Buiten J., "Reducing accommodation noise due to transverse thrusters in large ships", Proceedings Internoise 74,
Washington 1974.
/5.6/ Nilsson A., "Noise reduction of bow thrusters", Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on Shipboard Acoustics ISSA '86, The Hague 1986. ISBN 90-247-3402-7.
/5.7/ Publication by Ingemansson Acoustic Goteborg and Det
Norske Veritas, "Offshore noise and vibration control", 1983
5.8
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'
< 2x837 kW I |I
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___
20
30
i
0
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i 10
N0O
90
80
70
60
..
4O
63
-
125
,-
250
500
000 2000 4000 Hz
frequency
Engine room
Living room
- ------.............. Bedroom
Figure 5.1
General arrangement of inland cargo vessel and spectra measured in the engine room and accommodation. In the low frequency
range the propellers dominate the resiliently mounted main
engines.
5.10
!0
r
CREW ACCOMMODAT ION
2500 kW
1000 rpm
.. .J.
re 2. 10--5 Pa
1/3-octave bands
110
dB
4'
.
.___
too
70
__
_
____
6O
40
___
30131.5
63
125
E
250
500
freq.
in Hz
4 TT engine room
-.-..
47 Maindeck. cabin
----
36 Poodeck. hosoital
1K
2K
4K
8K
Figure 5.2
General arrangement of (coastal) cargo ship and spectra measured in engine room and accommodation. The propulsion engine is
resiliently mounted and extensive noise control measures have
been taken in the accommodation. Pure tones of the propulsion
gearbox are visible in the spectra.
5.11
...........
.........
,o~
DO,tDI;:
l
,.'..2;...
" ......
: , .
'...
......
.'...
...
i..
..
......
'
":
.EA
---_
--
99
cabin
89
.70
94
.
berth
76
aea 76c
76
76
area
cabin
112
17
I900
1400 rpm
kw
Figure 5.3
General arrangement of sea-going fishing cutter and
sound levels-A measured in the accommodation area. survey of
The underlined values are the contributions in airborne sound
from the
adjacent spaces and from the exhaust opening.
5.12
Fri-.
. .....
600 rpm
...........
. ..
........
2
dB re 20 pN/m
"go
-J00
690
80
"
S70"
ca 60
50
63
125
250
'
500
1000 2000 4000 Hz
frequency
Tanktop (109 dB (A))
- -------st Tweendeck (107 dB (A))
..............
ECR at ist Tweendeck (72 dB(A))
Cabins C-deck (60 dB(A))
Cabins B-deck (55 dB(A))

Cabins A-deck (53 dB(A))
Figure 5.4
General arrangement of a large trailing suction hopper dredger
and spectra measured in the engine room, ECR and at the various .accommodation decks. The accommodation spectra show typical frequency dependent attenuation of structure-borne sound
in deckhouses.
5.13
dB
ioo
80
C...
BO
70
60
50
25
63
250 500 1000 2000 Hz

frequentie
L, source
------- L deck
..............
LP centre of cabin
bed in corner
-
Figure 5.5
Illustration of frequency dependency of structure-borne sound
transmission from source to accommodation.
99,9
99
M99
297,5
with acoustic
measures n.29
--
_
__
90
CJ* -
-7-.
//
all ships
n=574
S75E
U
without acoustic
n=284
-measures
10
2,57
01
31,5
63
--
125
--
__
250 500
frequency
1k
2k Hz
Figure 5.6 Cumulative distribution of the octave

bands responsible for the NR-number of the spectra
measured in cabins (total: 574) aboard sea-goina
ships (total:. 43). Aboard 19 ships various types
of acoustical measures were taken.
5.14
63
IN TRANSIT
Longitudinal distance to main engines
xx
t//
less than 14.0 m
XX M
greater than 17.0 m
WITH THRUSTERS OPERATING

Longitudinal distance to thrusters
"
greater than 3.5 m
Xethan
xx
Mean noise levels

Without floating acconmodation
With/Without floating acconmodation. not
withstanding the longitudinal location
of the cabins.
3.5 m
Mean noise levels
With/Without floating accommodation
Figure 5.7
Noise levels in cabins and wheelhouse on board offshore.
support vessels in transit and during DP-conditions with 80100 percent load on the tunnel thrusters (/5.6/).
2
dB re 20 pN/m
.20
-
C~ii
\2
100
90
frqu-c
t1
80 63
125
250
500
1000 2000 Hz
-- "-frequency
Figure 5.8
Sound pressure levels at 1 mn from a hydraulic pump
(plunger frequency: 200 Hz).
5.I5
Noise Level in dB(A)

110
100
90
80
70
60
50
E
.SE
tE
Co0
0 0
cm00
WI
c0
)CCl
.2E
flO
' 0
00
Mo
D 0
Xu
icr
-~
LL
c.-
-0
o0
-E
L
~0
"o
~0
Figure 5. 9
Sound levels-A on offshore installations; highest and lowest
measured values (/5.7/).
5.16
ACCOMMODATION
ERENG. ROOM,
9dB(A
-------
Sound levels in cabins:

- diesel generators in operation: <=45 dB(A)
transit (steerable thrusters): <=48 dB(A)
dynamic positioning (duct mounted thrusters) : <=55 dB(A)
Figure 5.10
General arrangement of workover vessel. Engine room (6x1500 kW
dieselgenerators) and accommodation are positioned at the same
deck level in the pontoon. Dynamic positioning is provided by
steerable thrusters and duct mounted thrusters.
5.17
CHAPTER: 2
MAIN NOISE AND VIBRATION SOURCES
16th WEGEMT SCHOOL
DAY
SESSION
CHAPTER
TUESDAY
Noise and Vibration

2. MAIN NOISE AND VIBRATION SOURCE
INTRODUCTORY LESSON
by
TEACHER
COMPANY
COUNTRY
Enrico RIZZUTO
UNIVERSITA' DI GENOVA
Ingegneria Navale
Via Montallegro, 1
16145 Genova
ITALY
TEACHER'S BIOGRAPHY
Born in 1962, graduated in 1986 from the University of Genoa in
Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering.
Hydrodynamic department of CETENA from 1986 to 1990. After,
researcher at University of Genoa.
Activity: propeller design and verification with particular
reference to the radiated pressure field, analysis of noise
surveys in model and in-full scale (on board and in water).
Presently involved in experimental research on non-linear effects
in marine structures (in steel and in composite materials).
LESSON 6
16th WEGEMT SCHOOL
SESSION
CHAPTER
LESSON
Noise and Vibration

: 2. MAIN NOISE AND VIBRATION SOURCES
: 6. Diesel Engines, Rotating Machinery,
Gears,
Auxiliary
Machinery
TEACHER
COMPANY
COUNTRY
G. BESIO
DIESEL RICERCHE S.p.A.
ENGINEERING TECHNICAL SERVICES
Bagnoli della Rosandra, 334
34018 Trieste
ITALY
ABSTRACT
The machineries necessary for the very operability of the ship, such
as the propulsion plant, the generating sets and the auxiliary
equipment, re the major sources of vibration and noise.
The mechanism which is at their origin is examined in depth, taking
into account the characteristics of the internal combustion engine.
Formulae and data for predicting them are provided, and mention is
made of vibrations and noise induced by other equipment.
AUTHOR'S BIOGRAPHY
G. Besio took his degree in Nuclear Plant Engineering in 1969 at the
University of Pisa. In 1970 he joined the Calculation Services section
of Grandi Motori Trieste, which later became Fincantieri Diesel Engine
Division. In 1987 he transferred to Diesel Ricerche S.p.A. as Head of
Engineering Technical Services.
His close involvement with naval and
cruise ship applications has been particularly relevant experience in
noise and vibration control.
6.1
1.
INTRODUCTION
1.1
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON VIBRATION SOURCES WITHIN SHIPS

Important sources
of vibration and noise in a ship are those
machines indispensable for the operation of the ship itself,
such as:
- the propulsion machinery
the generating sets necessary for production of electrical
power
- the associated auxiliary equipment.
In such machinery the processes of energy transformation take
place, and strictly tied to these processes is the occurrence
of phenomena which are perceived on board the ship
as
structural vibration and noise.
1.2
THE VIBRATORY PHENOMENA

The origins of the two phenomena are closely connected.
It is
to be remembered that a vibratory phenomenon occurs when the
following conditions are present together:
- an elastic-inertial system exists
- there is a periodic exciting force
- the exciting frequency is close to the natural frequency of
the system
- damping of the system is limited.
It is immediately evident that all of these conditions exist
within an engine-room.
The diesel engine in particular is a
source of excitation due to the periodicity of its cyclic
operation and the presence of masses in alternating and
rotating motion; as such, it induces vibrations through its
foundations in the hull structure.
But, because of the
inevitable deformability of its structure, the engine too is an
elastic-inertial system that can be excited by its own internal
6.2
forces, producing airborne and structure-borne noise.

These
are the mechanisms that will be investigated in the course of
this lesson.
120
4)
110
100
-0J
:90
9%
Li
o%,
60--
50.
0
Inin
Q
o
CM0
N.
1/3 OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREOUENCY IN HERTZ

CALCULATED
*
So ens I
Stjbbcse
mass
Corresoonding
0
1/3
Corresponding
octave
1/3
bond
octave
Level
bond
on
Level
cosmic
on
moss
subbase
RECORDED
0
Recorded
R ecorcdjd
Comporoison
1/3
octave
1/3
between
octave
bond
band
calculated and
4-stroke Engine:
Level
on
seismic
Level
recorded
oa,
Structure borne noise
6.3
subbose
v.ibrollon
Fig. 1
N = 300 kW and p
mass
Level
1200 r.p.m.
Before going into these mechanisms in detail it is interesting

to examine, with reference to fig. 1, a typical spectrum of
structural noise induced by a diesel engine.
The machine
concerned is a generating set with an ID 36 SS 8V engine, 300
kW at 1200 rpm with double elastic suspension.
The diagram shows the spectrum in terms
of
vibration
accelerations, calculated and recorded in correspondence with
the underbed on which is mounted the engine-alternator and with
the intermediate underbed ("seismic mass").
In the low frequency range the harmonics can be readily
distinguished; the noise level depends on the entity of the
exciting forces, such as the free forces and the maximum
combustion pressure, as well as the elastic characteristics of
the supporting structure. As the frequency increases, the
individual harmonics can no longer be distinguished; the noise
level depends on the characteristics of the engine structure
and on the "shape" of the pressure diagram and the impacts
following the taking up of the mechanical clearances.
2.
BASIC MECHANISM OF VIBRATION AND NOISE IN DIESEL ENGINES AND

RECIPROCATING MACHINERY
2.1
GENERAL REMARKS ON CRANK MECHANISM FORCES

Without going into the details of the working cycle of the
diesel engine, it must be recalled that it has its origin in
the increase of pressure due to combustion in the individual
cylinders, which sets in motion:
- the
alternating
parts - piston,
piston rod,
crosshead and
part of the connecting rod;

- the rotating parts - part of the connecting rod, crankshaft;
causing a tangential
turning moment.
force
6.4
on
the
crankpin
and
hence the
2.1.1
CALCULATION FORMULAE
The significant forces that act on the crank mechanism of the
engine are summarised in fig. 2 and can be calculated with the
relationships shown in the attached table I.
TDC
l--TLC
rTIi'N
DC
.rB
J--N
//i
TDC
-- --
,1- L
'
~Fig.
Fi.. 2
Crank gear actions
6.5
ONCI:
C
P CRANK RADIUS
=
= PIST.N-
STROKE
.Nm
m
=2R
7S-ON APEA
RECIPROCATIING
PA
MASS
Kg
PR= POTATING PASS

n
K9
POTATIONAL SPEED
rpmn
GAS PRESSURE IN THE CYL.

MEAN PISTON SPEED
Vrn
ber
rn/sec
COE-FWICIENTS
'0%
1
U-csd
'
T/
V/'Vrn
(son
Lb
=Cos
--
d~
./2
V 1
+son2ci/2X
ccsenE(R/L)
soBe,
*sen
d(
/,cos
tct:
)/Cos
.Cs.~
COS2
a.,
=r2
FORCES
P=10
N
C-K
PI.)
P*
6.6
se ~
2.1.2
EXAMINATION OF THE FORCES IN THE CYCLE

The effects of the various forces involved in the production of
noise and vibration are discussed in the chapters which follow.
At this point, it is useful to examine the variations during
the cycle of some of the more significant forces which act on
an individual crank mechanism.
This is done in fig. 3 for the 2-stroke engine and in fig. 4
for the 4-stroke engine.
From examination of the shape of the curves in function of the
crank angle:
- the phenomena are periodic and, as such, they may be
represented as superimpositions of harmonics;
- the gas forces, relative to the displacement of the cycle
angle from TDC in the combustion phase, are considerably
modified by the action of the inertial forces in alternating
and rotating motion;
- the inertial forces that make significant contributions to
the dynamics of the excitation are those of the first and
second orders only.
2.2
EXTERNAL FORCES AND COUPLES
2.2.1
CALCULATION OF THE INERTIAL ACTIONS IN A CRANK MECHANISM

Referring
to
fig.
2, it can be noted
transmitted by the individual crank to the
that
engine
the
forces
structure
consist of:
- R, the resultant force of the action of the gas pressure
inside the cylinder and the alternating inertial forces, and
- MR,
the couple of reaction to the turning moment due to the
individual cylinder.
It is assumed that the engine structure is perfectly rigid,
which case the forces external to the structure
of
single-cylinder are reduced to:
6.7
in
a
N SMALL END VERTICAL FORCE
(fl)
SMALL END HORIZONTAL FORtCE (Nr)
NN
bIG .ND TANG6Ej.AL

KN
FOORCE
(TI
BIG END RADIAL FORCE

N
(Cj)
Fig. 3
Significant forces on the crank mechanism of a 2-stroke engine
6.8
CTUINfER PEtURE
o
-
NSIIALL END
ER..ICAL FORCE
(P
I)
SMfALL END4
H0,.UONlX.L FORCE
BIG END IANGE.Ti. L TFORE (T)

N
(Nr)
516 ENDt RADIAL FORC.. (CZ
Fig. 4
Significant forces on the crank mechanism of a 4-stroke engine
6.9.
MR
reaction moment
c = K mr
rotating inertial force
I = K m.
alternating inertial force
As mentioned in 1. above, as far as the alternating inertial
forces are concerned account is taken only of the contributions
of the harmonics of the first and second orders: I = P' + I1'.
The harmonics are represented conventionally as a vector
rotating solidly with the crankshaft, in the case of the first
order, and a vector rotating at twice that speed in the case of
the second order.
The two vectors are in phase at top dead centre.
Obviously,
the vertical components of the alternating inertial forces will
be given by the projection of the vectors on the axis of the
cylinder.
This therefore gives:
P' = Km0
rotating at a speed
0o= 2irn
60
rotating at a speed 2(0
P" = CY.-1)Kma
where Y-1
A L
2.2.2
FLUCTUATION OF THE TURNING MOMENT

From the single cylinder we now pass to the engine, whose
cranks are disposed in a well defined position with respect to
each other and which has a particular firing order. Inside the
engine, assumed to be a rigid body, the moments Mr relative to
the individual cylinders compensate each other according to the
firing order, giving rise to a resi~itant reaction couple equal
and opposite to the fluctuation of the turning moment.
This
couple is of significance in the production of vibration and
structural noise; referring to fig. 1, it can be seen how high
the level of structural noise is at 80 Hz, which at 1200 rpm is
the 4th harmonic - fundamental for an eight cylinder engine
with a Vee angle of 900.
6.10
Table 2 shows the fluctuation of the turning moment and the

main harmonic for the various numbers of cylinders for 4-stroke
engines and for 2-stroke engines.
For the latter the main harmonic obviously coincides with the
number of cylinders.
BL 230 ENGINE - SPEED:

NUMBER AND
DISPOSITION
OF
CYLINDERS
POWER
kW
4 in line
808
6 in line
1212
8 in line
AVERASE TORQUE
TORQUE VARIAT.
M
aM
kCm
knM
7.34
1050 R.P.M.
FREQ.
MAIN
HARM.
RATIO
AM/M
Hz
8.10
35
1.10
11.0
6.80
52.5
0.62
1616
14.7
12.65
70
0.86
8 in "Vee
9
1616
14.7
11.26
35
0.77
9 in line
1618
16.5
12.0
78.8
4.5
0.73
10 in "Vee"
2020
18.4
15.4
43.8
2.5
0.84
12 ifl"Vee"
2424
22.0
7.54
52.5
0.34
16 in *Vee"
3232
29.4
13.55
70
0.46
18 in
Vee"
3636
33.1
17.05
78.8
4.5
0.52
20 in Vee"
4040
36.7
1 8.57
87.5
0.51
RTA 84 H ENGINE
NUMBER AND
DISPOSITION
OF
CYLIN DERS
POWER
kw
SPEED* 61 R.P.M.
AVERA6E TORQUE
TORQUE VARIAT.
M
AM
kNm
kNm
FREQ.
MAIN
HARM.
RATIO
AX/M
Hz
4 in line
14920
1759
3110
5.4
1.77
5 in line
18650
2200
2710
6.75
1.23
6 in line
22380
2640
1800
8.1
0.68
7 in line
26110
3080
1470
9.45
0.48
B in line
29840
3520
880
10.8
0.25
9 in line
33570
3960
450
12.15
0.114
10 in line
37300
4400
320
13.5
10
0.073
12 in line
44760
5280
200
16.2
12
0.038
Table II
Fluctuation of the turning moment for
engines.
6.II
4-stroke
and
2-stroke
It is necessary to point out however that there will be present

in the fluctuation of the turning moment not only the main
harmonic and its multiples but also, due to the inevitable
differences from cycle to cycle, other harmonics.
In the
extreme case of total absence of combustion in one cylinder
(misfiring) the first harmonic becomes important, as does the
"0.5" harmonic - the frequency equal to half the speed of
rotation.
It is necessary to take this into account when
defining elastic suspensions for engines.
2.2.3
BALANCING OF THE INERTIAL FORCES

A similar combination,
in function of the disposition of the

cranks, is carried out for the inertial forces of the first and
second orders, which are composed with reference to the primary
and secondary schemes shown in fig. 5, which summarises the
calculations for defining the free forces
and moments of a
typical 5-cylinder engine.
ZffNE
TW
REplANTS W
mcwa"Y
FMlMI
PP]HAY
1K
ER
A]MALY
QTAYJP
2.3
6.
I
C2
2
V2
0
CAfl.2
ARPA.%FWC
eI..Aaw .on
Fig. 5
6.12
tFsin
StC*sRLCILIONC'l~ft
NTS
It is to be noted that, in the general case, the crank

arrangement that is chosen for the engine crankshaft is such as
to produce a disposition with
resultant zero for both the
first and second order forces.
2.3
OUT OF BALANCE COUPLES IN 2-STROKE ENGINES
2.3.1
GENERAL
Even with a resultant of forces zero, a system of forces
usually has a resultant of the moments other than zero with
respect to some point in space. This is what occurs in the case
of
2-stroke
engines
and, as will be seen later, in those

4-stroke engines with a particular crank arrangement or an odd
number of cranks.
Fig. 5 summarises the calculation of the first and second order
free actions for a five-cylinder engine.
It can be noted, with reference to fig. 6, that the resultant
actions are:
- moments resulting from the alternating forces
of
the
first
and second orders, acting in the vertical plane through the

axis of the engine, each with its own phase;
- a moment resulting from the rotating force, acting in a plane
which rotates solidly with the engine crankshaft.
o3
Fig. 6
2-stroke diesel engine free actions.
6.13
It is seen from fig. 5 that it is common practice to apply

counterweights
so as
to place the rotating moment in
counterphase with the alternating moment in the vertical plane,
ensuring that its magnitude is equal to 50% of the latter. The
free actions are therefore generally reduced to two primary
couples of
equal magnitude acting in the vertical and
horizontal planes and a secondary couple in the vertical plane
as well, of course, as the turning moment fluctuations - figure
6b.
Figure 7 shows a comparison under equal conditions of the
magnitude of the exciting forces for 2-stroke engines of a
given bore for the various numbers of cylinders.
It can be
seen that the engines with a low number of cylinders generally
produce excitations of greater magnitude.
CYLIU
RS
L
:4
7M
7/
Fig. 7
Comparison of free moments in 2-stroke engines with variation
of the number of cylinders.
6.14
Tables I and II of Chapter B of bib. ref. [1] show in detail

the free inertial forces and moments for 2-stroke and 4-stroke
engines.
2.3.2
HULL VIBRATIONS
The effect of these forces and moments will now be examined,
bearing well in mind that, for the moment, it is primarily
propulsion engines of relatively large dimensions that are
being considered.
vibrations of the
The free actions concerned can excite

hull, meaning by this the hull as a whole
considered as an elastic beam and not just local vibrations in
the structure, which can in any case be eliminated simply by
making modifications which change the natural frequency of the
part affected. The reaction couple of the turning moment is
usually not able to excite the torsional frequency of the hull
within the service speed range, because of the hull's rigidity.
The free inertial forces of the first and second orders can
instead excite one of the possible frequencies in the vertical
and horizontal planes, in accordance with the mechanism shown
in fig. 8.
C=
3-no2nde'
6-node__
Fig. 8
Hull vibrations
6.15
For hull vibrations to be produced it is, however, necessary

that:
- the engine is positioned in correspondence with a node of the
elastic line of vibration, since moments are involved;
- the speed of rotation, or twice that speed, coincides with
one of the natural frequencies of vibration of the hull;
- that such coincidence occurs when the speed of rotation is
sufficiently high for the excitation to be significant;
Such vibrations are dealt with by countering the exciting
forces by means of:
- second order balancing equipment on the engine,
- combined first and second order balancing equipment on the
engine,
- balancing masses, external to the engine, driven by electric
motor /2/.
Finally, and still with reference to fig. 5, there is the
possibility to adjust the counterweighting of the engine in
order to vary the magnitude of the horizontal and vertical
moments, if resonance with one or other of them arises,
reducing the magnitude of the exciting component.
2.4
FREE FORCES IN 4-STROKE ENGINES
2.4.1
BALANCING OF THE 4-STROKE ENGINE

The
problems concerning
preceding paragraph are
2-stroke
engines examined in the

not usually present in 4-stroke
engines. Since the full sequence of the firing order takes
place over two revolutions of the crankshaft, the arrangement
of the cranks usually adopted is that formed by two 'regular
stars' which are the mirror image of each other, with the
resulting effect of neutralising at source the resultant of the
free forces of each star.
Exceptions are configurations with odd numbers of cranks, and
in any case, engines with a low number of cylinders: 4, 6 and
8, disposed
in V with a certain angle,
6.16
of limited cylinder
volume and with high rotational speeds, usually employed on

board
in
generating
sets
or
auxiliaries
such
as
engine-compressor sets, etc.
The calculation of the free
forces follows by analogy the procedure used for the larger
2-stroke engines.
In practical design, the free actions are
not always compensated by means of balancers, when their
magnitude does not justify the cost
and
constructional
complication of the remedy. A typical calculation of the
0 is shown
balancing of a six-cylinder engine with a V of 9Q
in
figure 9.
ENGINIE ID36SSV
CAL
---
MAW
pIV.
A*
A.!
=
RCRAWXG KACCN
IoJ"Y
* afl34
LEILC1
Fig. 9
ID 36 SS 6V engine balancing
It is interesting to note that:/3/
6.17
Fy
ZCA
- for the purposes of calculation the two cylinders connected

to the same crank are treated as an "notional" single
cylinder, defined by alternating masses of the 1st and 2nd
orders and rotating masses of the 1st and 2nd orders which
are related to the actual alternating and rotating masses by
expressions containing the V angle and the connecting-rod/
crank-throw ratio;
- for certain V angles some of the notional masses referred to
above are theoretically zero;
- in the case of connecting rods arranged side by side, there
is a translation moment of the 2nd order which, for the
configurations mentioned above, may have a resultant other
than zero.
Table
III shows the relationships which are useful for
calculating the notional masses and the values that these have
for some significant V angles.
P.
P.
I.
P.IP,.-
2P,,,P.
P.
PP.
Pc'
*
2Po
Pr' * 29. - K,'- P.
."
KW." P. * RA
Pa'*
P." - KW" Pa
PA
R
K,'
K.'
Kr-
KW'
45-
0.293
1.414
0.541
0.765
0.5
0.M
1.414
W1
Table III
"Notional" crank mechanism masses
6.18
2.4.2
BALANCING TOLERANCES
Even with the ideal configuration of the crank arrangement
described previously, the engine can excite vibrations in
correspondence with the first and second harmonics.
In fact,
the crankshaft and the running gear components will inevitably
be affected by dimensional tolerances which will give rise to
resultants other than zero.
Let us analyse in detail the effects of the tolerances
balance weights of the individual elements:
of
the
- Crankshaft
The crankshaft in high-speed internal combustion engines'to

be mounted on elastic suspensions is normally balanced with a
degree of balance G 6.3 ISO 1940.
This implies the presence of a maximum
rotating
free
force
evaluatable as follows:
F =e x Mx.6
(1)
where,
e = degree of balance, according ISO 1940, corresponding to
the residual eccentricity of the rotor in gin
M = mass of the rotor in Kg
0)= angular velocity of the rotor
Since,
in the case of crankshafts,
the rotor has extensive
axial length, the balancing must be carried out in two planes

and this implies the presence of a rotating free couple,
still of the 1st order, whose maximum magnitude can be
evaluated as:
M=Fxd
with, F = free force in one of the balancing planes
d = distance between balancing planes
- Flywheel, damper
The rotating masses with limited axial extension cause
rotating free forces evaluable with the expression (1) above.
6.19
Engine running gear
The running gear related to each cylinder of the engine can

be represented by two equivalent masses: one concentrated at
the connecting rod big-end (Ml) with purely rotary motion,
and one concentrated at the small-end (M2) having purely
alternating motion.
The differences between the values of
the masses M1 for the various cylinders cause the resultant
of the overall rotating free force to be other than zero.
The differences between the values of the masses M2 cause not
only a vertical free force and a free moment in the vertical
plane, of the first harmonic, but also corresponding forces
and moments of higher harmonics.
Usually, however, of these
only the 2nd harmonic is significant.
Table IV shows the maximum free forces and moments possible
with the degree of balancing and the weight tolerances
specified on the drawings for GMT and Isotta Fraschini
high-speed engines. It should be noted that the definition
of weight tolerances is done in such a way as ,to be
compatible with the balancing tolerances.
WEIGHT AND HALANCIU TOLERlMCES WITH CONSEOUENT
FREE FORCES S NIEMTS
G.M.T. Eng.
A230.6
1200 rpm
I.F. Eng.
ID36SS6V
1800 rpm
Degree of balance of rotating
parts
Tolerance on piston weight

Tolerance on connecting-rod weight
6,3 mm/s
6,3
=/s
10 g
1 100 g
50 g
150 g
Alternating forces along
1st Ord.
96 kg
248 kg
the transverse axis
2nd Ord.
0 kg
0 kg
Alternating forces along
lst Ord.
96 kg
378 kg
the vertical axis
2nd Ord.
5 kg
29 kg
1st Ord.
21 kgm
239 kgm
2nd Ord.
1 kgm
17 kgm
1st On'.
21 kgm
160 kgm
2nd Ord.
0 kqn
Alternating moment around

the transverse axis
Alternating moment around
the vertical axis
0 kg
* There exists, however, a free moment due to the particular

disposition of the cylinders.
Table IV
6.20
2.5
FORCES AND COUPLES WITHIN THE ENGINE STRUCTURE
2.5.1
LINEAR VIBRATIONS IN THE ENGINE

In the considerations made up to now, the engine has been taken
as being a rigid body subjected to certain actions that can
excite vibrations in the foundations
and
in the
surrounding
structures.
It must however be considered that:
- the engine structure is itself characterised by masses and
elasticities and, as such, is a system that can therefore be
in vibration;
- the internal actions in terms of forces and moments due to
the gas and inertia may have partial resultants much more
intense than the free actions imposed on the foundations.
There may thus be caused linear vibrations of the engine
structure or the generating set, self-induced vibrations that
may be damaging not so much to the engine itself as to the
components mounted on it or to which it is connected alternator, turbocharger, governor - and may be transmitted to
the foundations, giving rise to structural noise in the range
of the lowest frequencies.
In this connection it is interesting to examine a case that
actually occurred - fig. 10 - in a generating set with an
engine having 16 cylinders in Vee.
The typical arrangement of
the cranks (10a) gave a set of rotating secondary forces such
as to cause a significant flexing increment along the length of
the engine, despite the absence of a resultant (lOb).
This
tended (10c) to bend the structure of the engine (any free
moment
present would have induced a rigid rotation), exciting

the alternator/coupling flange system and provoking vibrations
such as to be dangerous for the alternator.

The problem was resolved by stiffening the engine-alternator
coupling flanges, so as to detune the system.
6.21
SECONDARY ROTATING FORCES ARANGEMENT
BENDING OF THE ENGINE STRUCTURE
z Qi- -i0 -. -.-
-.- ,- -
EXCITATION ON THE ALTERNATOR

. __.-
-.
__._
_
----
C-.
- -'-
Fig. 10
Linear vibrations mechanism in a gen-set
6.22
.-
The lateral rocking of the structure of the large 2-stroke

engines has similar origins, being due to a moment induced by
the lateral components of the forces acting on the crosshead,
and can be countered by the adoption of lateral stays.
2.5.2
TORSIONAL AND AXIAL VIBRATIONS

Torsional and axial vibrations constitute a characteristic
problem of alternating internal combustion engines.
In fact, the Classification Societies impose the checking of
the stresses arising from the torsional vibrations with the
object of avoiding fatigue failures.
The deformations of the crank mechanism components associated
with the torsional vibrations contribute to the generation of
structural noise that may be significant even though the
stresses are maintained within the limits imposed.
In addition to the most evident effect, that of gear hammering,
torsional vibrations can generate structural noise in various
ways:
- following
journals
the
and
transverse movement of
the consequent impacts
the main
bearing
in the respective
bearings; such transverse movements are one consequence. of
the torsion of the crankshaft;
- following
the
generation of radial components on the
bearings, of the "i +/-I" orders, consequent to the "i"
harmonic oscillation on the counterweights;
- torsional oscillations modify the actions from which piston
slap originates, accentuating their severity.
As a consequence of the actions of the connecting rod on the
crank,
particularly
severe
when
the
two are aligned in the

combustion phase, the engine crank undergoes
deformation as
shown in fig. 11. A significant feature of this deformation is
the axial displacement of the two adjacent main bearings in
opposite directions.
6.23
Fig. 11
Typical crank deformation due to radial force
This mechanism excites the modes of axial vibration of the

whole shaft including the masses connected to it, such as the
flywheel and the damper, etc.
The axial vibrations have a considerable importance in the case
of propulsion machinery with the line shaft connected solidly
to the engine.
This configuration proves to be the most
unfavourable because of the large masses present in the
vibratory system with natural frequencies consequently low
enough to involve the most significant harmonics and, above
all, because the propeller thrust maintains the thrust bearing
under constant load with the consequent transmission of
pulsations to the hull structure. In the other plants the
mechanism of axial vibration generation has its preponderant
importance in the matter of excitation, in the axial direction,
of the supports of the engine main bearings. The mechanism is
illustrated in fig. 12.
6.24
Fig. 12
Bearing excitation due to crank deformation
6.25
2.6
VIBRATION ACCEPTANCE LIMITS

The acceptable level of vibration for the engine depend on the
design criteria and on the application.
Fundamentally there are two criteria for defining such limits:
a) to ensure the trouble-free operation of the engine;
b)
to limit the propagation of noise and vibration into the
surrounding environment.
As far as criteria "a" is concerned, it is to be noted that the
internal organs of the engine are subjected during operation to
forces and accelerations of considerable magnitude, greater
than those relating to the vibrations. The weak point of the
engine from this aspect is constituted by the components
attached to the engine itself, such as pipework, governor,
electrical equipment, sensors, etc.
It is essential to ensure that the attached components are
capable of withstanding the foreseen vibration levels on the
engine.
There exist regulations by v'arious national bodies which
establish suitable criteria for the limitation of vibration,
amongst which the most well-known is certainly the VDI 2063.
This relates to the vibration level measured on the engine
frame in the frequency field from 2 to 300 Hz. The prescribed
limits are shown in fig. 13.
In the international field, ISO is in the process of issuing
the standards:
- ISO 10816-6
"Measurement and evaluation of mechanical vibrations of
reciprocating machines with power ratings above 100 kW"
- 150-015 8528-9
"RIC
engine
driven
generating sets.
Measurement and
evaluation of mechanical vibrations"
The first approaches the problem from the point of view of the
engine and draws on VDI 2063 whilst the second deals with it
from that of the driven machine. Table V shows the limiting
values proposed by the ISO-OhS 8528-9 standard.
6.26
105
500
300.
.4/
Oi
Il N
A.
~~
4XX\.X'x
~
& \
2000
\A4KK,
NViX"/
~~
/I
20
3010
300
treo\uLerrAcXv
vq574f
Limtin
30
456
000
?Z0
e of VDV26
curkv
Fig
13t
l.27
:~o
-~L
~
~
~f
~#
*
"
00
.4
-~~
0.
Ia0-0-
)U4.
a
A
0
CC)
0I~
4r
-~4-
0a
c cl
"I;
me
Tabe
6.2
C)
s-
'0
>0
a)
t4
) a
W
3.
NOISE IN INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

When preparing to deal in detail with the problem of the origin
of noise in diesel engines, a consideration must be made.
The first part of the lesson dealt primarily with vibrations;
the inherent exciting forces of a reciprocating machine and the
effects which they provoke were examined, first considering the
engine as a rigid body and then beginning to take into account
the deformations that involve the whole structure of the
engine. The frequencies of vibration are relatively low, at the
most equal to multiples of the main harmonic of the engine
moment. Noise, as it in commonly understood, is characterized
by frequencies that are decidedly higher, of the order of
hundreds or thousands of Hz. But its origin is in effect the
same as the vibratory phenomena discussed
earlier:
the
phenomena connected with the working cycle of the internal
combustion engine induce local vibrations in components of the
engine which - precisely due to their rigidity - vibrate at
notably higher frequencies.
3.1
THE PROCESS OF NOISE GENERATION

The noise generation process in internal combustion engines is,
in effect, a process of transmission of vibrations induced by
events that take place during the working cycle. There are two
main sources of noise:
- the process of combustion in itself, which gives rise to what
is called "combustion noise";
- the process of taking up, under the action of gas forces and
the forces of inertia, the working clearances existing in the
components of the running gear and the timing gear, which
phenomenon gives rise to "mechanical noise".
The vibratory phenomena which involve the combustion chamber
components,
the
crank
gear
and
the
timing
equipment are
transmitted to the engine block and from there to the covers,
the air and service fluid manifolds and the oil sump, from
6.29
where they are radiated into the environment causing airborne

noise; they are also transmitted to the engine supports and
thence to the foundations, giving rise to structure-borne
noise.
3.2
COMBUSTION NOISE
3.2.1
GENERAL
Consider the combustion chamber shown in fig. 14b; the process
of combustion develops in it a pressure history characterised
by rapid pressure variations, in particular around TDC - see
fig. 14a.
The initial part of the development of cylinder pressure is the
compression curve; on ignition, the pressure in the cylinder
rises rapidly at first and then at a decreasing rate towards
peak cylinder pressure. The rate of cylinder pressure increase
is defined by the "rate of heat release" - the ROHR - which
in
turn is connected with the physical characteristics of the

charge and with the injection law, as we shall see later.
3.2.2
NATURAL FREQUENCIES OF COMBUSTION CHAMBER COMPONENTS

In principle the combustion chamber components are deformed by
the pressure waves which are applied to them cyclically and
they tend, being systems having mass and elasticity, to return
to their undeformed positions, vibrating in accordance with the
natural frequency of vibration.
In addition, the diagram of
pressure inside the cylinder may be considered the resultant of
a series of sinusoidal waves of suitable amplitude and phase;
some of these harmonic components may enter into resonance with
the natural frequencies of the components, influencing the
noise level. This is the mechanism of combustion noise.
6.30
By way of example, the natural frequencies of the combustion

chamber components of a medium speed engine employed in marine
generating sets have been calculated. Fig. 14c shows the
inherent frequencies and dynamic deformations of the cylinder
head and fig. 15 those of the cylinder liner.
Even taking into account the fact that not all of the inherent
frequencies of the latter can be excited by the pressure inside
the cylinder, it can be appreciated, from an examination of the
natural frequencies of the components, how vibrations can be
induced over the full spectrum of noise related frequencies.
6.31
CYLINDER
PRESSUaE
AND RATE
COMMJSTIoN
OF HEAT RELEASE
CHAMBER
(a)(b)
MODE FREQUENCY (Hz)

1
2
2065
3660
4745
Fig.
14
Natural modes of vibration of cylinder head
6.32
21
--c:
--
- - -
C~-
Zr
\1
C\J.
Fig 15
Natural modes of vibration of cylinder liner
6.33
.1
3.2.3 THE EFFECT OF THE THERMO-DYNAMIC

CYCLE
Research conducted with the aid of harmonic
analysis of the
pressure cycle inside the cylinders of
various engines [4] has
shown that the harmonic components
up to about 500 Hz depend
on the level of maximum pressure, whilst
the higher ones are
determined by the way in which the
maximum pressure increases
during the combustion phase. A significant
margin for reduction
of the noise due to combustion lies
in the adjustment of this
phase, naturally within the limits imposed
by considerations of
engine performance, consumption and
emissions.
In diesel engines, for example, combustion
noise is accentuated
by retarded ignition and by the rate
of heat release. The time
interval that elapses between the beginning
of fuel injection
and ignition accentuates the rate
of pressure rise because it
involves a greater quantity of
fuel. Supercharging has a
favourable influence on the initial
phase of combustion since
it leads to higher temperatures with
consequent reduction of
ignition delay.
In the case of highly supercharged
engines, this advantage is
diminished because of the aftercooling
and the low compression
ratio.
3.2.4
POSSIBLEMEASURES
The system which at present offers
the most promise for
reducing the ignition delay under the
various engine operating
conditions is that of pilot injection.
With this system there
is an advanced injection of a small quantity
of fuel sufficient
to raise the temperature inside the cylinder
without producing
a significant increase in pressure.
The development of the pressure in the
course of combustion can
be regulated by suitably shaping, the injection
pump cam. Noise
and specific fuel consumption have contrasting
requirements as
far as the rate of heat release is concerned
and it therefore
is not possible to adopt a sufficiently
"gentle' injection law
6.34
without penalising to an unacceptable degree the performance of

the engine. In practice, a rate of heat release favourable to
the performance is adopted, leaving the limitation of the
effects on noise to be dealt with by structural attenuation.
3.3
MECHANICAL NOISE
During operation of an internal combustion engine the moving
parts of the crank mechanism and timing gear are subject to
rapidly varying forces - see par. 2.1.1 - due to the action of
the gas and the reciprocating motion. In each coupling of parts
and in each kinematic train there are, of necessity, working
clearances.
Consequently, at all such bearing surfaces, high frequency
excitation can result when the bearing force - even if it has
no significant high frequency component - accelerates one of
the bearing surfaces against the other.
Significant sources of mechanical noise are the main
gear mechanism and the injection and timing devices.
3.3.1
running
RUNNING GEAR: PISTON SLAP NOISE.

The gas and alternating inertial forces which act on the piston
are balanced by a force directed along the connecting rod shank
which is generally inclined. From this derives a component N see fig. 16 - perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder, which,
even though varying with time (with the crank angle), would not
be such as to produce harmonics of sufficiently high frequency.
The presence of the working clearance between the piston and
the liner causes, during the phases of inversion of sign of N,
the
piston
to be subjected to translational and rotational

motion within the clearance, with consequent impact against the
liner. The calculation of piston motion has been carried out
for the engine referred to in par. 3.2.2.
6.35
The results are shown in fig. 16d as a function of the crank

angle FI, with the indication of the points of contact between
piston and liner.
Fig. 16c shows instead, for the crank angles corresponding with
the impact, the consequent striking velocity.
It can be clearly seen how the impact can excite some of the
vibratory modes of the cylinder liner shown in fig. 15.
It has been demonstrated [5J that the level of structural noise
increases with increase of the gas forces acting on the piston
at top dead centre in the expansion phase, and therefore
depends directly on the level of maximum pressure, i.e. on the
output of the engine.
Since the .force of impact is strictly correlated to the kinetic
energy that the piston acquires in its movement within the
clearance between the piston itself and the liner, it is
important to reduce the hot clearance as much as possible.
Typical values for medium speed diesel engines are of the order
of 0.3 to 0.5%. It has been suggested that beneficial effects
on the noise induced by piston slap may be obtained by adopting
for the liner and the piston materials having the same thermal
coefficient of expansion, i.e. by employing spheroidal graphite
cast iron.
Such provision is illusory, or rather it can only
have an effect on operation with the engine cold. The hot
working clearance of a piston with aluminium skirt is no
different from that of a cast iron piston, even though it is
decidedly greater when cold.
One beneficial effect on noise, if suitably studied, can be
provided by piston spin offset, in that it reduces the striking
velocity and therefore the impulsive force of the piston on the
liner, reducing the content of high frequencies. The offset may
take place either at the side of greatest thrust or of least
thrust, always with beneficial effect on the noise. In the case
of the engine in question, it was determined that an offset of
1 to 2 mm at the side of greater thrust would be appropriate.
Optimisation of the offset can be achieved experimentally or by
calculation, with programs similar to that which led to the
results shown in fig. 16.
6.36
EN,
--
10.0
rVt
3'4.0
I.
.3
0.
0'
-. 2
-7.2
.4
POINT I NECe. POINT 2
BOC
TDC.
:POS. POINT
STRIKING
~ii
"C
1 3C
(b)
M.
0.n
12.1
POS.
E5
COM PRES.SI1OW
INbUCTION
711"f
-STRI KIN6
EXH AUSI'
E.XPANSION
.160.00
4.NEG,- POIIJY
'6 .
Tnt
2.
CftANK
NBo
ANGLE
Fig. 16
Piston slap
6.37
00
560.00
640.00
3.3.2
RUNNING GEAR: BEARING NOISE

Reference
is made to fig. 17 which shows, by way of example,

the load diagram of the central main bearing of a medium speed
engine and the consequent path of the journal in its housing.
In correspondence with the firing phase of one of the adjacent
cylinders there is a rapid displacement of the journal segment A-B - with consequent increase in pressure in the oil
film
due to the squeeze effect. It can be appreciated how the

force of impact may excite some of the natural frequencies of
the bearing cap, shown in fig. 17b.
6.38
HORIZ
FORC
11
555
1261
3
4
5
1633
2616
3085
38
:J101
IZ
Fig. 17
Bearing noise melchanism
6.39
3.3.2 TIMING GEAR

The timing gear consists of those components whose job it is to
ensure, at the appropriate moments during the working cycle,
the injection of the fuel and the opening and closing of the
inlet and exhaust valves. It is represented schematically, for
a medium speed engine, in fig 18.
Fig. 18
Timing gear
In addition to the well-known phenomenon of the impact of the
injection valve needle against its seat, mechanical noise may
also be caused by the following phenomena:
6.40
of the working clearances in the kinematic mechanism

for operating the valves.
At the moment of valve opening, and for all the period that
it remains open, the operating mechanism is subject to a load
deriving from the thrust of the gas which opposes the
opening, from the inertias in the system and from the spring
loading. The pattern of loading evaluated statically is shown
by the dotted line in fig 19.
-Take-up
CA
Fig.
Focso
prtn
Inpatca
rece
claac
actua openng
ehaimo
ntn
xas
av
foeigterle
meitl
pedcrepninaoacmlft
eult.h
tef
-fg
ofth
vav
DGRE
.41
0 -wt
ae.laewe4h
nipc
cin
woeo
h
h
*aC
1o
!
te,
Fi.2
Lit4elct
an
ac
hclrtion
of
aval
Siiaripc phnmnmaocu ifte coigo te
Itm
Lift
, vlo
elctandre
accelertattevbaion
ofhanvaeve
induced in the mechanism can be such that the loading of the

springs is not able to maintain the contacts between elements
of the drive train, with consequent increase in impacts and
hence of the noise level. To obviate such problems the ramps
for taking up the clearances and elastic deformations are
designed so as to obtain limited values of velocity at the
opening and closing of the valves
induced in the coils of the return springs.
The cams of the inlet and exhaust valves and also those of
the fuel pump drive have profiles that can be broken down
into Fourier series. These harmonics may, at certain running
speeds, enter into resonance with the elastic-inertial system
constituted by the return springs, inducing vibration in the
coils - fig. 21 - with the possibility of contact between the
coils themselves and therefore of noise.
-Vibrations
6.42
A careful investigation of the cam-spring system is therefore

required so as to ensure that the inevitable resonances do
not occur at the lower order harmonics where the amplitudes
are greater.
SI
th
ful
pumps..
and
th.
consqueVibareactions
inle
~~Fi
.
21_________
..
and
exas
alega:
hsa
in therois of a vaulve sprngtecmsat
For the configuration shown in fig. 18, the turning moments

shown in fig. 22 act on the camshaft in relation to each
cylinder.
The resultant moment hi way of the timing gear
wheels is represented in fig. 23.
6.43
Fig. 22
Turning moment on the camshaft due to one cylinder
AN00 R0TAZ IOWr. f:Prr;
Fig. 23
Turning moment on the timing gear wheels
6.44
A widely varying load diagram such as that shown can already

induce vibrations. The situation can be worsened by the fact
that the application of the moments of fig. 22 for the
various cylinders in accordance with their firing order may
initiate torsional vibration of the camshaft with inversion
of the moment on the timing wheels and impact between the
teeth. This is the reason why recourse is made to torsional
vibration dampers also on the camshafts
3.3.4
GAS TRANSFER
Another
source of noise from an internal combustion engine is

the pressure pulses created by the sudden opening and closing
of the inlet and exhaust valves.
These affect the inlet and
exhaust noise of the engine, and will appear at relatively low
frequencies as noise spectral peaks at the primary firing
frequency and its first few harmonics.
Gas transfer noise at
higher frequencies will usually be the result of turbulence
induced flow noise. The combustion process in itself has little
influence on gas transfer noise, 'except for secondary effects
such as increasing the temperature of the exhaust gases.
Intake and exhaust systems, whilst providing adequate silencing
of the pressure pulses, have nevertheless to have the required
gas flow characteristics to allow optimum engine performance.
3.3.5
VIBRATION OF ENGINE STRUCTURE AND COVERS

The typical configuration of a reciprocating engine, in line or
Fig. 24 shows the beam sections,
in V, is that of a beam.
shaded
in gray,
which
are
repeated along the length of the
engine, for each of the two types.
6.45
Fig. 24
In-line and Vee engine frames
Considering the in-line engine, it can be observed that the
structure is a kind of box divided into compartments.
The top of this box is closed by the cylinder head, which is
comparatively stiff, and the bottom is closed by the relatively
flexible oil sump. Additionally, at the top and about halfway
down, there are horizontal decks that support the cylinders.
Although these decks are quite thick, their stiffness is
reduced by the holes for the cylinders. Such a structure is
flexible in torsion about an axis parallel to the crankshaft,
mainly because the oil sump is not stiff enough to "close the
box" effectively.
6.46
Considered as a beam, the in-line engine is much stiffer in

bending in the vertical plane than in the horizontal plane,
while in the case of the Vee engine there is little difference
between the horizontal and vertical stiffnesses.
If such structures are excited by a sinusoidally varying force
of constant magnitude over a range of frequencies the vibration
amplitude measured at a point will show many resonant peaks. At
the frequency corresponding to each peak, the structure will
take up a different vibration pattern or mode shape.
It is reported /6/ that, in general, the first mode of
vibration occurs at a few hundred Hertz and consists of a
torsional motion about an axis parallel to the crankshaft. At
higher frequencies, say up to 1000 Hz, the engine starts to
bend along its length like a homogeneous beam. Above this
frequency the structure ceases to behave as a solid body and
the panels forming the sides of the bays begin to vibrate
independently.
In our opinion, this is true for the small size engines having
quite rigid structures. Engines of the medium-speed type suited
to marine propulsion have decidely lower natural frequencies of
vibration; table VI gives the first of the natural frequencies
of the structure of an engine of this type and fig. 25 shows
some dynamic deformations.
SPEED ENGINE NATURAL FREQUENCIES OF THE FRAME

-MEDIUM
MODE
FREQUENCY
2
3
4
2913
39.5
60.3
70,3
93,6
104,5
(HZ)
Table VI
Natural frequencies of the structure of a medium-speed engine
6.47
MODE 1
MODE 3
2 ..
MODE 6
"-'#
Fig. 25
Engine Structure free-modes of vibration
6.48
The
vibrations of the main structure are transmitted to the

covers and to the engine supports and so, respectively, to the
surrounding air and to the foundations, causing airborne and
structure borne noise. The characteristics of the structure
vibrations will therefore determine the characteristics of the
cover and support vibrations.
6.49
4.
OTHER SOURCES OF NOISE IN A MACHINERY ROOM

Obviously, the diesel engines are not the only source of noise
in an engine room, but the analyses discussed so far can be
applied equally to other machines involved in the production
and transformation of energy.
The effects of fluid motion in pipework are omitted as they
will be amply dealt with in other lessons.
4.1
REDUCTION GEAR
The toothed gearwheels of the gearbox are sources of noise
because of the inevitable manufacturing tolerances that cause
impact phenomena at the meshing of the teeth. Idler trains with
no or very low loading are particular sensitive because of the
effect of the turning moment fluctuations, and the possible
onset of torsional vibrations, on the motion of the gear train.
4.2
RECIPROCATING PUMPS AND COMPRESSORS

The considerations made for the reciprocating
applied to these machines.
4.3
engines
can
be
ALTERNATORS AND ELECTRIC MOTORS

As
well as the mechanical type noise induced by the rotating

shaft,
of significance in the case of these machines is the
"magnetic" noise.
This is a vibration of the carcass due to
the fact that,
between the stator and rotor of any electric

motor or generator, magnetic forces exist which have a small
rapid variation of intensity with a frequency equal to the
number of rotor teeth passing the stator per second, and
resonance with a natural frequency of the frame may occur.
The problem is dealt with in detail in /7/.
6.50
5.
SOURCE IDENTIFICATION AND NOISE PREDICTION
5.1
EXPERIMENTAL IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUES

Research into the control
of
engine
noise
has
led
to
the
development of various investigation techniques for identifying

the dominant sources and evaluating the contribution of the
individual organs.
The techniques used are:
a) Lead covering or shielding technique
b) Close microphone technique
c) Noise from surface vibration technique
d) Acoustic intensity technique
Method (a) was the first to be developed and still remains the
most reliable one.
It has the disadvantage of involving
considerable time and costs.
With the shielding by means of lead sheets of 20-40 kg/m2, it
is possible
to achieve a mass controlled attenuation of noise
radiated by the individual parts.

Method (b) is more economic as far as the equipment is
concerned.
It consists of exploring the radiating surface by
measuring the sound pressure level in the near field.
Method (c) is based
the
of
vibration
on the measurement of the level of

radiating surface and the subsequent
conversion by analytical procedures of the radiated noise.

The determination of the level of vibration of a radiating
surface such as the engine requires a considerable number of
measuring points. The radiation characteristic of the surface
is a source of error in the subsequent calculation phase.
This
method
is useful for evaluating the influence
of
modifications at the calculation stage.

The Acoustic Intensity method is the one which is theoretically
the most advanced and precise.
The instrumentation required is more complex as it involves the
measurement of speed as well as pressure. The measured values
together with the co-ordinates of the measurement points form
the input data for the subsequent processing by computer.
6.51
It is possible to determine in this way the sound power

radiated at the inside of the surface being measured, without
being influenced by external sources.
6.52
5.2
NOISE MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
5.2.1
STRUCTURE-BORNE NOISE
Measurement of structural noise consists in converting the
vibration at a point - and in a particular direction.- into an
electrical signal proportional to it, by means of acceleration
transducers, or accelerometers, held in solid contact with the
vibrating element.
With modern transducers having
incorporated
electronics,
the
chain is reduced to a minimum, that is:

- accelerometer;
- coaxial connection cable;
- analyser.
The
analyser converts the analogue input signal into a digital

form and performs all the required mathematical processing.
An example of such a configuration is given in fig 26.
,I
E3
Fig. 26
View of structure borne noise measurement equipment
6.53
Fig. 27 shows:
a) the time-history of a sample signal generated by a
calibration exciter;
b) the time-history of the structural noise measured on the
feet of a 6-cylinder, medium-speed engine running at 514
rpm;
c)
the
analysis in one-third octaves of the phenomenon b)
carried out from 12.5 Hz to 20 Hz.
d) narrow-band analysis, 1Hz, of the phenomenon b) over the
frequency field 0 - 100 Hz.
As can be seen, the signal measured by the accelerometer is not
.at all intelligible; it contains, however, all the information
that the modern analysers are able to bring out in real time.
Depending on the purpose of the investigation, the phenomenon
is usually detailed in the following stages:
- overall signal level;
- analysis by octaves;
- analysis by one-third octaves;
- narrow-band analysis with constant amplitude.
6.54
...
3
I.
3'
0.
-.
n
oJ
Ij
'~
>1
3:
*0
n
3
0
1-
Li
'0
LA
C,fiR
C
0
K
0.
ci
It
-I
-Cl
.0
a,
'I-
a
'I
La
La
,>'0
a'
'I
0J
'I
III
30
N.-.
.
S K
500
Fig. 27
6.55
ale
Whilst the analyses in octaves and one-third octaves are used

to rate the noise source, those of the narrow band type are
usually carried out to investigate more directly the individual
components associated with the
characteristic
excitation
frequencies of the engine.
By way of example, fig. 27d shows clearly the individual
excitation harmonics of the engine, those of the 4, 5, 5.5 and
6th harmonics.
Fig.
28 summarises the results of the structural noise
measurements on a resiliently mounted medium-speed engine,
above
and below the resilient supports,
to verify the
effectiveness of the noise attenuation.
It can be noted that in the octave band centred on 1000 Hz the
elastic suspension is, at 'least apparently, counter-productive.
Only the subsequent narrow-band analysis, shown in fig. 29,
permits an explanation of the apparent "loss" of attenuation
with the presence of a strong component at 1082.5 Hz, clearly
not the fault of the engine since no such component is present
at the engine side.
The potential of the measurement chain illustrated above can be
multiplied
by
interfacing the analyser with a desk-top
computer. This allows the analyser to be handled by a program,
thus avoiding the normal operations on the keys of the
analyser, particularly useful where sequences of instructions
are repeated, without the possibility of introducing operator
errors.
The results of the measurements can be stored in memory for
subsequent documentation or processing.
The automation reduces considerably the time necessary for the
measurements, which is limited virtually to that necessary for
repositioning of the accelerometers in the various points to be
checked.
6.56
A420.6 ENGINE ON ELASTIC MOUNTING

STRUCTURE BORNE NOISE
LOAD:
2625 KW
VERTICAL DIRECTION
487 rpm
Engine flywheel opposite side
100
ENGIN. FOOT
90
:x
80
70
_'_
____
F OUN_
60
50
16
31.5
63
250
125
500
1000
2000
4000
OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCY (Hz)

Fig. 28
6.57
Engine foot
GA !fD PElt
4;AMAI~T
S~u:P~*C
iV
SAT-G0l-:.J-33-v 2Z
OVILD
#MSS2
.. . ...................
'DIV
STAR1
800 Hr
gut 9.348! Mr
Y, S.S54s..sr.,
i10982.5 Hz
STOP,
1 800 4r
Foundation
GRID PEN
RftpqIr
3 dBV
STATUS, PAUSCZ
...............
... ...
. .. . . .
.. . . .
.. . . .
.. . . .
..
....
. . . .
..................
T'APT
84(4 M,
ell:
9. 5.e
H-
STCIPI
1 1:1
Mr
Narrow band analysis on engine foot and foundation

Fig. 29
6.58
5.2.2
AIRBORNE NOISE
Measurement of the level of airborne noise is carried out by
means of a phonometer. This consists basically of a microphone,
an amplifier and a set of analogue filters.
The instrument measures the level of sound pressure at a point
in space.
The sound pressure level emitted by a source is evaluated at a
second stage by integration of the sound pressure level on a
surface which encloses the source.
The filter selector provides for:
- obtaining the weighted levels with the A, B and C scales
- showing the distribution of sound energy with frequency,
octave and one-third octave bands.
The
procedure for carrying out the measurements can be
automated by connecting the unfiltered output of the phonometer
to a computer driven digital analyser. In this way, apart from
reducing the instrument handling times, it is possible to have
the results of even complex calculations in real
time,
documenting them and storing them in memory.
5.3
NOISE LIMITS
The
requirement
for
limiting
the
level of structural noise
transmitted by the engine to the surrounding environment is

determined by the characteristics of the plant and of the
environment affected by the phenomenon. The limit imposed is
usually derived from the setting of an objective downstream of
the engine with deduction of the level admissible at the engine
interface, taking into account the transmission path.
This technique is applied, for example:
- on cruise-ships, where the starting point is the
imposed on maximum airborne noise in cabins;
- on
naval
vessels,
where
the
usual
starting point is the
maximum level imposed for noise transmission into the

etc.
6.59
limit
water,
Amongst the existing standards the most commonly applied is the

MIL-740-2 specification which gives the maximum noise permitted
upstream of the elastic suspension immediately before the
ship's foundations.
The limit given by MIL-STO-740
for
reciprocating engines is that shown in fig. 1.
A standard on the measurement of structural noise has also
recently been issued within CIMAC circles, "CIMAC STANDARD
METHOD - Structure-borne noise from high-speed and medium-speed
engines". The purpose of the standard is that of rating
the
engine as a source of noise so as to make available values
which can be compared and repeated.
As to the airborne noise, the existing standards are directed
in the first place at establishing the methods of carrying out
the
measurements in order to make them significant and
comparable.
Amongst the existing standards at the international level can
be
mentioned
ISO standard 3746 and the CIMAC standard
"Recommendations of measurement for the overall noise of
reciprocating engines".
5.4
ENGINE NOISE PREDICTION

Estimation methods fulfil the following functions:
5.4.1
1
2
3
prediction of noise levels for new designs

prediction of the effect of engine design modifications
comparisons between different engines without the need for
measurement
identification of trends (e.g. noise vs. speed).
AIRBORNE NOISE
Much research work, aimed particularly at engines for use in
cars and commercial vehicles, has permitted the establishing,
through the processing a notable quantity of readings, of
6.60
correlations which link the level of airborne noise produced to

parameters identified as significant for the engine, that is to
say the speed of rotation and the dimensions.
The formulae used by Ricardo are given below /8/:
For naturally aspirated, direct injection diesel engines:
dBA = 30 log N + 50 log B - 48.5
For turbo-charged, direct injection diesel engines:

dBA = 40 log.N + 5 log B - 66
where, dBA = mean "A" weighted sound pressure level at 1 m from

surface of engine under full load conditions
N = engine speed in rev/sec.
B = bore size in mm
and logs are to base 10
These 10/20 year old empirical formulae do not take air intake
or fan noise into account.
Today engines exhibit noise levels
3dB or more below the predicted levels, which are only
applicable to 4/6 cylinder engines.
Similar formulae are reported by [8].
Work of this nature has also been carried out in the context of
CIMAC for engines of medium dimensions [9].
Table
VII
shows
the formulae indicated by CIMAC and those of

Diesel Ricerche on the basis of the data for its own engines.
IN 6eA
jSWLh.l|
Co)RDIE
Ca
S,
AS A
S (I..)
. Sq
loq
.3,
nq
"
RE [.
SCAO
pt:CS
SPEEIVr) abI',J
n-
SPL,-,'XOq
CINAC
17
*P
1.o
7
58.2
'CICtn a OCR pIT

IKCR[.HI
S 2
.. d W.OEP CF
A .iSPL,*3011o9 V S.l S S'Log 2 7

- 4.4109
ISPL,-2?mlog
S .7,10 9
5MND POCR L[_VM

CIKAC
i ,,
oI,-I
SWL-4.1
OR
n o
o
. 8.3
log
1.,l P
log P
ACMSTIC E}'ICIEMY LEVM

CIMAC
7.tQ
I.,
-89.7
Table VII
6.61
68.4
-79,7
It should be noted that the parameter which determines the

impact that a noise source has on the surrounding environment
is constituted by the radiated power.
This is equal to the product of the average pressure level
around the engine and the area of the radiating surface.
Table VIII shows the indicative values of the levels of
airborne noise and of vibration for the engines taken from
[10].
on the
At engine
dB (A) IL,
o.,
I
dB (A)
bottom
I
,plate
J
dB (A)
100-105
80-a5
_______________I
ILow speed Diesel
I130
IMedium speed Diesel

!engine P
11..
engineii
gIenerating
set
L1.
L=
125
Ir-
d8 (A)
70s75
1o-go
85-95
I
110-120
foundation
IK
-9
a-5
95-105I
10 log W/Wo
= 20 log P,/P 0
20 log V/V0
U
W.
10 --
80-90
W/Mt
P. - 2.10 - - N/m'
V. - 5.10 i- M/s
Table VIII
In general, the level of noise near the engine depends mainly

on the speed of rotation and only to a minor extent on the
power developed by the engine and other dimensional parameters.
Table VI showed the expression for Acoustic Efficiency, defined
as:
n = 10 log N radiated
N engine
The value of n is averagely equal to -60, or in other words,
the radiated acoustic power is about one millionth of the power
developed by the engine itself (See also ref. 13 pag. 197).
6.62
5.4.2
STRUCTURAL NOISE
The level of structural noise at the feet of the diesel engine
before any flexible mounts that may be present, is evaluated in
the absence of more accurate studies on a statistical basis,
using measurements carried out on similar engines.
Table VIII gives indications of the vibratory levels of diesel
engines of various sizes.
The level of structural noise assumed by Diesel Ricerche in
design practice is shown, for the various classes of engine, in
fig. 30. In Fig. 31 are shown as an example the levels recorded
for different running conditions.
6.63
MEDIUM SPEED ENGINES

0011
.... ..
110
501
110
50
31. 63
125
2W0
500 1i0- FOFrequenicy Q1~q
400 8000 16m
1800 r.p.m. HIGH SPEED ENGINES

110*
100
80
50
----
A.5
125
250
500
100
200 400
8W 1600
1
1/1 Qcla)ve badFrequency Hz)
Fig. 30
Structural noise at the feet of diesel engines
6.64
720 rpm
no load
..-...............
316
63
125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000 16000

1i3 octave band cenfterTeuencv HZ
1200 rpm
no load
50
31.5
K",
125 250 &00 1000 2000 4000 8000 16000

113 Octave band center frequency Hz
1200 rpm - full load
80(
Q~
~ ~
7031.,"~.,
Fg
6.6
0D
60
6.
NOISE ATTENUATION
6.1
LOW NOISE ENGINE DESIGN

The research carried out has not so far allowed an exhaustive
mathematical model of all the phenomena concerned in engine
noise to be defined, with the consequent establishment of
definitive design criteria.
Experience has however permitted the clarification, at least
qualitatively, of the relationships between the noise level and
the geometric and functional characteristics of the engine.
From this some empirical rules have been derived.
The general design criteria aimed at the limitation of noise
are discussed below.
The main paths for approaching this objective are:
- the analysis of the geometry of the engine with particular
regard to its dynamic behaviour and operating parameters,
- the analysis of the causes of excitation, both those of
mechanical origin and those due to combustion,
- the analysis of the response of the structure to the
excitations.
6.66
6.2
EXAMINATION OF A SIGNIFICANT CASE

A 12-cylinder
Vee
engine,
already
successfully employed in
generating sets with requirements of low levels of vibration
and noise, presented problems of vibration in the flanged
connection with a different and heavier electrical machine.
Analysis of the phenomenon showed two vibratory components, at
30 and 50 Hz, related to bending modes of the engine-generator
beam,
in the
horizontal plane and the vertical plane
respectively.
The measured frequencies correspond to the 1.5 and
2.5
harmonics of the engine, operating at 1200 rpm.
Subsequent
analysis of the causes of excitation indicated the solution for
reducing the 2.5 harmonic in the vertical direction.
It was,
in fact, observed that by modifying the interval of ignition
between the cylinders from 360-a to a, with a equal to the
angle of the V, the resultant of the actions transmitted by
adjacent pairs of pistons to their respective cylinder liners
was considerably reduced.
Obviously, there are present on the
respective main bearings the corresponding forces, equal in
modulus and of opposite phase but which act in a zone having
different characteristics of mobility.
The variation of the firing order can be achieved, on these
engines, by simply rotating one of the camshafts by 1800.
In
table IX, comparison is made between the theoretical
variations of the excitations and the recorded values of the
velocity
of vibration for the case considered above and for a

medium-speed engine plant for test-bed purposes only.
6.67
:"V"
ANGLE
FIRING
NTERVAL
EXCITATIO
RELATIVE
FACTOR
o
U
VIBRATION
VELOCITY
mm/**c
60
8230.12
60"
0.45
2.5
300
A420. 12H
45"
V.rt
1.67
1 .5
0.43
[45
315
8.0
3 3
0.64
21.0
6.0
Trans,
werse
12.0
Table IX
Effect of changing the firing interval between Vee-banks
7.
CONCLUSIONS
In the course of the lessons the phenomena involved in the
mechanism of the generation of noise and vibration have been
examined, taking as a reference the diesel engine which, as
a
reciprocating machine, is a notable source of vibrations.
Because of the complexity of the phenomena, it may be concluded
that the reduction of noise cannot be considered an exact
science; but - as is illustrated by par. 6.2 - the knowledge
of
the factors involved and the use of ever more sophisticated
calculation techniques /12/ at the design stage are certainly
of great help in approaching the problem.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to thank the Management of Diesel Ricerche
S.p.A.,
who have kindly allowed this work to be presented, and
also the
colleagues who.have contributed to it. Thanks are also extended
to
Ricardo Consulting Engineers for the assistance and documentation
they
have provided.
Trieste, July 1991
6.68
\'
REFERENCES
/1/
Bureau Veritas,
"Building
Propulsion Plants and Ships";
and Operation of Vibration-Free

NR 207 SMS E, Paris 1987.
/2/ P. Schneider, "Installation aspects of four-, five- and

cylinder two-stroke Sulzer engines"; Sulzer paper 1984.
six-
/3/ G. Canuto, "L'equilibramento delle macchine alternative

con
cilindri a V" - Bollettino Tecnico Fiat - Stabilimento Grandi
Motori - Torino 1954.
/4/ M.F. Russell, "Combustion Noise and its Control" - Engine
Noise &
Vibration Control Course Notes, ISVR, Southampton 1990.
/5/ N. Lalor,
"Mechanical Noise" - Engine Noise & Vibration Control

Course Notes, ISVR, Southampton 1990.
/6/ N. Lalor,
"Engine Structure Vibration" - Engine Noise & Vibration

Control Course Notes, ISVR, Southampton 1990.
/7/ J. P. Den Hartoy, "Mechanical Vibrations";

/8/ D. Morrison,
Designing
in engine
McGraw-Hill, 1956.
refinement
and
low noise,
Chartered Mechanical Engineer, 1987.

/9/ D. Anderton, "Basic origin of Automative Engine Noise";
Engine
Noise and Vibration Control Course Notes, ISVR, Southampton
1990.
/10/ CIMAC
Arbaits gruppe "Gerausch" - Statistische Erhebung uber

Diesel motorengerausche - MTZ 31 (1970) 4.
-
/11/ Bureau Veritas "Noise on Board Ships";

1971
6.69
NI 174 - RD3/CN3,
Paris
/12/ Engine noise - Practicalities and prediction

part 1 M.D. Crocker - Hardware evaluation
part 2 A.J. Tyrrell and M.D. Croker
part 3 S.M. Kirkup, D.J. Henwood and R.J. Tyrrel
- Noise prediction using the boundary element method
- Noise and vibration conference 1987.
/13/ Heckl,
M.;
H.A. Muller; "Tascherbuch der Technische Akustik",

Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg - New-York, 1975.
6.70
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1) S. M. KIRKUP, D. S. HENWOOD and R. J. TYRRELL
Prediction of the effect of engine noise shields using a combination of boundary, shell and finite elements
Brighton Polytechnic, Sept. 1989
2) S. M. KIRKUP, R. J. TYRRELL and 0. J. HENWOOD
Computational Techniques for engine noise prediction
Brighton Polytechnic, Sept. 1989
3) H. L. PULLEN - S, D, HADDAD
The effect of piston slap on the noise and vibration of diesel
engines
British Acoustical Soc. 1974
4) SKOBTSOV
Methods of reducing vibration and
noise
in Diesel
vol.)
Univ. Manchester 1966
5) S. A. PETRUSEVVICZ - D.K. LONGMORE
Noise and vibration control for industrialists
Elek Science London 1974
6) W. T. THOMSON
Theory of vibration with applications
G. Allen & Unvin 1981
7) TIMOSHENKO
Vibration Problems in Enginering
Ed. Van Nostrand Canada 1985
8) Diesel Engine Noise Conference
Proceeding P-80
Detroit 1979
6.71
engines
(2
9) L. BERANEK
Noise reduction
Mc Graw Hill 1960
10)
Proceedings of Noise - CON 83 - Quieting the noise source

Cambridge 83
11)
C. M. HARRIS
Handbook of Noise Control
Mc Graw Hill 1957
12)
HARRIS - CREDE
Shock and vibration handbook (3 vol)
Mc Graw Hill 1961
13)
NATKE
Identification of vibration source
Springer Verlag 1982
14)
V. SKORECKI
Vibration and noise of diesel engines
ASME 1963
15)
Noise reduction of machinery installation by vibration isolation

Comett 1989
6.72
LESSON
7
16th WEGEMT SCHOOL
SESSION
CHAPTER
LESSON
Noise and Vibration

2. MAIN NOISE AND VIBRATION SOURCE
7. Heating, Ventilation, Air-conditioning Systems
(HVAC)
TEACHER
COMPANY
Pasquale CALCAGNO
CETENA
Via al Molo Giano (Calata Grazie)
16126 Genova
COUNTRY
ITALY
ABSTRACT
Fans are a major source of noise in any air conditioning

system.
However, they are not the only source of noise in a duct
distribution system.
Airflow through elbows, dampers, takeoffs, mixing boxes
and even sound traps to name a few, produce their own
sound (self noise).
All these components in a duct distribution system will
be considered, in order to define their noise output and,
to show the best approach as regards location and design.
BIOGRAPHY
P. CALCAGNO: graduated in 1982 at the University of Genoa

in Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering, he joined
CETENA in the same year..
Within the Acoustical Department, he took part in several
experimental investigation on many ships of every type.
He
took advantage of his long experience in
the
development of various acoustic plannings and in the
verification of several conditioning system for both
naval and merchant vessels.
7.1
1. INTRODUCTION
The air conditioning system, for its own
and interest several areas on the ship.
configuration,
impact
For this reason it is of decisive importance in determining

noise level in the different parts of the vessel.
The following factors are very important for the acoustic
of the air conditioning and ventilation system:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
the
the
the
the,
the
the
design
noise radiated from the fan units in the fan rooms

structure-borne noise transmitted from fans and ducts
airborne noise in trunking and sound traps
airborne noise from the suctions and the discharges
cross talk via AC-piping
All these factors are illustrated in Fig.l.

Fans are the major source of noise in any air conditioning
system.
Normally a fan consists of an electric motor connected directly
or with a driving belt to a rotating part composed by the blades
which generate the air flow; as a whole mounted in a fan housing.
It is,
however, not
distribution system.
the
only
source
of
noise
in' a
duct
Airflow through ducts, elbows or turns, branches, mixing boxes,

plena,
silencers, and even sound traps to name a few, produce
their own sound.
In this lesson, we will consider all these components in a duct
distribution system to define their noise output and, further, to
show the best approach to their location and design.
We will discuss
the system noise reduction provided by such
components in a duct system.
We will also consider the noise paths from inside the ducts to
the occupied spaces.
We intend to present a possible calculation procedure to predict
a
the
noise transmitted through a duct system including
determination of the system noise reduction, insertion loss
requirements by acoustical treatment and the local noise of some
duct components.
It is strongly advised to perform the acoustical design of the
as an early stage to smooth the way for achieving
device-system
simple and economic solutions.
7.2
2.
SOME CONSIDERATIONS: PROPER ALLOCATION OF A HVAC ROOM

The selection of equipment, their location in a vessel and the
installation is dictated by the space usage, particularly that
surrounding the equipment.
Some important considerations are as follows
1) fan rooms should
critical spaces;
be located separated and away
from
noise
2) buffer zones, which have spaces of lower acoustical priority,

should be placed between the equipment room and the more
critical spaces;
3) ductwork with sufficient space and proper location should be
provided
to
increase the attenuation if
the
natural
attenuation is insufficient to meet the requirements
3.
NOISE TRANSMISSION THROUGH DUCTS

The
steps to be taken to calculate ventilation
conditioning system noise are as follows :
1) establish the noise
criteria for
all the
and
air
critical spaces in
a ship;
2) calculate the sound power level- of the fan or

power level data from the fan manufacturer;
secure
3) calculate attenuation of all the duct elements in the

between fans and listeners;
sound
systems
4) calculate the room effect for conversion of sound power level

at the diffuser to sound pressure level at the listener's
position in that space;
5) determine the required additional attenuation needed
system to achieve the design goals;
in
the
6) select and locate the attenuation devices in the system;

7) verify
the
local noise generated by
attenuation devices and other elements;
the
air
8) isolate all vibrating elements capable to transmit

and vibration into the ship structure.
7.3
flow
noise
in
4.
FAN SOUND POWER LEVEL

A practical example is presented of a possible procedure
predict noise emitted and generated by a EVAC system.
to
The sound power level of a given fan performing at the design

fan
the
characteristics is at best obtained directly from
manufacturer.
If such data is not available from the manufacturer, the octave
band sound power levels for various fans can be estimated
utilizing one of the following equations ;originally developed by
Beranek, see ref./1/
Lw
Lw -
77 + 10 log kW + 10 log P
+ 20 log P
25 + 10 log Q
Lw - 130 + 20 log Kw
10 log Q
where:
[dB re 10 *E-12 watts]
Lw = estimated sound power level
[kW]
kW -electric motor power of the fan
[cubic meter/hour]
Q - volume flow rate
[millimeter of water]
P - total pressure
Then we must correct this level with the values obtained from the
table 1, to obtain the octave band sound power levels:
TABLE 1
SPECTRUM CORRECTION ADD

OCTAVE BAND FREQ. Hz
63
125
250
500
1000
2000
4000
B00O
Centrifugal fans
Backward curved blade
curved blade
Forward
blade
Radial
Axial
fans
-4
-2
-3
-6
-6
-5
-7
-9
7.4
-9
-13
-11
-11
-18
-12
-13
-19
-15
-16
-22
-20
-19
-25
-23
-22
-30
-26
-8
-7
-8
-11
-16
-18
Only a part of the acoustic energy generated by the fans reaches

rooms because of the inherent natural system attenuation provided
by the combined effects of energy division at branch takeoffs,
energy losses due to duct wall vibration, sound reflections at
elbows and duct outlets.
A rule of thumb allows us to say that, in most cases, noise in a
duct system of ship type dimensions can be attributed to the
following:
1) 63 Hz Octave Band: vibration isolation;
2) 125, 250 and 500 Hz: centrifugal fans, pressure reduction
devices, poor duct design causing high pressure drops with
resulting local noise;
3) 1000 Hz and higher frequencies: flow noise, diffuser noise
axial flow fan noise (Fig.2).
5.
and
LOSSES OBTAINED FROM DUCT COMPONENTS

The theory of the natural attenuation through unlined sheet metal
ducts is based on the fact that duct walls are not rigid. Some of
the sound energy is radiated through the duct walls as airborne
noise which may cause noise problems in spaces over which these
ducts run. A small part of the energy is transformed into heat
energy, e.g. via the excitation of the duct wall.
5.1
Duct Attenuation
For each section of a duct run, the attenuation is calculated by
multiplying its length of run (in meters) by the attenuation per
meter (dB/m), appropriate to the type of duct.
Attenuation per meter for various duct cross-section is given in
Fig.3.
5.2
Turns
The attenuation due to propagation of sound around turns, rounded
and square, with and without turning vanes, is given in Table 2.
5.3
Branches
At branches in the duct path, the acoustic power divides in
proportion to the ratio of open areas of the duct leaving the
branch point.
7. 5
The attenuation due to branch is given in dB by:

Attenuation
log (Area B / Area T)
-10
where
5.4
Area
Area
section area of the duct leaving the branch

point
Cross section area of the duct associated with the
transmission path of interest
-Cross
End Reflections
Not all sound energy radiates into the room. Some of it reflects
back into the ductwork and, therefore, provides an attenuation
called "End Reflection Loss'%. Attenuation due to end reflections
at duct openings into rooms is given for various diameters in
Table 3.
6.
CONVERSION OF SOUND POWER LEVEL TO SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL

It is necessary to convert the sound power level of a source to
the expected sound pressure level at some distance from the
source in the accomodation space. The sound energy reaches the
listener via a direct path and via reflected paths from various
surfaces of the space (Fig.4).
In a direct field, sound is radiated from the noise source
directly to the receiver without encountering any reflecting
The reverberant field consists of that portion of the
surface.
compartment
energy that has been reflected at the
sound
level at a
To obtain the total sound pressure
boundaries.
the
specific location in a compartment containing noise sources,
reverberant and direct field components of the total sound
pressure levels are computed separately and combined.
Expressions like the following are used for computing the
sound pressure level in each octave band due to the
compartment
reverberant sound field.,
Lp - Lw
dB re 2*10 E-S
10 log R + 16
Pascal
Where Lw is the total sound power level in each octave band due
to all noise sources in the compartment, Lp is the total octave
band sound pressure level in the reverberant field and R is the
room constant.
The determination of the sound pressure level in the direct field
of a noise source requires the knowledge of the location of the
to the noise source and the location of the
receiver related
noise source related to the compartment boundaries and to the
directivity characteristics of the source.
7.6
Lp
=Lw
20 log r + 10 log Q-
dB re 2*10 E-5
Pascal
Again Lw is the octave band sound power level of the noise source
and r is the distance in feet between the acoustic center of the
noise source and the receiver. The term, Q, is called the
directivity factor of the noise source, and (in this document) is
equal to 2, 4, or 8 depending on whether the noise source
(assumed to be deck-mounted and radiating sound uniformly in all
directions) is located near the center of the compartment.
against a bulkhead, or in a corner.
7.
SOME NOISE REDUCTIONS

In
this chapter
described.
7.1
various
methods
for
noise
reduction
are
EFFECT OF DUCT LINING

Acoustical duct linings in a duct system have the advantage of
providing thermal insulation as well as sound absorption.
The acoustical performance of internal duct lining depends
principally on the thickness of the lining and on its length.
A classical attenuation of internal lining per meter for various
duct cross-section is given in Fig.5.
In many systems- with large sized ducts, it is necessary to
acoustically line long lengths of duct to obtain adequate
attenuation.The empirical equations for duct lining provide less
accurate results
for large ducts.
7.2
EFFECT OF SILENCERS
Silencers refer to special sections in ducts in which the
propagating sound is exposed to sound-absorptive materials and
dissipate acoustic energy. The fundamental principle is the same
as in the case of an acoustically lined duct. An example of
silencer attenuation is reported in Fig.6.
A silencer is mostly applied and designed as the final measure to
fulfill
the requirements, both for intake
(deck surface) and
exhaust (cabin and accomodation).
7.3
AIR TERMINAL DEVICES

The final components to be considered in a duct system
diffuser and/or termination device.
are
the
Any acoustical treatment upstream of the terminal device will not

be effective if the diffuser is noisy, and if the terminal device
is
treated as a plenum (a box internally lined with acoustical
absorbent material) a considerable attenuation will be obtained.
7.7
8.
NOISE GENERATED BY AIRFLOW IN DUCT ELEMENTS

So far, we have considered the natural attenuation which
in a duct system.
occurs
Unfortunately, the same components (elbows, dampers. takeoffs,

silencers, etc.) which attenuate sound as the air moves through
the duct, may also generate their own noise.
Care must be taken to ensure that duct velocities are low enough
to achieve the design goals. Fittings, takeoffs, etc., should be
designed for low turbulence.
An example is reported in Fig.6.
9.
MACHINERY ROOM VENTILATION

The ventilation system for machinery room and sometimes for cargo
hold, car deck etc .., may be of large capacity and thus show high
noise source levels.
by
these
Requirements
for on board compartements served
less stringent than for accomodation spaces
installation are
leading to realistic noise control measures.
However, the intake and exhaust openings on the open decks may
Constitute a special problem when located close to sensitive
areas
such as bridge wings, crew and passanger leisure spaces,
are
and other areas where communication and noise annoyance
important aspects.
It is selfevident that suitable measures must be selected also
for the on-deck openings of other ventilation systems.
deck housing
The deck opening and the configuration of decks,
ospherical
may cause a considerable deviation from
etc..
thus requiring additional investigations of the
spreading" ,
actual system.
10.
NOISE FROM FAN INLETS AND OUTLETS

For all fans, whether used in ventilation or cooling plants the
orientation of the outlet (or inlet) can alter the radiation of
its
The effect depends on the size of the outlet,
noise.
position, and the angle between the outlet and the observer:
generally small outlets will radiate equally in all directions,
whereas large outlets have a strong directional characteristic on
outlets and
their axis. This means that, wherever possible,
inlets should be sited so that they point at 45 degrees or
greater away from critical areas.
7.8
11.
CLOSING REMARKS
A worksheet illustrating a calculation scheme used in a practical
case is reported in Fig.7 and Fig.8, as a synthesis of the whole
lesson.
Furthermore it is emphasized upon that many high-class HVAC-firms
are fully capable to perform all acoustic design calculation for
their systems in a reliable way.
Most firms are able to and willing to accept the various noise
requirements as firm requirements in a contract with penalty
clauses and/or full obligation to cure excesses.
7.9
BIBLIOGRAPHY
/1
BERANEK L.
Noise and Vibration Control
Mc Graw-HillNew York
/2
SHARLAND J.
Pratical Guide to Noise Control
Woods,London
/3
/ IQBAL
M.A.,WILLSON.T.K.,THOMAS R.J.
The Control of Noise in Ventilation System
Atkins Research and Development,Spon,London
/4
CREMER L..HECKL M.,UNGAR E.E.

Structure-Borne Sound
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New-York
/5
KINSLER L.E.,FREY A.R.,COPPENS A.B.,SANDERS J.V.

Fundamentals of Acoustics
Wiley J.& Sons New-York
/6
AUTHORS
from S.N.A.M.E
Design Guide for Shipboard Airborne Noise Control
Technical & Research Bulletin No. 3-37
/7
HARRIS C.M.
Handbook of Noise Control
Mc Graw-Hill,New-York
/8
HARRIS C.M.,CREDE C.E.

Shock and Vibration Handbook
Mc Graw-Hill,New-York
/9
NORWEGIAN COUNCIL FOR TECHNICAL AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH ( NTNF

Noise Control in Ships
NTNF Oslo
/10/ KNUDSEN V.O.,HARRIS C.M.

Acoustical Designing in Architecture
Acoustical Society of America
/11/ ALZIATI A.
Acustica Ambientale e Insonorizzazioni
Etas Libri
/12/ RUMOR C.,STROHMENGER G.
Riscaldamento Ventilazione Condizionamento
7 .10
Hoepli
/13/ HECKL M.,MULLER H.A.
Taschenbuch der Technishen Akustik
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New-York
/14/ FASOLD W.,KRAAK W.,SCHIRMER W
Taschenbuch Akustik
Veb Verlag Technik Berlin
7.11
\q.I
0
7.12
as
7.13
17W 1111-H-'
TT~ti-hI[J IHI12Y
2j
11 'T11
hi I Ii I lii'~
jY M1fl' 1'-21
it 1
i
ii
f it1 1 1i
98
![-
C>
C>
co
7-14
ldI-
CDC,0
TABLE 2
ATTENUATION FOR LINED AND UNLINED DUCT TURNS.
Interior duct
dimensaon
D (cm)*
Octave band coter frequency (Hz)

31.5
63
125
250
500
1000
Unlined round
turns or square
turns wit vanes
12.5-25
26-50
51-100
101-200
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
2
0
1
2
3
1
2
3
3
Turns followed
by at least 3 D
or more inside
lning of 0.1 D
hcknesses
12.5-25
26-50
51-100
101-200
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
2
0
1
2
3
1
2
3
4
2
3
4
5
3
4
5
6
2000 4000
8000
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
6
6
8
6
8
8
10
8
10
10
12
"Dis i.d. of drculer duct or minor dirnonsiou of rectangular duct.
TABLE 3
ATTENUATION IN dB DUE TO END REFLECTION.
Round duct dianeter

or effective 6amneter
of rectangular duct
1cm)
31.5
63
125
250
12.5-25
26-50
51-100
101-200
200-400
21
16
12
8
4
17
12
8
4
1
13
8
4
1
0
8
4
1
0
0
Octave band center frequency (Hz)
7.15
500 1000 2000 4000 8000

4
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
UNLINED DUCT ATTENUATION

m
Antenahuon in dB per
0.06
Q00
D
I-*
&.06
0.01
____i
31.5
125
63
4000
(KV
44-61
6-43
S12.5 -725
123f-178[cm]
.90-122
.... 62-89
low
sm
250
0.& Camer Freq. (H"z)
FIG.
ATTENUATION
5 cm INSIDE LINING DUCT
in dB per m
Alenuadot
1-5
SD
31.3
63
125
500
250
lo00
m00
4000
8000
O.& Cater Freq. (-)

12.5-25
-..0-6._89
44-61
27-43
90_-122
7.!16
12:3-178 [am)
FIG.
'3
(5
C-
.2
7.17
losedlion Loss DE (dBj per octave

2205
2450
'W6
so
50
470
1715
%22S
5M
250
4W a
2(=
100
20.
.430
25
eeo
'A
.50
_t
In
L; [-
-2
300
0
.0
300
0-
20
..
20..
20t
6o*
200
20gneae
f0
60
"0 0
Noe
pe
LW
'0
-l
.d~
toa B.
Reatm3
wwathoto
H.
(dBJ 006 OctWaDveBcl

L%tw
0.255
0-
0.7
1,0
1~5~L 20
wi
05p.al0
At~~~~~"W''
[m'p
0
,
CovvtcV~~~~~~~~~~~~slFG
. 0.5
(m
2Iejoi
PegnuW
Uti!V"
SwIo
ofw~
Sound stout"
based onI t
6.
an
rYl~#
t W
7.-18c
tte .
---
Lg
ma
o.oaJlc
on
+6
_5
Omoundr
The~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
,4
4.0
3.
ddd
6~
CETENA S.P.A.
GENOA
INVESTIGATED ROOM: 2 PASS STD

MACHINERY TYPE: AC 404 M
CENTRE FREQUENCY OCTAVE BAND
Hz
MACHINERY POWER
63
125 250 1500 1000l2000140008000
199
195
89
186
.8
178
175
72
-12
-18
-18
PLENUM
SILENCER
TURN ATTENUATION
INSULATED TURNS
NOT INSULATED TURNS
j-6 1
DUCT ATTENUATION
INSULATED DUCTS
NOT INSULATED DUCTS
-5
-5
-2
-2
-2
-2
-2
-2
BRANCH N. 1
BRANCH N. 2
-.2
.-5
-.2
1-5
1-2
1-5
1-2
1-5
-2
1-5
1-2
1-5
1-2
1-5
-2
-5
TERMINAL DEVICE
1-4
1-4
1-2
-2
1-3
1-3
1-3
1-3
END REFLECTION
1-8
1-4
-1
TOTAL ATTENUATION
1-24 1-20
-13 1-12
-18
-24
-30
-30.
TOTAL POWER
175
175
176
174
165
54
45
42
DIRECT PRESSURE
169
169
171
169
159
148
139
136
REVERBERANT PRESSURE
169
172
169
66
!56
45
36
34
. 172
74
73
71
61
41
179
174
171
168
;66
165
164
763
TOTAL PRESSURE
REQUESTED VALUES
* The attenuation due to turns is calcutated measuring the interior duct dimension.
The attenuation due to ducts is calcula'3d by multiplying the lenght of run (in feet ) by the
attenuation per foot ( dB.tt) for each section of duct run.
FIG. 7
7.19
CETENA SPA.
GENOA
INVESTIGATED ROOM: 2 PASS ST)

MACHINERY TYPE: AC 404 M
,CENTRE FREOUENCY OCTAVE BAND
Hz 163
1125 250 1500 1000120001W4018000<
MACHINERY POWER
199
195
189
186
183
178
175
772
PLENUM
1-5
1-5
1-5
1-6
1-6
1-7
1-7
1-7
SILENCER
TURN ATTENUATION
INSULATED TURNS
NOT INSULATED TURNS
-2-6
-12
-12
.
-16
-12
DUCT ATTENUATION
-3
-3
-14
-23 1-34
.34
-28
-23
-3
-3
-2
-2 1-1
-1
-1
-1
-2
-2
1-2 1-2
-_5
1-2
-
-2
-5
1-2
-5
1-2
.5
TERMINAL DEVICE
1-4
-4
1-2
1-2
1-3
-3
END REFLECTION
-8
-4
-1
TOTAL ATTENUATION
-31 128 1-33
TOTAL POWER
68
67
DIRECT PRESSURE
163
INSULATED DUCTS
3.50
NOT INSULATED DUCTS
12.00
BRANCH N. 1
BRANCH N. 2
______________
REVERBERANT PRESSURE
TOTAL PRESSURE
REQUESTED VALUES
1-70
-44
-62 1-69 1-71
56
42
12
162
51
36
15S-3
-1
-3
62
F65
149
134
112
10
-4
-6
67
53
138
117
15
11
-1
179
174
171
168
166
165
164
19
14
12
F63
* The attenuation due to turns is calculated measuring the interior duct dimension.
*"The attenuation due to ducts is calculated by multiplying the lenght of run ( in feet ) by the
attenuation per foot ( dBMt ) for each section of duct run.
We have considered plenum and 3.50 mt duct internally insulated with 25mm of fiber-glass
FIG.
7 . 20
LESSON
16th WEGEMT SCHOOL
SESSION
CHAPTER
LESSON
TEACHER
COMPANY
COUNTRY
Noise and Vibration

2. MAIN NOISE AND VIBRATION SOURCES
8. Ship Flow Noise
Giovanni CAPRINO
CETENA
Via al Molb Giano (Calata Grazie)
16126 Genova
ITALY
ABSTRACT
The present lesson is addressed to give a comprehensive

overview of flow noise phenomenon.
It contains a description of the basic physical sources
and an illustration of the hydrodynamic characteristics.
In
addition a survey of the available theoretical
methodologies to predict flow noise is included along
with a review of the possible interventions to reduce it.
BIOGRAPHY
Giovanni Caprino was born in Rome on November 1957.

In 1983 he graduated in Naval Architecture at Genova
University.
He
joined CETENA Hydrodynamic Department as junior
researcher since 1983.
He
was first charged with
development of CFD programs and later involved in hull
and propeller design problems.
He was also experienced in full-scale as well as modelscale trials mainly concerning resistance and propulsion
topics.
He was head of Propulsion and Resistance Office since
1987 and he is now responsible for the Hydrodynamic
Department since 1989.
Since 1991 he is member of the ITTC Propulsor Committee.
8.I
1.
INTRODUCTION
Flow noise role among the different

ship noise sources
The physical sources of ship generated noise in

divided into three groups:'
-
noise associated with hull vibrations
propeller generated noise
flow generated noise
underwater
water
may
be
The first phenomenon is related to the acoustic radiation from a

submerged vibrating structure.
The small, quick displacements of the hull surface,
mechanically
induced by the vibrations of the machinery, cause a system of
compression waves to propagate in the water away from the
structure.
In principle it is a fluid-structure interaction problem as it
involves the mutual behaviour of the hull structure and
the
surrounding water.
The other two phenomena are hydrodynamic in nature, as they only
concern the flow characteristics around ship hull or propeller.
As -regards propeller generated noise,
it
is possible to devise
further subdivision of the relevant physical effects:

-
the fluid disturbance due to the blades rotation
the cavitation formation at the propeller
These two noise sources differ both qualitatively, being related

to two diverse physical phenomena,
and quantitatively,
their
noise level being significatively different.
As regards the first source, the acoustic emission is caused by
the fluctuating pressure field induced by the periodic rotation
of the propeller blades.
The noise level is quite low, due also to the sharp decay with
distance characteristic of this kind of source.
The second source is related to the collapsing of the vapour
bubbles which are generated by the strong pressure variations
near the propeller. It is a transient phenomenon giving locally
rise to extremely high pressure peaks.
Due to the fact that the corresponding noise level is
important
and the acoustic emission has a good radiation efficiency,
cavitation noise is predominant with respect to blade noise.
Noise emission associated with flow around ship hull is a complex
phenomenon to which a number of different physical effects does
contribute.
8.2
It
is
however
possible
to
identify
two
main
physical
contributions to flow generated noise:

-
turbulence
vortex shedding
The first phenomenon is due to the highly-oscillating fluid

pressures associated with the formation of irregular micro-eddies
within a very limited region (turbulent boundary-layer) near hull
surface and is closely related to the viscous nature of the
fluid.
To this regard it must be stressed that the pressure fluctuations
within the eddies give rise to sound only if they come in Contact
with the sensitive area of a hydrophone. They do not propagate,
and they represent the so-called "near-field". That part of the
pressure fluctuations which is able to couple to the propagating
modes of the acoustical field, constitutes true sound and
radiates to great-'distances. They represent the so-called "farfield'.
Regarding near field, it shuold be noted that the fluctuating
pressures associated with turbulent boundary-layer may excite
flexural vibrations of the walls and that in their turn these
vibrations radiate sound. When flush-mounted hydrophones are
involved,
this phenomenon is denominated pseudo-sound or selfnoise.
In gneral near-field is relevant for the acoustical performance
of flush mounted sensors while far-field affects, together with
the other noise sources, the acoustic signature of the vessel.
To avoid the pseudo-sound problem, most sonar receivers are
located inside thin domes devoted to isolate them from the
turbulence whithout disturbing their acoustic operations.
Nevertheless turbulence induce flexural vibrations of the dome
structure and these vibrations, together with their radiated
noise,
are the dominant mechanism through which flow noise is
received.
To understand the second of the two previously mentioned main
sources of flow generated noise, that is the
vortex shedding
phenomenon, it must be pointed out that the turbulent wakes of
most bodies contain relatively strong vortices associated with
oscillating
fluid
pressures and consequently
with
sound
radiation. Vortex effects have been studied extensively in
aeronautical, mechanical, civil and hydraulic engineering.
As regards in particular ship flow noise, they are relevant for
the presence of hull appendages (such as bilge-keels or anti-roll
fins). A related phenomenon is that of flow-excited cavity
resonances, when vortices shed by flow past a cavity mouth excite
resonances of the cavity strengthening the vortex pattern and
*producing high pressures..
8.3
The present lesson is however devoted to deal with

noise associated with turbulence, so that hereafter
noise it will be intended turbulence flow noise.
ship
with
flow
flow
Flow generated noise, blade noise and cavitation noise can be

mathematically modelled as a quadrupole, a dipole and a monopole
fluid source (see Fig. 1).
On this assumption it is possible to derive the
pressure field once the source intensity is known.
For each of these sources the relation:
corresponding
(a)
RAD
holds,. connecting the radiation efficiency with the Mach number.
The
exponent m is
5 for the quadrupole,
3 for the dipole
and
for the monopole.

As in ship hydrodynamic Mach number is low, radiation efficiency
is highly different for the above three models. As a consequence
the fluid domains, within which the corresponding noise sources
are important, are well distinct.
In particular acoustic emission from the propeller due to
cavitation is significative also far away from the vehicle, while
flow generated noise is limited to a narrow zone around the hull.
Due
to these theorical considerations, well
assessed
experimental
results,
flow noise is often neglected in
practice when analyzing the noise level of a marine vehicle.
Nevertheless
far as the
concerned.
by
the
flow generated noise is of paramount importance as

efficiency of acoustic sensors on the hull is
Another relevant effect are local vibrations of hull structure

induced by the fluctuating pressures subsequently giving rise to
flow noise.
In the following sections an outline will be given of all the
relevant topics, including the nature of the phenomenon, the main
physical features, the mathematical modelling, the provisional
methodologies and the experimental evidence.
Finally emphasis will be given to the problem of how
flow noise.
to
reduce
To this scope the basic parameters affecting flow noise will *be
analyzed and the possible reduction interventions discussed.
8.4
2.
PaISICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE PHENOMENON
Flow generated noise is intimately connected with the viscous

nature of the fluid flaw and the related concept of boundary
layer.
To achieve a better understanding of the specific problem of fiow
noise, it is therefore convenient to give in advance a short
description of viscous phenomena in fluid flow.
Classical theoretical hydrodynamics reached in the last century a
high degree of completeness from the concept of an ideal or
perfect fluid, that is frictionless and incompressible.
The complete equations of viscous flow, the
Navier-Stokes
equations,
were well known but the involved
mathematical
difficulties constituted an insormountable obstacle to
their
theoretical treatment except for few particular cases.
As a matter of fact a direct approach to the complete NavierStokes has been possible only in very recent years with the
advent of high speed digital computers.
It
was Prandtl at the beginning of the present century who
succeeded in giving a physical insight of the viscous flow
phenomena,
achieving at the same time a great simplification of
the underlying mathematical difficulties.
He formulated, and verified experimentally,
the boundary-layer
theory, stating that the flow around a submerged body can be
divided into two regions characterized by sharply different flow
behaviour: a very thin layer near the body, where friction is
predominant, and the remaining outside region, where friction may
be neglected.
Boundary-layer theory was first developed in the simple case of
laminar flow.
Later the formulation was extended to include turbulent boundary
layer,
which is far more important for practical applications
such as for istance flow noise phenomenon.
In fact it is the local vorticity in the turbulent boundary-layer
flow
to cause the rapidly varying
pressure
fluctuations
responsible for flow noise generation.
2.1.
Basic hydrodynamic concepts related to flow noise origin
If a fluid were completely inviscid the condition of no slip near

a solid wall would not be satisfied, but even a little amount of
viscosity gives rise to a tangential shearing stress which fixes
the fluid velocity on the wall equal to zero.
This means that frictional forces retard up to a certain extent
the motion of the fluid near the wall.
The region were viscous
effects slow down the fluid velocity from its undisturbed value
to zero is called boundary layer.
8.5
In the figure below you can see the velocity profile for the flow
along a thin flat plate:
TRANSITION
1)e
LAMItNAR
. I
T BULENT
Re
1
From the picture it appears that a very thin layer exists in
which the fluid velocity varies significatively approaching the
wall from its undisturbed value up to zero.

The thickness of this boundary layer increases along the plate in
the direction of the incoming flow.
Until
the flow velocity is moderate the fluid motion inside
the
boundary layer is laminar, that is fluid laminae slide over each

other and there is no transverse velocity components.
By increasing the flow velocity it is possible to reach a stage
when the fluid particles cease to move along straight lines and
the regularity of the motion breaks down.
Irregular transverse fluctuations superimpose to the mean flow.
Such a flow pattern is called turbulent. Experimental evidence
shows that the transition from laminar to. turbulent type of
motion takes place at a definite value of the Reynolds number,
called critical Reynolds number.
As a consequence the boundary layer near a plate is laminar near
the leading edge and becomes turbulent further downstream.
2.2. Turbulent flow characteristics
It's not easy to define exactly the boundary layer thickness. In
common practice it is described by various quantities, with
reference to above flat plate case, such as the displacement
thickness:
tf-
(i.
dz
8U
.
8.6
and the momentum thickness:
eta
[1~
7-U..
--dz
where U is the local fluid velocity within the boundary-layer. U

is the undisturbed flow velocity and x the abscissa along the
plate.
The boundary layer is divided into two main regions:
region and the outer region (see Fig. 2).
the
inner
The intermediate zone between these two domains is often referred

as blending region.
The inner region is ruled by a local
furtherly divided into three zones:
wall
law
and
can
be
the laminar sub-layer, close to the wall, where viscous effects

rule fluid behaviour.
the buffer zone,

turbulent shears.
the turbulent zone, where turbulence level is due to the

wall law.
in which there are both viscous
The outer region is a zone of turbulent flow where

related to the normal distance from the wall by:
forces
and
local
velocity
is
U-
To have a closer view of flow noise source one must study

random phenomena which take place both in the inner and in
outer regions.
two
the
The former is due to the irregular shape of the border region

between the boundary layer and the undisturbed flow (see Fig. 3).
Thus a fluid particle outside the boundary layer will move in the
turbulent zone only for a short period which decreases as the
particles moves far from the solid surface.
8.7
The latter effect is due to the quasi-periodic vortexes which are

created in the buffer zone and increase turbulent effects and
sharp pressure gradients.
Landahl in 1975 estabilished that the bursting feature of this
vorticity is the leading source of high frequency flow noise.
3. PREDICTIONAL METHODOLOGY
This section is devoted to reviewing the previsional means which
are presently available for the analysis of flow generated flow.
Experimental results being scarce and not easily available,
best approach is the theoretical evaluation.
the
Due the physical complexity of the relevant phenomena, a purely

theoretical prediction is not still at hand and one has however
to rely on some experimental data.
The usual procedure is to perform a theoretical analysis of the
boundary layer flow by means of some computational methodology
and then to correlate the main parameters of the boundary layer
with the flow noise level on the basis of semi-empirical
formulations.
3.1. Numerical procedures for boundary layer analysis
Available numerical procedures for the analysis of boundary layer
flow are mostly based on the methodology originally formulated by
Cebeci.
First we observe that on thin boundary-layer assumption it is
possible to greatly simplify the complete Navier-Stokes equations
obtaining the Prandtl boundary-layer equations.
They constitute a set of parabolic equations with respect to the
coordinate, whereas Navier-Stokes equations are of elliptic type.
As a consequence their numerical solution. requires a step-by-step
integration technique along the mean flow direction, starting
from the bow and proceeding downstream up to the stern.
The initial condition at the bow is found by analogy
two-dimensional flow along a flat plate.
with
the
The proper boundary conditions at the blending region between the

boundary layer and the outer region are derived assuming the
external flow to be inviscid.
Classical potential flow codes based on Hess-Smith procedure can
be used to obtain the fluid behaviour around the hull on inviscid
flow hypothesis.
8.8
According to Cebeci's methodology, the partial differential

equations governing boundary-layer flow are thence numerically
solved
by finite difference methods using
a
curvilinear
coordinate system associated with the hull geometry.
To account for turbulence within the boundary layer, the
eddyviscosity formulation of Cebeci is adopted to define
the
turbulence model which gives the closure of the flow equations.
3.2. Correlation between hydrodynamic results and flow noise
The fundamental problem is to calculate these
fluctuating
pressures inside the boundary layer.
As many measures were carried out, the data available
in
litterature can be exploited to achieve a theoretical prediction
of pressure values.
An experimental approach to this problem was made by Blake
whose
experiments supply the results used to the calculation
of
turbulent flow noise.
Let's skip the description of the experimental apparatus
and the
elaboration of the data but focus our attention on the results
to
look for the informations we need.
In Fig. 4 wall-pressure spectral density
plotted, in its non dimensional form:
function
where w is the fluctuation frequency and q

pressure.
I(w)
is
is the dynamic
h
The figure shows that experimental measures are influenced

by the
size of the sensor, as one can see from the curves derived
from
several experiments, for different values of d/I6,
where d is the
sensor diameter.
In the scope of comparison, the corresponding results
obtained
by other researchers are also reported.
For practical purposes one can extrapolate
curve from the figure above, for d/4v -->0.
non
dimensional
If one knows the values of fo, the cut frequency w

can be
achieved and for this value the spectral function 0(w) is
easily
calculated.
8.9
Once the value of 4(w) is known, flow noise level in decibel is:
L - 10 log -------/P0
where P
-10
Pa/
Juz
is the value of reference pressure.
It must be beared in mind that the main limitation of this

predictional procedure regards not the theoretical estimation of
the flow characteristics, as present hydrodynamic methodologies
give reliable results for that, but consists basically in the
close dependency of the correlation technique on empirical data,
so that considerations which hold for particular conditions are
often extrapolated outside their original range.
4. FLOW NOISE REDUCTION
As flow noise is ineherently related to the behaviour of the
fluid
around the vehicle, let us recall with the aid of Fig. 6
the features of the flow around a body immersed in an otherwise
undisturbed uniform flow.
Transition
Laminar
Turbulent
BonayLayer
Uniform M
Fig. 6. Boundary-layer flow around a submerged body

The fluid behaviour in the whole domain F is governed by inviscid
forces apart a very thin region close the body surface, where
viscosity is dominant.
8.*IC
Upstream point A the flow is uniform, in the region AB the flow

is laminar, in the region BE' we have transition between laminar
and turbulent flow while in the region B'C the boundary layer
becomes fully turbulent.
In the region CC' the turbulent boundary layer separates from the
body surface and the region C'DE is a fully separated turbulent
wake.
On the other hand flow noise is related to the unsteady
generation of micro-eddies in the turbulent boundary layer near
the body surface.
The idea of flow noise reduction is therefore modifying the body
geometry in order to positively affect the turbulent boundary
layer formation.
As acoustic sensors are generally placed near the bow, A, an
effective reduction of flow noise level is achieved moving the
transition region. BE', as far as possible in the downstreamwise
direction.
This can be done by properly designing the hull forms. To give a
practical example we illustrate in Figs. 7 and 8 two different
kinds of self-powered underwater axisymmetric bodies.
The first one (Fig. 7) is designed to operate with a completely
turbulent boundary layer,
while the second one (Fig.
8)
is
designed for the maximum extent of laminar boundary layer.
In the latter case the laminar flow region AB extends in fact up
to the point of maximum diameter that is located by about 2/3 of
the total lenght.
A way of reducing flow noise without affecting the whole hull
design is through local changes in the body geometry.
Nevertheless the inherent viscous nature of flow noise,
it is
possible to derive practical suggestions on flow noise reduction
through the use of potential flow calculations just looking at
the behaviour of the streamlines along the hull: a sharper
behaviour of the potential flow streamlines is associated with
sharper pressure jumps and consequently with a more irregular
behaviour of the real flow and a higher flow noise level.
An example is
given in Figg. 9 - 10,
where two different
connections of a submarine turret to the main hull are shown
along with the streamlines behaviour on the body surface obtained
by a numerical potential flow calculation (6].
Fig. 9 illustrates the results for a smooth arrangement (Arr. A),
while Fig. 10 for a sharp one (Arr. B).
As it
can be seen, the sharp arrangement present a much more
irregular behaviour of the streamlines.
In
Fig. 11 the theoretical predictions [6] of flow noise level
for a chosen section of the two arrangements are given.
It can be easily seen that the smooth arrangement is associated
with a lower noise level along the whole girthwise direction.
8.11
References
Id/ D.ROSS
@Mechanics of Under Water Noise" Pergamon Press (1976)
/2! W.K. BLAYE

wAero-Hydro
/5/
Acustics
for
Shipsa
DTNSRDC - 84/010 (1984)
W. Blake.
'Turbulent Boundary-Layer Wall Pressure
Smooth and Rough Vallse
pp. 637-660
J. Fluid Mech., vol.44
Fluctuations
on
/4/
T. Cebeci, K.C. Chang. K. Kaups

*A Genaral Method for Calculating Three Dimensional Laminar
and Turbulent Boundary Layers on Ship Hulls'
DOUGLAS AIRCRAFT COMPANY, Report n MDC J 7998, October '78
/5/
L. Bromberg, G. Bark,
FINCANTIERI, Report on the Flow Calculations
Report SSPA n.4716 - 1, April '87.
/6/
G.Caprino, M.Sansalone, D.Succio

"Applicazione dell'idrodinamica numerica nello studio
due diverse soluzioni per una carena di sonmergibileO
CETENA Rep. N. 3056, December 1987.
8.12
di
uon~otI
En Add+,.
H.1 Add
I
VOgn.
04PAOAOLE
Dmonmo
SoU..aI
Ie
1_ooA,
RADIATION
EFFICIENCY
MATHEMATICAL
MODEL
SOURCE
TYPE
5
FLOW
TURBULENCE
QUADRUPOLE
Ma
DIPOLE
me
MONOPOLE
Ma
3
BLADE PRESSURE
CAVITATION
LOG. (rad)
~Dipole
Quadrupole
Monopole
marine
applications: Maccl
Fig. 1
8.13
LOG.(Ma)
20.404:1
St
A401
V(LtOCD1y
IXNG"f L
umiuly SMCAA
M
f Is$
AIGICAG
a.Gft7
LENGTH
0.p2A
saM
eIaf G.f
M'NtA
4AY?
MII.M "
t",77777
Jiffrn
inte,
L.
veoct
regionsC
Flo
ubuet
lt
LAKATUVtAWR
4uI
30_______________
a - ~AA
giospoeriso
ltetrblntAL
~
AL~sI
imLGtfk.
.
.IS
TIV ISr
BA rii
t
LZO
.LY (LCGARIT11uIIC
OUE
10
AE
SCALE)
Regions of a turbulent boundary layer. Outer-layer profile shown is for u6
Fig. 2
8.14
consi.
FLOW DIRECTION
y" 6
SIIRFACE
1/111111//1111///////I///////////////////////I/I/II
/'///////////////
/
Interface between turbulent and nonturbulent Nluid in a boundary layer (sde view,
traced from a smoke photograph).
1.0
0.0
0.6
0.0
0.4
0.2
0.4
0.6
l.k
1.0
0.8
I.,
y/6
Intermittency distribution across a turbulent boundary layer in zero prcs:ure gradienr,
according to the data of Klebanoff (1955). Data reprasent three different techniques of
measurement.
Fig.
8.15
-40
-Bun (1963)drP-O3
-50
Willmarth A
dV(3
- -Its~
Schl~oee
16)(92
ixkt
-900
-81
Pressure spectrum for flat plate

Fig. 4
Mt
H
t
..
!Il
Fig. 581
fill
,am t~I:
m;J::
i
,.T;
0-
Fig. 7. Turbulent flow body
Fig.
Laminar
----------------------
.,...... ......
,"
7#,
Fig. 9. Streamlines behaviour- frArrangement -A.
Fig.
10. Streamlines behaviour for Arrangement B.
8.17
flow body
EN-
C
CI
-----
K ----
00
II
II
8)--.
I
I.
,__2.s
r4
C-.
--
GI RTH
2Ar1
N-Arr.-
8.-
Oo
-0
0
LESSON 9
16th WEGEMT SCHOOL
SESSION
CHAPTER
LESSON
:
.
2.
9.
Noise and Vibration

MAIN NOISE AND VIBRATION SOURCES
Exhaust systems
TEACHER
COMPANY
H.F. Steenhoek
TNO Institute of Applied Physics
Ship Acoustics Department
P.O. BOX 155
2600 AD DELFT
The Netherlands
COUNTRY
The NETHERLANDS
ABSTRACT
In this lesson the major aspects of the acoustical performance of exhaust systems for
internal combustion engines are elucidated. A concise description of the exhaust source is
given and the attenuation characteristics of several types of silencers are described. Finally
the influence of the radiation of the exhaust opening and the presence of the funnel are
considered. Practical aspects of the reduction of the structure-borne sound transmission
from the exhaust system by resilient mounting are described in the appendix. The lesson is
a revised version of earlier papers from Mr. J.C. Vellekoop, TNO Institute of Applied
Physics.
AUTHORS' BIOGRAPHIES
Mr. H.F. Steenhoek (bom 1931), after his .education at the Royal Netherlands Naval
Academy, joined the Royal Netherlands Navy as Engineering Officer in various ranks until
1964 when he changed to TPD Ship Acoustics as civilian. Since then he specialized in
research and consultancy work in ship noise control and has been responsible for a great
number of successful navy projects. Main activities are the naval ship underwater noise
reduction, resiliently mounted propulsion plants and the integration of research and
consultancy with the specific ship design expertise. He is (co-)author of about 25
publications in various joumals and (has) contributed to many national and international
organizations, courses and projects.
9.1
INTRODUCTION
The continuous developments of the low speed two-stroke and the medium speed fourstroke diesel engines with high specific outputs have resulted mn a considerable increase
of the noise radiated from the exhaust. Especially in the wheelhous~e, on the bridge
wings and on open decks this noise is experienced as annoying. On the other hand
there is a current trend in governmental legislation to reduce the permissible levels.
Moreover a steady reduction of the available space for exhaust silencers is observed.
Therefore, in order to prevent annoyance, special acoustical measures have to be taken.
These measures mostly result in the application of one or more exhaust silencers in the
exhaust system.
The design of silencers and the prediction of acoustical performance of the total
exhaust system requires the study of the following aspects:
source level
acoustical performance of the exhaust system
radiation of the exhaust noise from the open end t6 bridge wings, open decks, etc.
In this paper these aspects will be funkier illustrated in the paragraphs 2 to 7. Some
practical aspects, including selection of silencer type, silencer dimensions, position in
exhaust system, regarding optimum design are presented in paragraphs 8 to 13.
An important aspect of exhaust systems is the structure-borne sound transmission from
the exhaust piping via the fastening points to the ship structure. Resilient mounting of
the exhaust system in the ship is an important and successful means to reduce this
transmission. Practical aspects on this subject are described in the ANNEX to this
report. Active cancellation of exhaust noise (anti-noise!) is considered as a prospective
method which, however, will not be discussed here; the reader is referred to the
specific literature on this subject.
SOURCE LEVEL
For a prediction of the exhaust noise levels the acoustic source strength of the exhaust
noise of the diesel engine is of indispensable importance.
Although other definitions of the exhaust noise source level of a diesel engine are
possible, the most obvious definition is the sound pressure level (LvP) at 1 meter
distance of the source without exhaust system.
For turbocharged diesel engines the source strength is independent of the acoustic
loading created by the connected exhaust system. Such sources may be characterized as
high impedance sources, i.e. a volume flow source located at the turbine.
For naturally aspirated diesel engines the position of the source is not precisely fixed.
Nonnally a reference position is chosen where the remaininig volume up to
cylinders/exhaust valves is considered to be integrated in a finite source impedance.
The availability of reliable source level data is gradually increasing nowadays. The
source levels may be obtained from simple test bed measurements - preferably on
engines with simple and unsilenced exhaust systems. When required, the result is
corrected by taking into account the acoustical effect of the piping system.
9.2
A mathematical calculation method to obtain the source strength from geometrical and
operational data is also available.
For turbocharged diesel engines a description of this mathematical model is given in
[1]' and [2]. This model uses the pressure directly upstreamns of the turbine as a
function of the time and the geometrical data of the turbine as basic data. However, no
extensive application is expected nowadays since it has been superseded by
measurements in the piping system.
In figure 1 an example is given of calculated source level of a medium speed engine.
For comparison also the measured source level (LP1.) is given; this spectrum has been
derived from measurements on an unsilenced exhaust system.
It seems useful to distinguish the diesel engine exhaust noise sources for three main
groups:
1. Low speed, two stroke engines (abt. 80 - 160 rpm).
2. Medium speed engines (abt. 360 - 1000 rpm).
3. "High" speed engines (>abt. 1000 rpm).
The dominant frequency range for the first category lies between ca. 10 and 250 Hz,
for the second category between 20 and 2000 Hz and for the last between 60 and
4000 Hz.
The characteristic frequency components fP of the spectrum are all harmonics of the
fundamental engine frequency and can be expressed as follows:
if = P"Hz
=1,r2, 3.....
where:
n = shaft speed (revolutions per minute) (rpm)
a
I for two-stroke engines
2 for four-stroke engines
Dominant components mostly occur when p is equal to the number of cylinders or
multiples of this number. However, intermediate values p = 0,5 and p = 1,5 may also
occur for some types of engines. For V-type engines each bank of cylinders shows the
performance as described; the total pattern dependes on major set-up of those engines.
The magnitude of the levels is mainly related to the effective pressure of the engine
and consequently to the actual mechanical output.
For diesel engines with a variable engine speed (which very often occurs with low
speed and medium speed propulsion engines) the important components cover a wide
frequency band. In that case the exhaust silencer must be designed in such a way that
the attenuation is adequate in this whole frequency range.
The source strength for higher frequencies (octave bands with center frequency of 250
1See
reference list
following paragraph 13.2.

9.3
Hz and higher) may be regarded as a continuous wide band noise spectrum since each
octave band covers a large range of pure tones. Source level data for these higher
frequencies are mostly obtained on the bases of measurements.
GENERAL METHODS OF EXHAUST NOISE REDUCTION
There are three principal methods to reduce the exhaust noise which can be applied on
board of ships:
1. Energy loss by friction (dissipative mufflers).
2. Sound wave reflection (reactive mufflers).
3. Water injection and screening (water-locked mufflers).
The possibilities of active cancellation ("anti noise") is mentioned here but not further
discussed.
Energy loss by friction
3.1
The reduction of the sound wave energy by friction in a piping system can be achieved
by the application of interior surface covered'with porous acoustical material. The
sound energy is transferred into heat energy by friction.
Reflection of sound waves
3.2
The sound energy emitted into the atmosphere can be reduced by reflection of the
exhaust pulses back into the exhaust system. When a sound wave travelling through a
duct arrives at a discontinuity where the acoustical impedance is either considerably
higher or lower than the characteristic impedance of the duct, only a small fraction of
the acoustical energy can flow through the discontinuity. The remaining energy goes
into a reflected wave that originates at the discontinuity and travels back towards the
source. Thus the transmission of sound energy can be reduced by creating sudden
discontinuities; the discontinuities themselves do not actually contribute to any energy
conversion (i.e. in heat).
Water injection and screening
3.3
Water can be injected into the exhaust system, form a spray and cool the exhaust
gasses by evaporation.
This results in a reduction of the sound pressure in the exhaust piping. This principle is
usually applied in combination with a waterlocked volume into which the exhaust
gasses discharge and perform an intermittent through-flow with part of the injected
water. In main lines the waterlock volume ca.ts of the engine exhaust from the open air
outlet most of the time. The method is more or less applicable for exhaust systems of
smaller engines on yachts or sailing boats and can be simple and effective.
9.4
TERMINOLOGY AND DEFINITIONS
A variety of parameters is available for describing the acoustical behaviour of the

exhaust system. The most important parameters are transmission loss (TL), and
insertion loss (IL).
Transmission loss:
The transmission loss of a silencer is the 10'0 log of the ratio of the incident wave
energy at the silencer inlet to the energy of the transmitted wave at the outlet (fig. 2):
TL = 10.10 log P~t1
where
P, = incident sound energy

P, = transmitted sound energy
The TL does not depend on source impedance but is affected by the terminating
impedance; thus dependent on the part that is located "down-stream" from the silencer.
In order to focus the attention more sharply on the acoustical performance of the
silencer we assume here that the inlet and outlet piping each have infinite length and
thus provide a "reflection-free termination". In this paper we shall indicate the TL with
infinite piping as TL'.
Insertion loss:
The insertion loss of a silencer is the difference (in dB) between two sound pressure
levels (power levels or intensity levels) which are measured at the same point (outside
the system) before and after a silencer is inserted in the exhaust system between the
source and the open end (fig. 3a):...
IL = LP (without muffler)
Lp (with muffler)
It is important to recognize that the IL does not describe the silencer's properties alone;
the IL also depends on the source properties and on the terminating impedances. Those
effects can be considerable.
For a reference system with length equal to zero and a diameter equal to the end-pipe
diameter of system under investigation, the insertion loss of a complete exhaust system
can be described with IL' (figure 3b).
Generally, transmission loss (TL') is preferred for calculations (independent of source
impedance and terminating characteristics). For experimental work insertion loss (IL) is
preferable because of its relatively simple determination by measurements. The
insertion loss (IL') is used for calculations of the acoustical performance of the
complete system and necessary for the prediction of the noise levels outside the system.
9.5
CALCULATION OF THE ACOUSTICAL PERFORMANCE

OF AN EXHAUST SYSTEM
Both the source strength of the diesel engine and the acoustical performance of the
exhaust system are decisive factors for the prediction of the noise levels on the open
decks and the bridge wings. Most work started by measuring exhaust system
performance via scale models experiments; nowadays this technique is considered
extremely time-consuming and more or less out-of-date.
Nowadays computer based calculation methods are available to assess the acoustical
performance of the exhaust system in a quick and 6heap manner. The theoretical
background and an example program have been presented in [3]1.
Basically the computer program calculates the acoustical performance (TL or IL) of the
exhaust system for a set of discrete frequency components. The program considers a
one-dimensional model with plane wave propagation. Therefore a restriction must be
made concerning the frequency range: wave lengths should be small compared to the
pipe diameter. This restricts the program validity to the lower frequencies. However,
this is not a large handicap, since the important problems usually occur at the lower
frequency components of the spectrum. The upper frequency limit for the validity of
the calculation can roughly be given by kc~d = 7t, where k.0 is the wave number (wO/c)
and d is the pipe diameter.
For higher frequencies we assume that the exhaust noise may be considered as a
continuous wide band noise spectrum. The insertion loss (IL_') of the system also shows
relatively wideband noise reduction characteristics.
The sharp peaks in the attenuation curves, which occur at low frequencies, gradually
disappear at higher frequencies. The calculation of the acoustical performance may then
be executed with reasonable accuracy in octave bands and can be carried out according
to [4].
A detail description of the computer model is considered to be outside the scope of this
paper.
It is added here that nowadays also powerfull 3-D finite element type models are
available but, since the major problem is at the lower frequencies, the more simple and
economic plane wave propagation model is still strongly preferred.
EXHAUST SYSTEMS AND SILENCERS
The unsilenced system

6.1
Lay-out of piping system, bends
In the design stage of a ship the lay-out of the exhaust piping is roughly indicated.
However, it appears frequendly that large modifications from initial plans are practically
impossible. Many ship designs show the combination of engine room and casing
projected more or less vertically* in line such that the exhaust piping of the main
engines can be constructed straight upwards into the funnel. However, in some
situations the use of one or more bends in the exhaust system is inevitable, especially
9.6
in the exhaust piping of the auxiliary engines. The effect of bends on the acoustical
behaviour of the exhaust system is negligible. There are no dissipative mechanisms or
any sharp mismatches of impedances which would reflect sound energy and there is
also no mechanism which prevents the sound energy from flowing easily across the
bends.
Another aspect is that, because of its flow resistance, every bend causes an extra static
pressure drop (a factor of about 0,3 x dynamic pressure (1/2 p v2 ); for very sharp
bends this may increase to 0,8). This increase of flow resistance reduces the remaining
pressure drop allowed for the silencer, which as a consequence may influence the
dimensions of the silencer.
Pipe diameter and mean gas velocity
The diameter of the exhaust piping is determined by both the maximum allowable
mean gas. velocity and the permitted backpressure of the engine.
Usual maximum values for the mean gas velocity are 40 - 45 zn/s. The effects of the
mean flow velocity on the acoustical performance of the silencers will be discussed in
chapters 10 and 11.
Effect of the length of the exhaust piping
In figure 4 the measured sound pressure levels from a diesel engine with an unsilenced
exhaust system are given. In chapter 2 it is assumed that, because of its high
impedance source characteristics, the acoustic output of a turbocharged engine is
independent of the exhaust system. Thus the differences between the two curves are
caused only by the different insertion losses of the two exhaust pipes and thus by the
differences in length. The calculated insertion losses (IL') of the-two'exhaust pipes are
given in figure 5. The differences in sound pressure levels are only generated by the
differences in the matching between the firing frequency harmonics and the 'passfrequency' of the exhaust pipe.The relatively sharp minima in the insertion loss occur at frequencies which may be
calculated from the formula
if
where
1 = exhaust pipe length (mn),

c = velocity of sound in the pipe at the applicable temperature (mis)
n = any odd integer.
6.2
The exhaust system with silencer
In [4] an exhaust silencer is described as 'any section of a duct or pipe that has been
shaped or treated with the intention of reducing the transmission of sound, while at the
same time allowing the free flow of gas'. Exhaust silencers may be dissipative and/or
reactive; these principles are already described in chapter 3. There are essentially no
' good' or 'bad' silencers. On the contrary, it is the bad combination of silencer with
piping and source levels leading to unsuccesful results.
9.7
From the foregoing it will be clear that the system performance depends on the silencer
and its connected piping in combination with engine source properties.
Defining the acoustic requirements only with silencers performance ('35 dB silencer',
etc.) may lead to erroneous results, unsuccesful performance or, in other cases, overkill
in measures.
In addition to the acoustical effect various other parameters may be decisive for the
selection of an exhaust silencer. Such parameters are:
minimum cost and maintenance; the design should be economical
minimum back pressure; anynow the pressure drop is not allowed to exceed the
acceptable engine limit;
minimum dimensions and mass.
In recent years an almost confusing variety of reactive exhaust silencers has appeared
on the market. The feasibility to present reliable predictions of the acoustical
performance varies from easy to almost impossible.
In 6.1 we have discussed the influence of an unsilenced pipe. It is obvious that the upstreams and down-streams piping connected to the silencer also influence the acoustical
performance of the silencer.
In order to emphasize upon the acoustical behaviour of the silencer itself we shall
assume in this stage that the length of the connected piping is infinite. In other words:
the terminations of the pipes are non-reflective (pc-terminated) (see 4, definition TI]).
In chapter 9.2 the effects of the piping on the acoustic performance of the silencer will
be shown.
Simple expansion chamber silencer
An example of the transmission loss TLI of the most simple type of expansion silencer
is given in figure 6. When the length of the silencer coincides with X/2, X, 3X/2 etc.,
the so-called standing waves are produced (X = wavelength). This results in an increase
of the characteristic impedance of the duct with cross section S, 2 .from pc/S, to
mpc/S 1 (m = S1/S2) which equals the value of the inlet and outlet piping pc/S2. So, for
the frequencies which correspond to these wave lengths (c = f x X), the silencer is fully
inactive and the TI] equals zero.
In the range between these frequencies the characteristic impedance of the silencer inlet
and outlet is different from the *characteristic impedance of the piping. This leads to
reflection of the sound energy back to the inlet pipe and results in a positive
transmission loss. The significant characteristics of these silencers are:
1. the transmission loss increases with increasing diameter (fig. 7),
2. the length of the silencer highly affects the insertion loss curve (fig. 8).
S= T
4
d2
9.8
Double resonator silencer

A successful and approved silencer is the 'double-expansion (equal) chamber silencer
with an internal tube', shortly indicated 'double resonator', see fig. 9. The TLI of such
a type of silencer is also given in figure 9. Essential for a wide frequency range effect
is that the length of the internal connecting tube is equal to the chamber length. The
effects of the silencer length and the diameter on the acoustical performance are given
in figure 10 respectively figure 11.
Volume resonator silencers
These silencers offer the possibility of removing discrete frequency components from a
noise ipecilum. However, the frequency band where sound reduction occurs is
relatively narrow. The effect in that narrow frequency range could be important to
improve the silencer performance in a small band with high pressure levels. Moreover,
there is the possibility to apply a number of these resonators (combined in one silencer)
in an exhaust system, each tuned to a different characteristic frequency.
The volume-resonator differs from the simple expansion chamber silencers with respect
to the gas flow. There is no gasflow through the volume; the volume is coupled to the
main duct via one or more small openings or tubes as a side branch. Figure 12 shows
two different shapes of volume resonators and their TU]. The resonant frequency is
easy to calculate and the formula for this are given in many acoustic handbooks, for
instance [3], [4] and [5]. A major disadvantage of these silencers is the lack of accurate
data on the gas temperature (-and consequently on speed of sound and resonant
frequency) in the volume. This handicaps optimum design and tuning. Moreover this
type of silencers suffer from a reduced performance due to the air flow in the main
duct. This effect depends on the local flow velocity and the shape of the aperture, see
chapter 10.
1/4 lambda silencers
Acoustically similar to the volume resonators are the 1/4 X-pipe (side-branches)
silencers. The frequency band in which sound reduction is obtained is small. The
natural frequency can be calculated following the formula:
_Ec
41 x n
n = 1, 3,
5,...
where c is the sound velocity (mi/s) and 1 the length of the 1/4X-pipe. The major
acoustic properties are similar to those of the volume resonator silencer. Again
temperature has an important effect on the performance since it affects the sound
velocity and consequently the natural frequency. Figure 13 gives two examples of
1/4 X-silencers with the corresponding TL'-loss curves.
Dissipative silencers (absorption silencers)
Dissipative silencers usually have relatively wide band noise reduction characteristics
for the higher frequencies. Sharp fluctuations in the TL, such as occuring in reactive
silencers, are not present.
9.9
Two most regularly applied types of absorption silencers are sketched in figure 14. The
space behind the perforated tube is filled with mineral wool or other absorptive
materials'.
Characteristic for the properties of absorption type silencers is the increase of sound
reduction with increasing frequency up to certain maximum value, followed by a steep
reduction. The maximum attenuation occurs at approximately the frequency at which
one-quarter wave length is equal to the thickness of the absorptive layer.
The attenuation of the two types of absorption silencers, see figure 14, is shown in
figure 15. The mathematical model used for the calculation of the TL seems to be
optimistic in the 'resonance' region. The calculation method given in [31 easily
provides the user with the information to estimate the noise reduction.
The advantage of the silencer with a central core with absorption material manifests
itself in a relatively higher attenuation at higher frequencies for identical silencer
volume. Thius, for similar attenuation properties, a smaller volume may be required. In
combination with the double resonantor silencer this type constitutes an effective
silencer combination for application in exhaust systems of medium speed engines.
The influence of length or diameter on the Th' is considerably smaller than for the
reactive silencers; see figure 16.
Commercially available silencers
An example of a typical comnmercially available silencer, is given in figure 17. The
present design method for those silencers is partly theoretical but mostly empirical,
requiring prolonged and costly experimentation. The apparent reason for this is the lack
of a reliable design method in the existing literature. It is not surprising that some
design curves which are in general presented in the manufacturers documentation must
be regarded with care and provides only a general guideline (see figure 18).
In recent years a growing tendency to reliable design techniques is perceptible. This
results even more mn a shifting of the types of applicable silencers. Whereas in earlier
days almost only silencers similar to figure 17 were inserted, at present a combination
reactive/absorption silencer is more and more winning ground.
The combination double resonator/absorption silencer nowadays is typical for exhaust
systems of medium speed engines with variable wpeed. Figure 19 illustrates the
contribution on the IL' for both parts separately as well as the overall 11?' of the
silencer. It also illustrates that for an optimum design the broad band attenuation can be
obtained over a wide frequency range.
discussion of the acoustical properties of these materials are outside the scope of
this paper, extensive literature is available on that subject [3].
3The
9.Ie
RADIATION OF THE EXHAUST OPENING
Originally it was assumed that only small deviations from spherical spreading of the
exhaust noise were introduced by the presence of funnel and superstructure. However,
model investigations (8] have revealed that rather large deviations from that assumption
may occur, showing that the deviations may be partly due to the presence of the funnel
and the superstructure. Figure 20 demonstrates these effects for various types of funnel
configurations.
It has been proved that also the difference between the high gas temperature, the
temperature of the surrounding air and the gas velocity at the exhaust opening create
important effects. A reliable model for those effects, however, is not discussed in this
paper.
SELECTION OF THE SILENCER TYPE
In the course of the last decennia a vast number of different types of exhaust silencers
has been developed. In previous paragraphs the acoustical performance of the most
important types have been illustrated.
For the ship designer there is still the question which type of silencer or combination
of silencers with result in the best compromise. An important aspect is the frequency
content of the source. On the basis of the subdivision of the sources given in paragraph
2, a preselection is illustrated in table 1.
Table 1:
engine type
silencer type
low speed, two stroke engine
special designed silencer, usually no

standard silencer available
medium speed engine
combination absorption/resonator
silencer
'high speed' engine
absorption silencer
The first category of engines requires a specially designed exhaust silencer. The usual
shaft speed range. the number of cylinders and the two-stroke principle result in a
firina, frequency range of 1,5 -20 Hz.
Bulky silencers should be applied to attenuate these low frequencies effectively.
In the exhaust systems of the second category - the medium speed engines - the
combination double resonator/absorption silencer is frequently used.
Optimum dimensions of both parts, based on the frequency spectrum of the source.
may result in an efficient silencer design.
For the high speed engines in almost all situations the application of an absorptive type
silencer gives the best results.
9.11
DIMENSIONS OF THE SILENCER AND POSITION IN THE

EXHAUST SYSTEM
9.1
Silencer volume
It is advantageous to provide a rough estimate of the required silencer volume in an
early stage of the design. In figure 21 a relation is shown between the silencer volume
and the total engine cylinder volume. This relation originally is based on data of 22
exhaust systems with target levels between NR-60 and NR-70 convented to a distance
of 10 meter from the open end of the exhaust system. Due to the variation in frequency
composition of the source it was necessary to subdivide the several types of engines
according to table 1. Moreover it is assumed that the effective pressure of the engines
is equal for each category. The diagram can be used as guide-line. The position of the
silencer in the exhaust system effects the required silencer volume to a large extent.
The diagram does not give any indication about dimensions and/or internal structure of
the silencer.
The influence of the position of the silencer in the exhaust systemn
9.2
In figure 4 the effect of the length of an unsilenced system on the exhaust noise levels
is already illustrated. The sharp minima in the transfer damping will also occur in the
piping between engine and silencer and in the piping down-stream of the silencer; and
example is given in figure 22. The frequencies at which the minima occur can be
calculated as follows:
for the piping between engine and silencer: f =(c/4 1) x n; n =1, 3, 5. ..
for the piping after the silencer- f = (c/2 1) x n; n = 1, 2, 3.
where c is the sound velocity (m/s) and 1 the length of the piping concerned. It is clear
that coincidence of the minima with important components of the sound source should
be avoided since this results in amplification of the sound levels outside the exhaust
system.
As an example. figure 23 shows the effects of the position of the silencer on the
calculated noise level for the bridge wing. Here only the position of the silencer has
been changed: all othe parameters remained unchanged. The difference may be
considerable, so it is strongly recommended to select the best position by calculation,
preferably in the design stage of the ship. It must be emphasized upon that it is
definitely no maxim that moving a silencer to a higher position in the system results in
a reduction of the noise level.
Influence of the dimensions
9.3
Earlier the influence of the dimensions for several exhaust silencers on the
transmi-issison loss is illustrated. An increase of the dimensions of the silencer in
general results in an increase of the insertion loss. The effects on the calculated noise
level on the bridge wing are shown in figure 24. Reduction of silencer dimensions
usually result in opposite effects. Generally an increase of the diameter is more
effective than an increase of length, however, some exceptions may occur.
9.12
MEAN GAS VELOCITY
"10
The effect of the mean gas flow on the acoustical performance of the combined double
resonator/absorption silenicer is shown in figure 25. Due to viscothermal and turbulent
flow losses a small improvement of the insertion loss in the minima will occur. In
addition the mean flow causes a reduction of attenuation at higher frequencies. The
insertion losses of volume resonators or 1/4X-silencers are particularly sensitive to the
mean flow in the main piping. In figure 26 an example of the influence of the air flow
on the acoustic effect of a volume resonator is given.
The attenuation is remarkably reduced in the region of the resonance point; the effects
depend strongly on the flow velocity and the shape of the aperture.
The influence of the gas velocity on the energy radiated from the exhaust opening is
not considered further in this paper.
11
BACK PRESSURE
An exhaust silencer is introduced to attenuate the exhaust noise without causing

excessive obstruction to the main flow of the exhaust gasses. Silencer obstruction is
one of the main causes of extra back pressure. This back pressure reduces the
maximum output of the engine and/or causes an increase of cylinder and exhaust
temperatures.
The pressure drop from turbulent flow in a piping of length 1 and diameter d with
mean flow v can be given by:
sp
4f.1
1/2pv2 Nlm/
where f is the fanning friction factor for the pipe (- 0,0 0 5 for commercial steel pipe).
The pressure drop from the end expansion can be expressed as
2
Av - 0,4 . 1/2 pVa N/rn
In paragraph 6.1 is illustrated that each sharp bend in the piping adds to the
backpressure a unit dynamic pressure 1/2 pv 2 . Thus the total back pressure as caused
by the exhaust piping can be estimated from adding the, various components. In most
cases a maximum allowable back pressure is given for the engine involved: the
remaining value is then available for the silencer. The back pressure accepted for most
diesel engines may vary between 1500 and 3000 N/m 2 and is mostly prescribed by the
engine manufacturer.
For usual absorption type silencers Ap will be about three times the pressure drop of a
piece of pipe with the same length as the silencer. For the reactive silencer the back
pressure depends to a large extent on the type and dimensions of the silencer.
9.13
EXHAUST BOILERS
12
The influence of exhaust boilers and spark arrestors on the acoustic insertion loss of an
exhaust system can be indicated only in main lines.
Unfortunately, improvements of about 25 dB and even higher over the whole frequency
range, as claimed by some manufacturers, cannot be endorsed. From the acoustical
point of view a boiler or spark arrestor acts as an acoustical resistance; moreover the
change in cross-section results in reflection of a pant of the acoustic energy. The lowfrequency behaviour of a boiler, calculated with the computer program described in
paragraph 4, is given in figure 27. The difference is given between the insertion loss of
a system with and without boiler.
13
EXAMPLES
Exhaust system of a low speed, two stroke, engine

13.1
An example of the design of an exhaust system for a low speed, two stroke engine is
given here. To illustrate the various approaches an example from investigations in the
late sixties has been selected, which demonstrates various aspects in an unique way.
Design data is based on scale model experiments. Moreover extensive detail
information is available which is not the case form the multitude of installations
elaborated in later period. The results of the scale model experiments as well as the
measurement results have been extensively described in [9].
A surmmary can be given as follows:
Main engine data are summarized in table 2:
Table 2: Data of the main engine
nwriiber of cylinders
output
speed
bore
stroke
6
5,9 MW (8000 SHP) at 136 rpmn
136 rpm
0,700 mn
1,400 m
The model scale experiments resulted in a prototyp exasilene give in flure

28a: the complete exhaust system is drawn in figure 28b.
During ship trails the insertion loss of the silencer could be measured by closing the
resonator volume by means of a simple insert pipe.
Measured levels for both situations are given in figure 29. Based on these
measurements the insertion loss can be derived and is given in figure 30. Figure 30
presents also the calculated insertion loss and the insertion loss from model scale
measurements. There is a good agreement between the calculated insertion loss and the
values measured during the ship trials. The differences between these two insertion
losses and the insertion loss measured on model scale may be explained by the fact
that the mean gas flow was omitted in the scale model experiments.
9 .14
13.2
Exhaust system of a diesel generator set
A second example concerns a modification of an existing system of a diesel generator

set. The original system has been equipped with a standard commercial silencer
supplied by the engine manufacturer.
The measured levels, at 4 m from the open end of the exhaust system, are given in
figure 31. At larger distances (open working decks) the measured noise levels
correspond with NR-78 resp. NR-85. Those levels were experienced as annoying, so
improvement was required. Therefore, on request of the owner, some proposals have
been selected.
The exhaust source level of the engine could be obtained from results of testbed
measurements executed on an exhaust system of simple configuration; corrections were
introduced for the testbed exhaust system without silencer. The main data of the engine
are: 8 cylinder V-engine, four stroke; output 600 kW at 1200 rpm.
Based on these data a calculation was executed on the system before modification, see
figure 31. There was a good agreement between calculated and measured result.
Possibilities to modify the existing exhaust system were limited to a large extent by the
lack of space. Three alternative proposals have been given in figure 32. The calculated
noise levels based on these modifications are given in figure 33. From this figure it is
clear that the sound pressure levels decrease with increasing silencer volume. For
economical reasons the owner has selected alternative (b). Measurements were carried
out after the modification was completed; the results are given in figure 34. The
improvement of this modification results in a decrease of the sound pressure level with
7 NR numbers.
Delft, 25th January 1991
.-H.F.
Steenhoek
Editor
9.15
J.C. Vellekoop
Author
REFERENCES
[1]
Janssen, J.H., 'Marine diesel engine exhaust noise, Part I, A mathematical

model', 1967, NSS Report No. 104 M.
[2]
Brandenburg, P.J., 'Marine diesel engine exhaust noise, Part VIII, A revised
mathematical model for calculating the acoustical source strength of the
combination diesel engine exhaust turbine', 1974, NSS Report No. 189M.
[3]
Buiten, J., Gerretsen, E., and Vellekoop J.C., 'Marine diesel engine exhaust
noise, Part VII, Calculation of the acoustical performance of diesel engine
exhaust systems', 1974, NSS Report No. 183M.
[4]
Beranek, L.L., 'Noise and vibration control', McGraw-Hill Book Company,

1971.
[5]
Harris, C.M., 'Handbook of noise control' McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1957.
[6]
Kinsler, L.E., Frey, A.R., 'Fundamentals of acoustics', second edition, Wiley

& Sons, Inc., New York.
[7]
Burgess, Silencer Catalogue, Burgess Industrial Silencing Limited, Engeland.
[8]
Buiten, J., and Regt, M.J.A.M. de, 'Marine diesel engine exhaust noise',
Model experiments on the influence of the shape of funnel and superstructure
on the radiated exhaust noise, NSS Report No. 155M, 1971.
[9]
Buiten, J., 'Marine diesel engine exhaust noise, Part V, Investigation of a

double resonator silencer', NSS Report no. 130M, Delft 1969.
Note:
More recent publications have been omitted here since they do not contribute
essentially to the basic understanding of the subject in addition to the
abovementioned items.
9.16
re
dB
2.10
- 5
measured
calculated
N/m
120
110
S1m
90
80
70
-60
50
8
Frequency
"Figure 1:
16
-'
31,5
63
125 Hzi
Source level of a 6 cylinder medium speed diesel engine. Output 2200
kW at 500 rpm.
9.17
pr,
TL=Lp.
Lpt
p.=
Pr
-t
TL=Lp.
Figure 2:
Lp
Illustration of the transmission loss.
9.i8
Lpa
LpCQ
I L=
a7o
Figure 3a:
LpI Lp2
_No
aooo-
Illustration of the insertion loss of a silencer.
q.19
Lpa
IL"=
Lp- LP 2
Lp1
Figure 3b:
ilustration of the insertion loss of the total exhaust system.
9.20
re
dB
2.10
- 5
N/m
(1 /3 octaves)
120
-
910
100
90
7,55 M
4,62M
~Ls'ystem
110-
LPIM
Lsystem
t
t
80
70
601
16
31,5
63
250 500
125
frequency
Figure 4:
1k
2k
4k
8k
Hz
Measured sound pressure levels from two unsilenced exhaust systems with
different length; identical running conditions of the engine.
9.21
dB 10
I~" e
-10 - ,
I *0
-20'1
4
16
31,5
63
125
250
500 Hz
Frequency
dB
10
LL= 7,55M
.1
IL
-f10f-
-20 1,
4
16
31,5
63
125
250
500 Hz
Frequency
Figure 5:
Calculated insertion loss (IL') of the exhaust piping without a silencer.
9.22
dB
40
1=3
1
dd=
L
d2
m
m
d 2 =0,45m
20
TL
10
- 10
L
16
I
31,5
Frequency
Figure 6:
63
125
250
500 Hz
>-
Calculated transmission loss (TL) of a simple expansion chamber

silencer.
9.23
dB
40
d=1m
30
d-
d,
20
TL*
r---
d= 1,5 m
~~\A
10
-10
16
31,5
63
125
250
Frequency
Figure 7:
Effect of the diameter on the transmission loss (TLt ) of a simple

expansion chamber silencer.
9.24
500 Hz
t
dB
40
I1=3
d1=5[
d2
300
20
TL
10
-101
4
16
31,5
63
125
250
500 Hz
Frequency
Figure 8:
Effect of the length on the transmission loss of a simple expansion

chamber silencer.
9.25
dB
40
I1
12
I I =1,5 m
1 2 = 1,5 m
m
d 1 =1
d 2 0=;45m
20
*
TL
10
-10
'
16
31,5
63
125
250
500 Hz
Frequency
Figure 9:
Schematic drawing of a double resonator and the calculated transmission

loss (TL').
9.26
dB
40
30d
~
A~303IZ
=5M
20
TL
1I
10
0.
-10
4
.16
31,5
63
125
250
500 Hz
Frequency
Figure 10:
Effect of the length of the silencer on the transmission loss (TLV) of a

double resonator.
9 .27
50
dI
N/ N
4zzzJz/
40
di-
30
MV
dl= 1,5m
----
"I
'i
20
O
TL
10
0
-10
16
31,5
63
125
250
500 11z
Frequency
Figure 11:
Effect of the diameter of the silencer on the transmission loss (TL') of a

double resonator.
9.28
dB
40
Id, =045m
A 30
"
2=
II
TL
\
10
/.
/\
-10
4
16
31,5
Frequency
Figure 12:
63
125
250
500 Hz
>
An example of the calculated transmission losses (TL') of two volume

resonators with different length.
9.29
dB
40
II
20
d=0,5 mn
TL
1=3
m,
-10
4
16
31,5
125
250
500 Hz
>
Frequency
Fiigure 13:
63
An example of two 1/4-, pipes and the calculated transmission loss

curves (TLV) for two different lengths.
9.30
~A
Figure 14:
Cross section of a 'straight-through' absorption silencer (a) and an

absorption silencer with a central core (b).
9.31
60
50
d2d
d8
40 -
I=3 m
d,= 1 mi
d2 =0o45m/
30 TV
20
--- calculated following

Beranek
10
4
8
16
Frequency
31,5
63
125
250
500
1k
2k
Figure 15a: Calculated transmission losses (TL') of a straight-through absorption

silencer.
9.32
4k
Hz
60
50
d,
dB
A40
1 =3
r
d, =0,45m
d2 =0,2
d- 0,54m
d, =0,54 m
~30
TL*
m/,
20
computer calculated
10
---
calculated following
Beranek
-10I
Figuur 15b:
8
16
4
-Frequency
31,5
63
125
250
500
1k
2k
Calculated transmission losses (TL')of an absorption silencer with a
central core.
9.33
4k
Hz
50
dB
I
A40 -d
I= 3
m.-
"-
d,1
30
TL*
20
10
=5
m---
-10,
31,5
16
8
Frequency
63
125
250 500
1k
2k
4k
8k
Hz
Figure 16a: Influence of the length of an absorption silencer on the transmission loss.
(calculated values).
9.34
50
dB
40
i
dl
30
TL*
20
d,= 1 5m
10. -
-19
16
31,5
63
125
250
500
Frequency
Figure 16b:
1k
2k
4k
Bk
Hz
Influence of the outer diameter of an absorption silencer on the

transmission loss (calculated values).
9.35
Figure 17:
Cut away view of a commercial silencer [7].
dOl
35
0o
as
0o
@o..o
*os
25
5315
63
125
250
500
1k
2k
Freauency
Figure 18:
Attenuation curve of the silencer given in figure 17 [7].
9.36
4k
8k 8
60
dB
-TL*OUB.
-
40
RESONATOR
TLASOAPoN
PART
oL
-*TL
30
r\l
TL
2o-1w'
I/
/
10/1
/,,.
N'
I/
I
__ ,l
-10
16
31,5
Frequency
Figure 19:
63
125
250
500 Hz
Transmission loss of the two parts of a double resonator/absorption

silencer as well as the total transmission loss.
9.37'
GosifldB
E,%
10
5
-5
-15
)C1
63
125 Hz
61Aj
83
16
1,
frequency
Figure 20:
ffp
Measured geometrical correction (GCC) for three types of funnels (scale

model investigation).
9.38
-3
1..
_______
S"
o
.
I I
1 II
I'
a_
.o, __
*.l.r.
1'
,I
__
__
_________
______
__ ,
_____
I II
I
___
ii
two stroke, low speed

_
_____
hhigh
]C
engines
_____
F'-r
I
_____il__
I
I Ii
s.Ie1l
engines
TOTAL ENC::a CYL:NMtR VOLLM
Figure 21:
Silencer volume versus total engine cylinder volume derived for three
main groups of diesel engines given in table 1:
" two stroke, low-speed engines
* medium speed engineshigh speed engines
Given relation is based on data of 22 ships with target levels between NR60 and NR70
converted to a distance of 10 m from the open end of the exhaust sytem.
9.39
60
dB
4o
30
transmission loss
20
of the silencer
10-
insertion loss of the
TL
total
system
IL
16
-
Figure 22:
31.5
63
125
250
500
(Hz)
frequency
The effect of the piping on the transmission loss of the silencer:

* 1/4.2-effects in the piping between engine and silencer
* 1/4.X-effects in the piping after the silencer
9.40
dB t.o.v.201JPa ( 1/1 -oct. band)
110
LPOM
reference position
m downstream
100
m upstream
---
90
NR-70
80 -
70
60
50
40
'
16
31,5
63
125 250 500
1k
2K
4k Hz
frequency
Figure 23:
The effect of the position of the silencer on the resulting sound levels
outside the exhaust system (double resonator/absorption silencer).
9.41
dE t.o.v. 20,U.Pa (1/i-oct. band)
1110
Lreference
L100
diameter
increased diameter
decreased diameter
90
%---
NR-80
7NR-73"
%
80
70
60
50
40
16
31,5
63
125 250 500
1k
2k
4k Hz
frequency
Figure 24:
The effect of the diameter of the silencer on the sound levels outside the
system (double resonator/absorption silencer).
q.42
dB
50-
40
30 -
V=
m/s
V = 40 M/s
----
IL*
20
10-
0
N
-10
II
-20
-20
4
Frequency
Figure 25:
63
31,5
16
-
125
250
500Hz
>
The effect of the mean gas velocity on the insertion loss of a silenced
exhaust system (double resonator/absorption silencer).
9.43
dB
50
40rr
30
TL*
__vor/
--
V =60m/s
20
10
-101I
4
16
31,5
-~-----
Figure 26:
63
0---
125
250
500 Hz
Frequency
The effect of the mean gas velocity on the transmission loss of a volume
resonator.
9.44
iB
40
JL
IL
30
20
10-
-10-
-20 -
-30
2
Figure 27:
16
31,5
63
Calculated insertion loss of an exhaust boiler.
9.45
125 250 500Hz
1.3.
2,8,
Figue
28 he
ehaus
A
setchof
s~ecer
9.46,
A,
5,4
2,1
-T.
D-deck
C-deck
B-deck
A-deck
4,1
T
45
40
50
55 frame nr.
measures in m
Figure 28b: A sketch of the complete system.
9.47
110
octave levels
-?
100
90
S80
70
with
silencer
slne
R8
N R 65
60
50
40
31.5
Figure 29:
63
125
250 500 1000 2000 4030 8000

-frequency
in Hz
The octave band sound pressure levels on the port bridge wing without
and with the silencer.
9.48
dB
50
L*
ao
IL 40
30
20
10
0-t
-10
..
model scale measurenent
--
coealculated
-20
trial measurements
-30
63
12.5 250 500
1k
2k
4k
8k
frequency
3 456
fm
x13,6 Hz
-
Figure 30:
Insertion loss of the silencer.
9.49
16kHz
fp
re
dB
2.10 -
N/m2
120
100
95
\\NR--
0
LIP 4m 9810
70
-measured
---
60
S16
31,5
calculated
63
125
250
frequency
Figure 31:
500
1k
2k
4k
8k
1iz
Calculated and measured octave band sound pressure levels of the original
system.
9.50
TL original
_Loriginal
'-
IL a7oo
L2s00
IIy
33700
L
Figure 32:
Proposed modifications (b, c and d) with respect to the existing system

(9).
9.51
re
dB
2.10 -
N/m
120
S110-
1.NR-95
---
LOgr
. . ..-L37oo L25oo
90
NR-87/'
30 -
NR-75
/\\
70
~'\,
.
- 65
x,,
"\
-'N
60
Figure 33:
L370o0.
-..... L3700o * L2oQo
10 0
501
16
original configuration
\\
31,5
63
125 250 500

> frequency
1k
2k
4k
8k
Hz
Calculated octave band sound pressure levels for modification b, c and d.
q.52
re
dEB
2.10
- 5
N/m
120
110
90NR-90
I
70
-- measured
---
60
016
31,5
-
Figure 34:
63
calculated
125 250 500

frequency
1k
2k
4k
Calculated and measured octave band sound pressure levels of

modification b.
9.53
8k
Hz
LESSON 9
ANNEX
FLEXIBLE MOUNTING
OF
EXHAUST SYSTEMS
PREFACE
Diesel engines are widely used for propulsion and generator drive on ships. It is wellknown that such machinery installations may produce noise and vibrations not
acceptable for a reasonable comfort of both passengers and crew. Therefore wellplanned control activities, preferably starting in the design stage, are required where the
tendency for increased power per cylinder even leads to more intensive control actions.
One of the measures concerns the noise control actions regarding the exhaust systems.
Noise transmission from exhaust piping to the accommodation adjacent to engine is an
important factor. The flexible mounting of the exhaust system, as an effective means to
decrease the transmission, is the subject of this annex.
9.54
1.
INTRODUCTION
Diesel engines require that their exhaust gasses, on of the waste products, must be
disposed of. The usual way is to conduct those gasses via a piping system outside the
ship into the open air. The modem trend in merchant ship design is to locate the engine
room, the accommodation and the worling spaces including bridge in a compact design
in the stem region. This implies that the most logical design for the piping system is to
conduct the exhaust gasses vertically through the machinery casing and a funnel on top
of the casing. In this situation it is inevitable that this piping leads through the
accommodation area. From the acoustical point of view the exhaust system of diesel
engines on board ships thus might constitute a noise source and a transmission path to
the surrounding accommodation which might lead to serious noise problems.
Major subjects, such as the sound transmission via the exhaust piping to the
accommodation, the methods to decrease this transmission and some detail examples of
a flexible mounting system, are presented in following paragraphs.
2.
TRANSMISSION TO THE ACCOMMODATION
The various sources and transmission paths are illustrated in a simple way in figure 1.
It is assumed that the acoustic source strength of the diesel engine is a starting point;
possible techniques to reduce the source levels are not considered here.
The transmission of sound from and via the exhaust .system to the accommodation
occurs via two different paths, which should be clearly distinguisted. Measures to
reduce the noise transmission are only effective when applied to the dominant path.
Successively the structure-bome sound path, the airborne. sound path and the relative
importance of these transmission paths are described in the following paragraph.
2.1
The structure-borne sound path
The structure-borne sound path. also illustrated in figure 1, concerns the transmission
of the structure-borne sound from the exhaust pipe wall via the artaching points and the
ship's structures to the boundary wails of the accommodation, where it is radiated as
airborne sound. As source of excitation of the pipe wall both the direct structure-borne
sound excitation from the engine and the exhaust sound in the pipe may be considered.
2.2
The airborne sound path
The airborne sound path is also illustrated in figure 1. We consider here both the sound
radiated from the exhaust pipe through the walls and the sound radiated from the
engines via the engine room into the casing.
9.55
2.3
Relative importance of the sound paths
Only a few results have been published on the relative importance of the transmission
paths [1]'. It may be stated, however, that in the case of rigidly mounted exhaust
systems (e.g. exhaust systems which are coupled to the ship structure without the
application of appropriate types of structure-borne sound isolators) in general the
structure-bome sound path is predominant. When the exhaust system is resiliently
mounted in a way that is acoustically correct, the relative contribution of the structureborne sound path decreases and consequently the airborne sound transmission starts
dominating.
This is an extremely rough classification, showing also that no simple rule of thumb
can be given and that each situation must be studied once again to find out which of
two paths is dominating.
Unfortunately full scale measured insertion losses of flexibly mounted exhaust systems
have not been spotted in open publications, sofar. On model scale some investigations
have been carried out by Verheij [1]. As a result of these investigations some measured
insertion losses can be presented in figure 2.
3.
REDUCTION OF THE STRUCTURE-BORNE SOUND TRANSMISSION
A reduction of the structure-bome sound transmission may be obtained from

decoupling the piping from ship's construction by means of resilient elements. The
selection of suitable connection points, the application of correct types of mountings,
prevention of vibration problems and sometimes thermal problems are complex factors
to be considered in an early stage of the design. Here special attention is paid to the
following aspects:
connection points
First of all it is preferred to apply a minimum number of connection points
between the exhaust system and the ship structure.
e supension points must be
located at the most rigid parts of the engine room or Zsing. Preferential positions
are the webframes, the joints of the decks with bulkheads or other heavily
constructed parts. In practice, however, these rigid suspension points may not be
realized in every situation. Then special structures should be applied resulting in
greater rigidity of those positions.
To indicate the types of suspension points we distinguish between the 'fixed' and
the 'flexible' points, as we call them. This requires some explanation. The names
are related to the effects with respect to the thermal expansion of the exhaust
systems. A 'fixed' point is a resiliently mounted point where the motion caused by
thermal expansion is minimized by proper selection of mountings and positions. A
'flexible' point is a resiliently mounted connection which allows for adequate
motion required to adapt the thermal expansion of the piping system. Although
those names may be confusing (from structure-borne sound and vibrational aspect),
4 See reference list following chapter 8.

9.56
they are maintained because of their general use in 'conventional shipbuilding'

practice. In figures 5 and 8 some examples are given.
type and number of the mountings
A almost confusing variety of resilient mountings considering materials, types and
manufacture are available. The technical data, provided by the manufacturers, may
diverge from extremely limited and often insufficient up to very extensive and
specified in detail. The maximum and nominal static load, the stiffness in the three
translational directions and the ratio dynamic/static stiffness are elementary data
which anyhow are needed for the selection of the mountings. Reliability and safety
have high priorities for a machinery installation in ships. This implies for the
resilient mountings an acceptable load and static deflection condition as well as a
captive construction of the connection points.
In practice, the selection of the mountings unfortunately is influenced not only by
these technical characteristics and qualities but also by, many other (and sometimes
secondary) factors such as usual relations with one manufacturer and price, which
guides more or less all shipbuilders today.
Resilient elements with stiffnesses in the transverse direction considerably higher
than that in normal direction should be avoided. The reason for this is that the
foundation properties in the transverse direction generally are inferior regarding
rigidity and stiffness. In that case the dominant structure-borne sound path is in the
transverse direction, see also [5, 6, 7, 8].
It sounds logical that resilient elements of high stiffness values are installed, thus
resulting in system natural frequencies higher than the expected excitation
frequencies from e.g. exhaust pulses. This behaviour is often a consequence of
vibration problems experienced on earlier ships, mostly caused by a bad design.
This than resulted in the explicit wish to avoid any risk of vibration in piping on
following ships. However, one must realize that the acoustic effect of such
relatively stiff resilient mounted systems may be strongly and unacceptably
reduced. In some applications this even has lead to a serious short-circuit in the
system, see for example figure 3.
4.
REDUCTION OF THE AIRBORNE SOUND TRANSMISSION
For the accommodation adjacent to the casing with resiliently mounted exhaust
systems, the airborne sound transmission might dominate. To reduce this path two
measures can be taken:
1. To improve the acoustical properties of the heat insulation around the piping.
2. To apply absorbing material in the casing.
This last measure also reduces the transmission from the engine room via the casing to
the accommodation concerned. Additional measures such as double wall structures etc.
are applied only in very critical situations and therefore notdiscussed here.
9.57
LOW-FREQUENCY VIBRATIONAL BEHAVIOUR OF THE

RESILIENTLY MOUNTED EXHAUST SYSTEM
5.
The low-frequency vibrational behaviour of the exhaust piping is an aspect which

should receive full attention during the design stage. The excitation can be expected
from the ship's propeller or from exhaust gas impulses, for instance at the engine firing
frequency. Coincidence between these excitation frequencies and one (or more) natural
frequencies of (a part of) the exhasut system includes a risk of high vibration levels of
the system. However, this only occurs for excitation by the sources of adequate levels.
The excitation due to the propeller (propeller blade passing frequency) only may show
a risk when coinciding with one of the ship's natural modes, thus causing already
unacceptably high levels on the ship's structure. It remains, however, highly
recommendable to avoid coincidence with propeller blade rate frequencies, especially in
the higher speed range of the ship.
The vibrational behaviour of the exhaust system can be described as multi degree of
freedom mass spring systems. In the available computer based calculation methods the
system is regarded as a catenation of masses and springs. However, in practice these
extended calculations will be seldomly executed. Mostly a simplified calculation is
executed, considering the exhaust system as a simple spring-mass system of individual
parts as is shown in figure 4. As an example the six calculated natural frequencies of
the horizontal pant are given in the table below, see [2,3].
Calculated natural frequencies [Hz]
Table 1:
f.
fY35,0
9,9
excitation frequencies
Hz
- firing frequency tAO4
frequency
rate
- propeller blade
13,9 - 16$9 Hz
f..21,9
fy11,4
f.9,6
f..
~22,
Considering the calculation results we may conclude that the margin berween the
natural frequencies and the excitation frequencies is sufficiently large to prevent
vibration problems, except for f., However, it is not expected that a rotational mode
along,. the centre line of the exhaust piping will be excited by the firing frequency. With
similar computer proggramns also the static displacements due to seaway movements. etc.
can be calculated. For further information on the vibrational properties and design of
resilient mounting systems ample literature is available,.
6..
-
VARIOUS SUBJECTS
Bends
Vibration problems in exhaust systems mainly occur where bends in the piping are
present. Dynamic forces executed by the gas flow are the major causes.
9.-51
A further description of the various aspects is considered to specialistic here.

A good design rule, for several reasons, is to minimize the number of bends in the
exhaust piping systems, especially for the larger engines. Bends directly at the
engine output must be considered with special care (see detail A in figure 6).
Thermal insulation
When rubber mountings are used, special attention should be paid to the thermal
aspects, in particular when these mountings are positioned close to the piping.
Temperatures of 70'C or higher in the rubber are inadmissible and in that case
special measures are required. Unless special heat resistant elastomeric compounds
can be used (e.g. silicon rubber) it is recommended to maintain the temperature of
the rubber below 40 to 50C. Higher temperatures may critically affect both the
creep proporties and the lifetime of the rubber mountings.
In figure 5 an example is given of a frequently applied construction to reduce heat
transfer to the mounting. For the thermal insulation material between piping and
the rubber mounting a sintered asbestos product is applied. Also the bolt holes
have to be insulated to prevent thermal short-circuiting. The ventilating system in
the casing and the funnel is of great help in maintaining acceptable temperatures
for the mountings. Sometimes cooling fins have been used to lead away the heat at
the appropriate position.
Bellows
An important function in the design of the exhaust system is performed by the
expansion bellows. First of all they allow for the thermal expansion of the piping
in their longitudinal direction mainly. The stiffness of the bellows should be
considerably below the stiffness of the mountings in the appropriate directions
(preferably a factor 10 or more). This is required to guarantee that position and
vibrational behaviour of the exhaust system is controlled by the mountings and not
. .
by the flexible bellows.
Extra attention should be paid to the bellows directly coupled to the exhaust flange
of the engine, in particular for resiliently mounted engines. In this respect the
maximum allowable forces on the turbocharger output flange provide the most
stringent requirement; usually only small forces and couples are accepted at that
structure. The structure-bome sound reduction of the bellows, although much
smaller than for a good rubber mounting-seating combination, should not be
neglected. The hi2h torsional stiffness of bellows is also a point of special concern
with respect to exhaust system displacement and the vibrational and acoustic
behaviour.
Searing rigidity,
The structure of the suspension points must be rigid and heavy. As a guidance this
means that acceptable results are only obtained when the minimum thickness of the
foundation structure top plate is 12 mm for pipe diameters < 400 mm and 15 mm
for larger diameters. The bracket plates and stiffeners may be constructed in 10
resp. 12 mm.
9.59
7.
CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS
In figure 6 an example of a resiliently mounted exhaust system has been given. Some
guide lines resulting in an optimal system can be given as follows:
The suspension points have been chosen at the position of the most rigid parts
inside the casing, for instance the joints of the decks wib the vertical walls.
From the acoustical point of view the number of suspension points has been
limited as far as possible.
The mounting system consists of a number of 'flexible' and 'fixed' points; both
provided with suitable resilient elements. The flexible points enable the thermal
expansion of the pipes. The fixed points have been resiliently mounted such that
displacements due to the thermal expansion of the pipes have been minimized.
The positions of the bellows have been located in such a way that the most
favourable suspension points can be realized.
In this example, characteristic for such ships as a carferry, it is unavoidable to
install a bend in the exhaust piping directly at the engine exhaust connection. The
details must be constructed with great care.
In figure 7 a detail is given of the 'fixed' point above the exhaust turbine. Specific for
this detail is the improved transverse stability obtained by situating the 4 mountings in
line at some distance in the athwart ship's direction.
The chocking plates below the termal insulation facilitate the alignment procedure.
Figure 8 illustrates a detail of a flexible point as normally applied for horizontal parts
of the piping.
Thie transverse stability may be improved by arranging the mountings at an angle,
varying between 3Q0 and 45', preferably on both sides of the piping, such depending
on favourable foundation location.
Thie hinge-joint may be omnitted when sufficient length of the spindle is available to
allow for the thermal expansion of the piping without excessive rotation in the
mounting.
In vertical piping systems an other mounting construction is used to incorporate the
transverse stability (see figs. 9 - 10). This mounting combination is composed of a
number of rubber discs, which can be loaded both in compressi6n and tension. The
discs are preloaded to ensure the correct position in the seating; the preload should be
larger than expected static load variation to quarantee positive contact between the disc
elements at all conditions. To adapt the stiffness and load characteristics to the
requirements, the number of discs is an extra design parameter.
The fixed point in figure 9 is a typical example of a special structure. \vhich was
applied due to the unfavourable position of the silencer in that case.
For multiple exhaust systems the application of a resiliently mounted raft may present a
good solution. Mountings are located at the heavy casing/deck intersec-ion: the raft
carrieis all silencers. Thermal insulation is inserted between the silencer and the rant.
Such a solution may also highly improve the athwarth-ship stability of the system.
9.60
8.
CONCLUSIONS
The exhaust piping structure-borne sound transmission via the suspension points to the
accommodation can be reduced by means of resilient elements; some aspects involving
the design are discussed. Measures to reduce the airborne noise transmission are also
indicated. Practical experience is of utmost importance for the design of a resilient
mounting system for (diesel)exhausts in ships since mostly no standard solutions, can
be applied. Each new system requires a new well-evaluated design phase.
REFERENCES
[1]
J.W. Verheij, 'Experimental work on diesel engine exhaust piping as a noise

source in ship's accommodation', Netherlands Ship Research Centre TNO,
Delft, Report no. 221 M, 1975.
[2]
H.F. Steenhoek and J.C. Vellekoop, 'A computer program for resilient
mounting systems', Part I, Intern report nr. 830/1, 1975, Institute of Applied
Physics, TNO-TU Delft.
[3]
H.F. Steenhoek and J.C. Vellekoop, 'A computer program for resilient
mounting systems', Part IH,Intern report nr. 830/1, 1975, Institute of Applied
Physics, TNO-TU Delft.
[4]
J.C. Vellekoop, 'Uitlaatsystemen voor dieselmotoren' joint Delft Meeting

'Scheepsakoestiek' of the KIvI, NAG, SGWF and NVTS, 19 February 1976.
[5]
H.F. Steenhoek, 'On characterizing structure-borne sound transmission paths

from resiliently mounted ship machinery', 1990, Supplement to Proc. UDT'90,
LONDON.
[6]
E.M. Nijman, 'Structure-borne sound path analysis for a single LSMmounting on a typical shipboard foundation', Proc. Intemoise 1990,
Gotheborg, Sweden, pp. 1399-1402.
[7]
E.J.M. Nijman, 'Measurement method for the characterization of structureborne sound emission of resiliently mounted combustions engines', 1991,
CIMAC'91, 22-25 april 1991.
[8]
H.F. Steenhoek, 'On evaluating rotational components in machinery noise

transmission studies in ships', 1991, Proc. UDT'91, Paris
9.61
Section at midship
* Airborne sound path
-...TOP deck
Structure borne sound

path
E..deck
____
___
__
___
____
___
___D
-deck
C-deck
___A.deck
Figure 1:
Structure-borne and airborne sound pathisfrom exhaust system to

accommodation.
9.62
200
-
hull
engine room ca~ing
____________________
~~L L
____
____
____
___
___
00C
-00C
Figure 2a:
cabin 2
corridor
cabin 1
Sketch of the scale model (1:4).
9.63
prorncrudc deck
__________
____
___
____
CDorndc
0
4-
c3- deck
F1
O40
c 30
I-
120
0i
octave band centre frequency [model] in Hz

oi
Figure 2b:
Insertion loss due to resilient mounting of an exhaust pipe (scale model)

[1].
1. AL. seating
2. ALP car deck
3. AL. cabin 2
Arrows indicate that the insertion loss was limited by airborne sound
transmission.
9.64
thermal insulation
mounting
Figure 3:
Typical example of an 'acoustically short-circuited' fixed point.
9.65
Figure 4:
I,,
= 392 kg
= 676 kgm2
Iv
I1zz
= 658 kgnm2
36 kg m
Simplified mass-spring-system of the individual pans of an exhaust

system.
9.66
1. sindered asbestos
Figure 5:
Constructive example of a thermal insulation for a rubber mounting.
9.67
9.68
Detait B
DetailA
V
Figure 7:
thermal insulation
shocking plate
Detail of the 'fixed' point above the exhaust turbine.
9.69
extra hinge-joint
thermal insulatf
Figure 8:
Detail of a flexible point.

The additional hinge-joint should be inserted when axial thermal
expansion of the piping results in unacceptable rolation in the mount,
especially when distance between mounting and piping is small.
9.70
Figure 9:
Detail of the suspension points of a silencer in the casing.
9.71
200
X r
(t4-)22
ITI
Figure 10:
a flexible point (horizontal

Commnercial type of mounting construction for
construction).
9.72
LESSON
15ch W-EGCDT SCHOOL
SESSION
CHAPTER
LESSON
TEACHER
COSMI
.Y
COUNTRY
Noise and Vibration

2. MAIN NOISE AND VIBRATION SOURCES
10. Propellers; bow thrusters: water jets
C.A. JOHNSSON
SSPA
PO Box 24001
Chalmers Tvargata 10
S - 40022 Goteborg
SWEDEN
ABSTRACT
The mechanism of the propeller excitation is exnlained and the
difficulties
of deterlmining the magnitude by experiments or
calculations are discussed. Some examples are given of how the
magnitude of the excitation is affected by the shape of the
stern and 'the propeller and different ways of reducing the
magnitude for a given ship are discussed. Finally the excitation levels for some unconventional types of propellers and
other unconventional propulsors are discussed.
Born 1929 in Malmd. Graduated from Chalmers Universit-y 1951 in
Naval Architect-ure. Naval Departent of Kockums shipyard 19541955. SSPA 1953-54 and from 1956 onwards.
Research, development and design work mainly within the fields
of propulsors, cavitation, vibration and noise. Former member
of the ITTC Propeller and Cavitation Commit-tees and the ISSC
Committee for vibration and noise.
10.1
10.1
Vibration. exciting forces
10.1.1
Definition of forces
It is generally accepted that the hull is excited by the

propeller mainly in two ways, i.e.
The unsteady propeller blade loading can be transmitted to the
hull through the shafting. Such forces and moments are called
shaft forces. (A further analysis with amplification due to
the response of the shaft-bearing system provides the bearing
forces.)
The pressure field accompanying the rotating propeller blades
is transmitted through the water to the hull, creating vibratory pressures at the hull plating and hence forces known as
surface forces.I
Both types of force are primarily caused by the irregular flow
field behind the ship, although surface forces exist also in
the case when the inflow to the propeller is constant. It
should be emphasized that the relationship between the velocity variations into the propeller and the resulting forces is
different for the two types of hydrodynami~c force. The shaft
forces are directly related to certain wake harmonics while
the surface forces are more related to the maximum variations
of the velocity with blade position.
10.1.2
Relative magnitude of forces
Early experiments have indicated that the two types of force

have similar magnitude in non-cavitating conditions.
Due to the presence of non-steady, cavitation on most merchant
ship propellers the surface forces are normally increased
several times, typical values of this increase being 2-5
times, with extreme values up to 15 times /1/, see Fig. 1.
On the other hand, increase of the shaft forces will occur if
the blade passage frequency or its harmonics are close to one
or more of the natural. frequencies of the shafting system.
Even if such an agreement is not rare, one might conclude
that, for the majority of single screw merchant ships, the
predominant part of the propeller excitation emanates from the
surface forces /2/, although different views on this problem
have been expressed /3/. As there is a tendency towards better
stern shapes this situation may, however, change, and it has
to be pointed out that, for high speed, multiscrew ships, the
situation is different in may cases, as, for such ships, the
amplifying influence of cavitation on the surface forces is
often not very large (see Fig. 1).
10
*2
(It should be mentioned that, from the limited experimental

material available, it can be concluded that the influence of
cavitation on the shaft forces is small /4/.)
Results of investigations reported in /5/ show, however, that
a phenomenon similar to cavitation, i.e. air ventilation or
air suction, can, when in its initial stage, create very large
shaft forces. The most critical situation seems, for a merchant ship, to be when, in ballast condition, the propeller
tip is very close to the water surface. At more extreme ballast conditions the unsteady forces are smaller.
10.1.3
Surface forces, theoretical determination
The surface forces enfianate from the pressure distribution

around the propeller blades. When the blades are rotating,
this pressure field is experienced as pulsating in a point in
the fluid or on the hull.
For a cavitating propeller this pressure field is built up by
the following contributions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Pressures due to the thickness of the blade sections.

Pressures due to static loading.
Pressure due to dynamic loading.
Pressures due to the influence of cavitation (steady or
unsteady).
From what is said above it is evident that surface forces, in

contrast to shaft forces, can be present also when there are
no wake variations.
When determining the surface forces by theoretical calculations the normal procedure is to calculate first the pressure
fluctuations (amplitudes and phase) in different points of
the stern. The forces. which. have. to-.be-used, -as -input for the
forced vibration calculations are then determined by integration.
As for the contribution .of.the loading to the pressures,
rigorous calculations have to be based on a three-dimensional
lifting surface theory. The results of such calculations give
also, together with the calculations of the thickness effect,
the pressure distribution over the blades. Such pressure
distributions form the base for the calculations of the cavity
volumes in different blade positions, which are used as input
to the programs used for the calculations of the contribution
from cavitation to the excitation.
10.3
10.1.4
Different tYpes of cavitation. Determination of the
contribution of cavitation to the surface forces
The type of cavitation of primary interest in connection with
vibration excitation is sheet cavitation, represented by the
main cavity shown in Fig. 1 A. The appearance of this cavity
is an effect of the unfavourable pressure distributions experienced by the blade section profiles when they pass the
stern of a single screw ship. This type of cavitation can be
regarded as an artificial increase in the volume of the blades. Compared to the collapse time of the small bubbles also
shown in Fig. 1 A the creation and disappearance of the main
cavity is a relatively slow process and accordingly, it has an
amplifying effect mainly on presssure amplitudes of blade
frequency and its first harmonics.
This way of looking at the problem is used when establishing
the equations forming the basis for the computer programs used
for calculating the amplitudes theoretically. A brief summary
of these equations is given in the Appendix, from which it can
be concluded that the volume of the cavity, as well as the rapidity of the change of the volume, are governing how large
the amplifying influence of cavitation on the pressure pulses
will be.
Other types of cavitation are tip and hub vortex cavitation
and pure bubble cavitation, the last type being the result
when the small bubbles visible in Fig. 1 A do not form a large
cavity but collapse directly on the blade. This occurs when
the pressure distribution is less peaky than that shown in
Fig. 1 A, the typical case being a fast twin screw ship with
good inflow to a propeller having too short blade sections.
The last three types of cavitation are primarily influencing
the high frequency part of the collapse which is mainly of
interest in connection with noise excitation.
The fact that both the volume and the rapidity of the change
of the volume is of importance is illustrated by Fig. 1 B,
which, shows, for three ship propeller configurations, the
amplitude amplification for a point in the stern above the
propeller on the basis of the cavitation, number
e (Vo7)
aO. 7 R
where
po
pv
V07R
=static
A 2+
pressure
-vapour
(rtO.7R) 2
=inflow
pressure
velocity
to blade section 0.72 (excluding induced velocities).
10.4
Also shown in Fig. 1 are sketches of the maximum chordwise

extension of cavitation and the radial distribution of cavitation in different blade positions for one cavitation number.
Further the wake distributions for the three ships are shown
in Fig. 1. The results shown in Fig. 1 indicate:
1)
The use of 0 0.7R as a basis makes in many cases results

obtained at different values of the advance ratio J =
VA/rnD collapse into one curve.
2)
The degree of amplification is determined to a large

extent by the velocity of the change of the cavity volume.
3)
The better the wake distribution the lower the value of

Ccrit, i.e. the value of 00.7R at which the influence of
cavitation is first perceptible (ccrit is much lower than
ai, i.e. the cavitation number at which the propeller
starts cavitating).
4)
On the other hand the increase in the amplification

occurring when decreasing the cavitation number below
acrit is much faster when acrit is low, see Ship No. 2.
Ships like Ship No. 1 of Fig. 1 and similar ships are
exceptions from this rule. If the wake variations and the
cavitation number are both very small, the cavitation
extension will be very large in all blade positions and
thus the volume variations rather small, the result being
small amplification due to cavitation. The fact that
thrust breakdown often occurs in such cases will further
reduce the pressure amplitudes and thereby the apparent
amplification due to cavitation.
The behaviour illustrated by Fig. 1 was made use of when

establishing a method for calculating the amplification factors on the basis of statistics of experimental-data,.. see
/11/1.
The following expression was used in /11/ for the determination of the amplification factor A for a propeller working at
a cavitation number aO.7R.
r0.7Rcrit) N(6)
a0.7R
c0.7criz and N being related to a simple parameter, characterizing the wake distribution.
An analogous behaviour can be found in the results of the
systematic investigation, reported in /12/. They indicate that
the amplification obtained at a certain cavitation number
10.5
increases with increasing number of blades and increasing

blade area ratio. As the influence of these parameters on the
non- cavitating parts of the amplitudes works in the opposite
way, the influence of the number of blades and the blade area
ratio on the amplitudes is smaller on a cavitating propeller
than on a non-cavitating one, a fact which has also been made
use of in the method outlined in /11/.
10.1.5
Difficulties arising when determining the surface
forces from a cavitating propeller by theoretical calculations
10.1.5.1
Solid boundary factors
By calculating the different contributions to the pressure

fluctuations in the way briefly described above and adding
them together, the toal pressure is determined in different
field points by amplitude and phase. In most calculations of
this kind the hull of the ship is represented only by its
wake
distribution. The main interest is, however, to know the
pressures in different points of the hull, some of which are
very close to the free water surface. This problem can be
solved by imposing the proper boundary conditions, which,
however, means an appreciable increase in the complexity of
the calculations. Accordingly, the normal procedure is to
introduce correction factors, so called solid boundary factors, S, which are determined separately by calculation or
experiments.
For a long time the value S - 2 was commonly used due to lack
of other data, although it is known that this value is strictly applicable only to a flat plate of infinite length and
width. For the non-cavitating contributions this approximation
was justified by results of calculations and experiments in
/6/, which. indicated values between 1.5-3 for most of the
points studied.
Results of recent theoretical calculations /10, 13-16/ and
experiments /14-15/ carried out for cavitating propellers
indicate, however, appreciable deviations from the value
S - 2, particularly in the presence of a free water surface.
Some values from /15/ are shown in Fig. 2. They were obtained
by calculations, the cavity behaviour being represented by a
pulsating source, located at 0.95 x propeller radius, in a
position 7.5 degrees from the upright position. The results of
Fig. 2 show very small values of S for points far away from
the propeller. More results of similar kind are found in /10
and 16/.
10.6
The next step in the calculation of the excitation forces is

to integrate the pressures to obtain the forces in different
directions. Thus for instance in vertical direction
FVA
J p stat fw dA
(7)
where
FVA
p
A
=
=
=w
vertical force over the surface A

free field pressure
area
weighting function, dependent on the shape of the

vibration mode considered
In /17/ the mode shape is considered when defining the boundary conditions on the hull. Accordingly, the solid boundary
factors obtained by the calculations are frequency dependent
and equivalent to Stotfw in Eq. (7).
10.1.5.2
Determination of phase angles
The first results of calculations of the influence of cavitation showed that the phase shift between different points was
very small in contrast to what was experienced for the noncavitating contributions /7/. Thus it was concluded that the
amplification factor due to cavitation would be even higher
for the total excitation force than for the pressures and in
/7/ an example was given, showing an amplification of 7 times
for the pressure amplitudes and 22 *times for the total force,
i.e. a ratio of about 3 between force and pressure.
It has, however, to be emphasized that the basis for calculations of this kind is so far near-field theories in the sense
that infinite sound velocity is tacitly assumed. A simple
phase correction based on the knowledge of the sound velocity
gives a substantial reduction of the ratio force/pressure
compared to the values -given above and this tendency is confirmed e.g. by results of carefully executed experiments in
model and full scale, reported in /18/.
10.1.5.3 Results of theoretical calculations. Comparison with
experiment
In spite of the fact that the problems discussed above and
other problems are not finally solved, good agreement has,
however, often been reported between theoretical calculations
and model scale or full scale measurements of amplitudes. As
all calculation procedures used so far include some em~pirical
factors, compar .isons calculation - experiment should be made
on several ship/propeller configurations before the results of
the calculations can be regarded with confidence in the gene-
10.7
ral case. The Possibilities of making comparisons of this kind

have, however, been limited due to the fact that not many
experimental results which include enough data are available.
This applies particularly if the different stages of the
calculation procedure should be checked. The situation is,
however, improving in this respect, see for instance the
investigations reported in /19 and 20/ at which not only
cavitation extension was observed but also the cavity shape
and thickness measured, using laser.
10.1.6
Experimental determination of the surface forces by
model1 tests
10.1.6.1
General
In the case of no cavitation the surface forces have sometimes

been determined by measurement of the total forces on the
stern or on parts of the stern /21-22/. As such measurements
require a very expensive and delicate instrumentation and
technique they are, however, normally replaced by measurements
of the local pressure fluctuations in different points of the
stern. These measurements are fairly simple and knowing the
amplitude and phase of the local pressure fluctuations the
components of the total force on the stern can be obtained by
integration. To get an accurate result simultaneous values for
a large number of measuring points must, however, be available, which increases the costs of the instrumentation appreciably.
10.1.6.2
Measurement of surface forces, test facilities

As shown in Fig. 1 the magnitude of the surface forces is
determined to a large extent by the behaviour of the cavitation present on the propeller. Accordingly the surface forces
should be determined in facilities in which tests with cavitating propellers working in a wake field can be carried out
under as realistic conditions as possible. However, certain
approximations are necessary to keep the costs for tests and
investments within reasonable limits. Different .judgements
have led to different compromises in this respect, the result
being the following types of facilities:
1.
Conventional cavitation tunnel, the wake field being

established by the use of afterbody models in combination
with nets. This is the most common solution /12/.
Ic0.8
2.
Cavitation tunnel having a test section, the length and

area of which allow complete ship models to be used for
establishing the wake field, one example being the large
tunnel at SSPA /23/ which was built about 20 years ago.
Recently a new tunnel of similar design and size was
completed in Germany /24/ and a very large tunnel inaugurated in USA, the basic design also being similar to
that of SSPA, see /23/.
3.
Facilities including a free surface. Examples, the large

tunnel at VWS, Berlin /25/ and the depressurized towing
tank at NSMB, Wageningen /26/. Also in the new large
tunnel in France a free surface is incorporated together
with some other interesting design features, see /23/.
The advantages and disadvantages of different types of facilities are discussed in /23 and 26/.
In spite of the problems discussed above good correlation is
reported in many cases between pressure fluctuations measured
in model and full scale, particularly at blade frequency /8,
18, 27-28 and 16/, the amplitudes being scaled using coefficients
pz
C
pI.2 n
(8)
and the blade frequency being used as the basis for the frequency scaling.
In /16/ and /29/ the problem of scaling the wake distribution
is discussed, the conclusions being somewhat different in the
two reports.
In this connection it should, however, be emphasized that,
when large differences are experienced between amplitudes,
measured in model and full scale, it is not axiomatic that the
full scale values are the. correct ones. In the very few cases
where the influence of the plate vibration on the pressure
amplitudes was investigated in the full scale case, this
influence was found to be very large, at least for transducers
placed far away from the propeller. Thus, in /30/ a correction
of more than 100 per cent of the measured amplitude is reported at blade frequency for a transducer located about
2 .S-Dprop from the propeller. It is also shown in /30/ that,
due to different phase relations between the plate vibrations
and the pressures for different measuring points the resulting
correction has to be added to the measured values for some of
the transducers and subtracted for some.
10.9
Estimation of pressure fluctuations by procedures

10.1.7
based on statistical approach
Over the years a large number of results from model and full
scale tests have been collected at differenit institutes. Some
of these were used as basis for parametric studies, resulting
in simple diagrams and formulas for the estimation of the
low
frequency pressure fluctuations in points close to the propeller. In /31/ formulas are given for the blade frequency
twice blade frequency pressure fluctuations (amplitudes and and
phase angles), separate formulas being given for the noncavitating part and the contribution due to cavitation. The
formulas are based entirely on full scale results.
ding procedures based on material from model tests Corresponare given
in /11 and 32/. In these cases only formulas for the amplitudes of blade frequency are given.
All three methods require the wake distribution as input.
Normally this has to be determined by measurements at model
tests but in /31/ attempts are made to relate the wake distribution to different hull parameters.
The applicability of these methods is limited to ships and
propellers belonging to the population of the statistical
material (e.g. the influence of skew back is not considered
in
the procedure described in /31/).
In /11/ and /31/ criteria are given to help the designer to
judge how large amplitudes of the pressure fluctuations that
can be allowed under'certain conditions.
10.1.8
Shaft forces
10.1.8.1
General
The shaft forces are generated by the variations of the blade

loading with blade position occurring when the propeller
placed in an unequal velocity. field. Thus, in contrast to is
is the case for the surface forces, the shaft forces are what
zero
when the wake field is steady.
The shaft forces are normally divided into components in
accordance with Fig. 3.
It is shown in /33/ that, for a propeller having z equally
spaced, identical blades, shaft forces are only occuring
multiples of the blade frequency zn, i.e. at frequencies at
kzn
Further, the amplitudes of the different components are related to different harmonics of the wake, i.e.
IG.IC
the thrust and torque variations are related to the harmonics

of the order kzn.
the unsteady bending moments and side forces are determined by
the harmonics of the order kzn+l and kzn-1. See further /33/.
In order to give some guidance when determining the number of
blades and whether a certain wake field should be accepted or
not, the results of wake measurements at SSPA and many other
laboratories normally include the wake harmonics. In Figs. 4-6
two sets of such results are presented, taken from /34/. These
results illustrate how a relatively small change of the stern
can change the amplitudes of the harmonics and thereby the
different shaft forces appreciably.
10.1.8.2
Shaft forces, theoretical determination
A rigorous determination of the shaft forces requires first

the determination of the variation of the lift forces for the
different blade sections with blade position (amplitudes as
well as phase relations). The resulting shaft forces are then
obtained by integration over z equally spaced blades. Such
procedures are described in e.g. /35/. Comparisons with experiment indicate that realistic results can also be obtained
by so called quasisteady calculations including corrections
for unsteadiness based on 2- or 3-dimensional profile theory,
see e.g. /35/.
10.1.8.3
tests
Shaft forces, experimental determination by model
Experimental determination of the shaft forces is made by

measuring the instantaneous forces on the shaft, or on one
blade separately, in connection with self propulsion tests, a
procedure which is relatively-simple, inprinciple. Practical
difficulties have, however, shown to make such measurements
very complicated, very sophisticated and expensive equipment
being necessary. Among these complications the following can
be mentioned:
The amplitudes of the unsteady forces are relatively, small
compared to the mean values (particularly when measuring
directly on the shafts). This means that to design a shaft
system giving sufficiently large amplitudes without resonances
occurring within the frequency range of interest is very
difficult. A detailed description of such a system, including
design considerations can be found in /37/ and results of
comparative measurements with different systems are given in
/36/.
Another complication is that, due to the character of the

propeller geometry, couplings between the different components
occur, which means that the mass and inertia of the propeller
IC.II
and its entrained water, acting in different directions, enter

into the system. This problem is dealt with in detail in /38/
in which also mass and damping coefficients for different
propellers are given.
10.2
Noise excitation
10.2.1
General
The theoretical and particularly the experimental determination of the noise excitation is made in much the same way as
the determination of the surface forces described in connection with vibration excitation, i.e. by determining the propeller-induced pressure fluctuations in different points
in
the stern of the ship.
The significant features of experimental technique, scaling
and presentation of results are dependent on the aim
the
measurements. Special difficulties in these respects of
are met
within naval applications, for which the noise level very
often should be predicted at large distances from the ship.
The discussion below is, however, limited to the problem of
predicting the contribution of the propeller to the noise
level inside the ship. Before beginning this discussion only a
short reference should be made to radiated noise.
In connection with propeller generated noise it is in most
cases justified to limit the discussion to pressure fluctuations and thus to neglect the shaft forces. One important
exception is, however, when radiated noise from submarines and
some other naval ships are considered. The total level of the
radiated noise is the sum of the noise radiated directly from
the propeller (pressure pulses) and the level radiated from
the hull due to the hull vibrations, excited by the propeller.
For the low frequency part of the latter level the shaft
forces play a very important role, particularly for ships,
fitted with propellers operating with little
or no cavitation.
The main aim of the excitation measurements is to provide the
incident pressure level Lpn at a large number of points over
the stern of the ship. As measurements can normally only be
carried out at a limited number of points, additional values
of Lpn have to be determined by Interpolation or extrapolation. To facilitate this procedure the measured noise spectrum
is very often converted to an equivalent monopole strength
which means that the distance dependence is assumed to be p 1/r, r being the distance between the source and the measuring
point. Accordingly, the measurements are very often converted
to 1 m's distance and free field.
The determination of r involves the problem of knowing the
location of the equivalent source. For single screw ships a
10.12
common assumption is that the main cavity is at the tip of the

blade in the upright position.
The conversion of the results to free field means that the
noise is specified for a standard environment and that the
influence of the real environment has to be corrected for.
This is accomplished by applying a transfer function, which
can be determined either in a straightforward way by replacing
the propeller by another noise source, such as a calibrated
under-water loudspeaker or hydrophone, or by use of the so
called reciprocity method /39 and 40/. (These types of measurement are used also in full scale, mainly to separate the
influence from plate vibrations, which can be appreciable.)
The transfer functions obtained in this way include the influence of many factors, such as solid boundary factors,
vibration of ship model and facility and directivity effects
of the cavitation noise.
10.2.2
Spectra from cavitating propellers
In Fig. 7 one-third-octave band amplitude spectra are given

for three different propeller - hull configurations, based on
measurements in the large SSPA tunnel by hydrophones placed in
the stern above the propeller. The amplitudes are given as
coefficients Kp in accordance with Eq. (8). For two of the
ships the wake distribution for the radius r/R - 1 is given in
Fig. 7. The wake distribution for the third ship is almost
independent of blade position.
Some common features of the spectra can be detected in Fig. 7:
A)
A high, singular value at blade frequency.
B)
An amplitude maximum at 2-5 times the blade frequency

which can be attributed to higher order oscillations of
the main cavity, including modulation effects, and to the
rebound process.
C)
An increase of the level taking place at about 20 times

the blade frequency, giving an amplitude maximum at about
100-200 times the blade frequency. This is the region
within which the shock waves from the collapses of small
bubbles and detached cavities begin to dominate the
spectrum. The shock wave amplitudes begin to decay at
frequencies higher than those corresponding to the collapse time of the bubbles, i.e. at about 500 times the
blade frequency.
No transfer functions were determined for the configurations in Fig. 7 and therefore the dip in the spectra
occurring at 15-20 times the blade frequency might be
somewhat exaggerated due to the influence of the tunnel
walls. (A discussion, similar to the one above, although
based on another type of spectra, can be found in /41/).
I0.I3
It is evident from Fig. 7 that the magnitude of the three

amplitude maxima, detectable for each ship, are related
in some way to the wake distribution. Of particular
interest is the high level of the high frequency peak of
Ship No. 4. This high value is most likely due to the
fact that the wake peak of this ship is very steep in the
region close to the upright position of the blade. This
assumption is supported by results from investigations
with propellers /41/ and oscillating hydrofoils /42, 43/
which show that a rapid change of the angle of attack of
a cavitating blade section promotes violent collapses and
thereby increases the contribution from the shock wave to
the spectrum.
10.2.3
Determination of the source level by calculations
As mentioned above the results presented in Fig. 7 indicate

that certain features of the spectra from a cavitating propeller are related to the wake distribution. This opens the
possibilities of establishing calculation or estimation
methods analogous to*those existing for low frequency excitation, although the relations can be expected to be more complicated in the high frequency case. So far no such methods
have, however, been published.
When determining the source level by purely theoretical
methods mainly two kinds of difficulties arise. First, when
calculating the contribution to the spectrum from the main
cavity, the higher order oscillations are the ones of interest. Thus higher accuracy is required of the mathematical
model, as well as of the numerical scheme, than when calculating the amplitudes of blade frequency and the first
harmonics
thereof. Secondly, the contribution from the shock waves,
emanating from the collapses *at-*the, trailing edge of the
cavity has to be determined.
Nevertheless, in /44/, some results of calculations were
published, carried out- using a -refined numerical representation of the oscillations of the main cavity, covering frequencies of up to 60 times the blade frequency, the contribution
from the shock waves being neglected. Calculations carried out
for Ship No. 5 of Fig. 7 showed good agreement with experiment, but for another case the differences calculation experiment were larger. One reason for the good agreement in
the case of Ship No. 5 might be that the contribution of the
shock waves to the amplitudes seems to be small for that ship
according to Fig. 7.
10.2.4
Determination of the source level by model tests.
Scale effects
When converting spectra from model tests to full scale, the
scaling laws applying to the low frequency part of the spec-
10.14
trum could be expected to be the same as those used for the

amplitudes of blade frequency discussed earlier in connection
with vibration excitation. For the contribution from the shock
waves other relations model - full scale should, however,
apply and large efforts have been devoted over the years to
establish such scaling laws, see /41, 45-51/. The result of
these investigations indicated that different relations model - full scale apply to different parts of the spectrum.
It is, however, concluded in /51/ that, under certain assumptions, the following scaling formulas apply to the spectral
lines, as wall as to continuous part of the spectrum.
PS (f 5
Pm
af S)
a
m am)
and
f
f
r
F
r5
Ds
-
PS
_
n
(f
0
9
m 0n
n
(10)
where
p = pressure amplitude
f - frequency
a = constant, relating bandwidth to centre frequency
r = distance from source point to field point
n = number of revs
p = density
s
ship
m - model
The main limitations of the.,applicability..of. these formulas
are:
1)
The results should be given as amplitude spectra having

constant percentage, bandwidth (e.g. one third octave band
spectra). Otherwise the frequencies enter also into Eq.
2)
The model and full scale measurements should be carried

out at the same cavitation number, i.e. as = GM. Otherwise a factor (aS/aM)n enters into Eq. (9). There are
somewhat different views on the value of the exponent n,
see /51/. This fact has to be considered for predictions
of radiated noise for naval propellers working close to
cavitation inception, in which case the model tests very
often have to be carried out at conditions corresponding
to 0 M < as, as the scale effects on some types of cavitation are rather large.
10.15
3)
Strictly spoken the formulas are applicable for all

frequencies only when shock waves do not occur but it is
concluded from experience in /51/ that they can be regarded as a good approximation also in cases for which the
spectrum shows signs of shock waves.
If the transducers are placed in geometrically similar points

in the model and full scale cases, rmDs/rsDm - 1 and Eq. (9)
collapses to the well known Kg-scaling, see Eq. (8).
The results of a comparison between model tests in the SSPA
cavitation tunnel and full scale, based on Eqs. (9) and (10),
are shown in Fig. 8 (Ship No. 5 of Fig. 7). The diagram in
Fig. 9 indicates good agreement model - full scale over the
whole frequency range investigated. It has, however, to be
pointed out, that for this ship the contribution of the shock
waves to the amplitudes seems to be rather small, see Fig. 7.
Further comparisons of this kind are shown in /49/, including
a sister ship fitted with a propeller of an alternative design.
10.2.5
Estimation of the source level by procedures based on
statistical approach
From the results presented in Fig. 7 it is reasonable to
assume that the very simple formulas for determining the
source strength of a propeller that have existed since long
are not very accurate. This assumption is supported by views
expressed
in /50/, where some formulas of this kind are given and discussed. (In these formulas mainly number-of revs; frequency,
number of blades and propeller diameter are considered). Even
for formulas of this kind, published more recently, which are
based on a large and modemn material, see e.g. /52 and 53/ a
rather large standard deviation-is acknowledged (6-11 db). A
somewhat more serious approach is described in /54/.
In this case the influence of cavitation and propeller loading
is considered by introducing parameters used in /31/ for the
estimation of low frequency vibration excitation. Then three
coefficients are introduced for each frequency band (17 bands
starting from 5 times blade frequency), the coefficients being
based on carefully conducted measurements on seven ships of
different types. The results presented for one ship, not being
part of the material used, showed very good agreement with
measurement when the ship was fitted with a conventional
propeller but overpredicted the levels by 15-20 db for a
skewed propeller.
10.16
.It should be mentioned that the formulas referred to above are

used both for predicting radiated noise and the pressures
acting on the shell plating of the ship.
10.3
Different ways of reducing the excitation level
10.3.1
General
These measures can be divided into three categories:

A)
B)
C)
Giving the hull (particularly the stern) a proper shape

at the design stage
Improving the hull shape at a later stage
Considering the excitation level when designing the
propeller
In all three cases a general experience is that the most

efficient ways of reducing the excitation level very often
cause an increase of the power consumption and thus a proper
compromise has to be found.
It has also to be pointed out that not all measures of reducing the excitation level are efficient over the whole frequency range of interest. As most of the investigations reported in the literature only include low frequency results,
most of the material discussed below applies mainly to vibration excitation and to some extent to low frequency noise
excitation only.
10.3.2
Selection of stern shape for single screw ships
For practical reasons and also from the point of view of fuel
economy V-shaped afterbodies are favoured on single screw
ships. Several investigations.-indicate, however,, that behind
such a ship the wake field is in many cases characterized by
very large circumferential velocity variations which promote
unsteady cavitation, thereby increasing the level of the
pressure fluctuations. A. considerable improvement can be
attained if a U-form or a bulbous stern is introduced. The
reason for this improvement is that rather strong bilge
vortices are created which can have an equalizing effect on
the wake field. (There is, however, a risk that the strength
of the vortices is made too strong, which may again increase
the excitation level.)
These phenomena are illustrated by Figs. 9-12 taken from /55/
in which the results of an investigation of models of large
tankers carried out at SSPA were reported.
It is evident from Figs. 9-12 that the results follow the
tendency indicated above, i.e. the best shape from view of
vibration excitation (the U-shape) has the highest power
10-17
consumption. It is also shown that for the U-shaped and the

bulbous sterns there is a tendency that the wake is increasing
in the region df 45-60 degrees which indicates that, if the
vortices created had been a little stronger, wake patterns,
less favourable in view of vibration excitation, could have
been the result.
It is also well known that ample clearances are very important.- An extreme application of this is the clearwater ot open
stern characterized by extreme clearances forward of the
propeller, which also has a beneficial influence on the wake
distribution. The importance of ample clearances between
propeller and hull is illustrated by the diagram of Fig. 13,
which is taken from /11/ and used for approximate calculations
of vibration excitation amplitudes. It is based on statistics
and theoretical calculations for merchant ship propellers
having 4-6 blades. It has to be emphasized that both the
vertical and the longitudinal clearance is of importance. (The
diagram in Fig. 13 is based mainly on measurements made above
the propeller but has been shown to give good results also in
longitudinal direction).
Provided the bossings are well designed, the wake field of a
conventional twin-screw ship is normally more uniform than
that of the corresponding single-screw ship. To increase the
propulsion efficiency the twin skeg alternative was introduced some years ago. This means, however, that the propeller
has to work in a less favourable wake field than in the case
of a classical twin-screw ship. To improve this situation it
has been proposed to give the skegs a form creating a rotation
of the flow approaching the propeller /56/.
Also for single screw ships this idea has been suggested and
applied. The main aim is in this case to reduce the fuel
consumption but, on the basis of measured wake distributions,
it is claimed that also the amplitudes of the pressure fluctuations and the shaft forces are reduced /57 and 58/. The
same applies to several other pre-swirl and wake equalizing
devices, see e.g. /58/.
10.3.3
Improvement of the wake distribution for a given basic
shape of the stern
A common way of improving the wake distribution for the propeller is to fit the ship with some type of stern fins, the
shape of which is dependent on the type of wake and stern
shape used in the case considered. Information on the successful application of different types of fins can be found in
/59-62/.
In some cases attempts have been made to initegrate the fins in
the hull /62/.
Examples of different types of fins, tested on a model of a
container ship at SSPA are shown in Fig. 14. The reduction in
i0.18
hull pressure amplitudes were of the order of 50 per cent, the

reduction of maximum speed 0.3 - 0.5 knots, sea, /l/.
Another way of improving the wake is to fit small plates
oblique to the flow in front of the propeller, so called
vortex generators /63-65/.
By the use of such a device the bilge vortices can be affected
before they have developed very far. The introduction of this
device was delayed by the fact that the results of the investigation first published showed an increase of the power
consumption of about 10 per cent when the generators were
fitted, see /63/. At SSPA, however, very good results have
been obtained when using an optimizing procedure in the towing
tank, consisting of simultaneous measurement of the resistance
and maximum wake for a large number of combinations of the
angle attack of the two plates. The best combinations are
then tested in the cavitation tunnel, see Fig. 15. For the
configuration for which the largest reduction of the amplitude
was obtained a power increase of about 3 per cent was registered.-
A successful application of this concept was also reported in

/65/.
A free running rotor ahead of the propeller has been shown to
have an equalizing effect on the wake /66/. Since the rotcr
works as a turbine in the high speed regions and as a propeller in the low speed regions, it shifts energy between
these regions.
10.3.4
Higrh speed twin screw ships
For this type of ships two parameters are most important,

A)
B)
i.e.
The clearance between the propeller tip and the hull

The shaft inclination
As mentioned above the-amplitudes of the pressure fluctuations

increase very rapidly when the propeller tip is approached,
see Fig. 13.
Although a reduction of the shaft inclination does not reduce
the cavitation extension very much, the cavitation is getting
much more steady which has an appreciable reducing effect on
the amplitudes of the pressure fluctuations (also the risk of
blade erosion is reduced).
The reasons for the unsteadiness are in this case that the
shadow behind the shaft creates a peak in the axial wake
pattern and that a sinusoidal change of the tangential inflow
is created.
10.19
In many cases the only way of increasing the clearance is to

increase the shaft inclination. This is one of the many cases
in which a compromise has to be found.
In order to reduce the non-uniformity in the tangential inflow
it has been suggested to put a stator in front of the propeller in accordance with Fig. 16, see /67/. By doing so also
the efficiency could be improved appreciably.
10.3.5
Selection of Propeller Parameters
As is well known, the number of blades is very important for

the magnitude of the shaft forces. For the surface forces,
however, the number of blades seems to be of importance mainly
when very little
cavitation is present. In general the diameter and rpm are determined so as to give optimum efficiency.
Thus reduction of propeller rpm should be accompanied by an
increase in diameter. Results of a model investigation illustrating the effect of such a change of the diameter were
published in /68/. They showed that, when cavitation was
significant, the amplitudes of the pressure fluctuations were
smaller for the low rpm propeller, in spite of the smaller
clearances.
The effect of decreasing the propeller diameter while.keeping
the rpm constant was studied in /69/. The results indicated
that when the diameter was reduced by 20 per cent the efficiency was reduced by about 4 per cent. Due to the increased
clearance a 50-60 per cent reduction of the amplitudes was
obtained in points above the propeller.
10.3.6
Influence of the propeller blade design
The two most common ways of considering the risk of vibration,

when designing the propeller blades, are the following
1)
To unload the-blade tips,
2)
To incorporate high skew in the design.
Recently also new blade section shapes have been introduced

with some success.
The advantage expected by reducing the load in the tip region
is to get a corresponding reduction of the cavity volume in a
region where the local cavitation number is low and the peripheral load variation large and thus the cavity very large
and unsteady. The advantages and disadvantages of this concept
are illustrated by the diagrams in Figs. 17-18, see /27/. Fig.
17 shows the decrease in pressure amplitude of blade frequency
when unloading the tips but also the corresponding reduction
of efficiency. From Fig. 18 it is evident that the beneficial
16
*20
effect of the unloading is smaller for the amplitudes of

higher order than at blade frequency.
In Figs. 17 and 18 also the results obtained for a highly
skewed are included (P1843) and it is evident that, for this
propeller, much smaller amplitudes are obtained over the whole
frequency range than for propeller P1842, designed to have the
same radial load distribution as P1843, but a more conventio.nal blade shape. For the efficiency the situation is not so
clear from Fig. 17 but results in /70/ including propellers
with very extreme degrees of skew back indicate no influence
of the blade shape on efficiency, provided the blade area and
radial load distribution is the same.
Results of a more systematic investigation of the influence of
skew back on the pressure distribution of the hull are shown
in Fig. 19, see /71/.
Thus there is, as could be expected, no evidence of loss of
efficiency for a highly skewed propeller, compared to the
corresponding propeller with conventional blade shape. Instead
there is, however, as is well known, another drawback with
this type of propeller, i.e. the fact that stress concentrations occur, particularly when backing with fixed pitch propellers.
The best application for this type of propeller is therefore a
CP propeller, for which the turning direction has not to be
reversed. Accordingly, when using this concept for fixed pitch
propellers, the dimensions of the blades are normally based on
strength calculations using Finite Element Methods. These
problems are discussed in detail in e.g. /16/.
Results of an early attempt to reduce the excitation forces
from a cavitating propeller by modifying the shape of the
blade sections are shown in /72/. In this approach. the maximum
thickness of the outer blade sections was moved much closer to
the leading edge (LF/L =0.3-0.1) than is normally the case
(LF/L = 0.5). This idea is based on theoretical calculations
indicating that, by doing so, a smoother pressure distribution
is obtained than for the modified MACA sections normally used,
the results being a better cavitation performance.
In /72/ also guidelines for the suitable position of the
maximum thickness were given, the thickness/length ratio and
leading edge radius being the important parameters. The results of the cavitation tests indicated a considerable reduction of the excitation level when adopting the new sections.
More sophisticated calculation methods being available today,
arbitrary combinations of mean lines and thickness distributions can be investigated. These possibilities have resulted
in large efforts in different parts of the world and already
some results have been published, see /73/.
10.21
It seems so far that the most promising blade sections are

characterized by the maximum thickness being rather
close
the leading edge and the maximum camber moved towards the to
trailing edge.
10.4
Unconventional propellers
The most well known unconventional propellers are contrarotating and ducted propellers.
When applying contra-rotating propellers the main aim is
to
increase the efficiency but the fact that the load is divided
between two propellers might reduce the excitation level
the system in spite of the fact that the inflow to the aftof
propeller is disturbed by velocity variations, induced by
the
forward propeller. Measurements confirm that a reasonable
reduction of the excitation level could be obtained /74/.
In the case of a ducted propeller a more substantial reduction
can be expected, provided an accelerating duct is used. Not
only is part of the load (20-30 per cent) carried by the
duct
but also an equalizing effect is hopefully obtained. As shown
in Fig. 20 it is not necessary to reduce the extension of
the
cavitation very much , the important effect instead being
to
reduce or eliminate the peripheral variations. This is, however, a difficult task and if the wake variations are very
large the ideal condition shown in Fig. 20 is not realized
an axi-symmetric duct. In such a case a better effect might by
be
achieved by introducing a non-axisymmetric duct of the type
shown in Fig. 21. Values of efficiency and excitation level
for such a duct are compared with the corresponding values
an axi-symmetric duct and conventional propellers in Figs. for
1718. It is evident that, at least in this particular case,
the
introduction of a non-axisymmetric duct was very successful,
see /74/.
An extreme application of the ducted propeller concept is
the
so called pump Jet which consists of a propeller having many
blades, a stator for elimination of the induced velocities
from the propeller, thereby reducing the optimum diameter
increasing the efficiency, and a duct. Such configurations and
are
used for many torpedoes and also for some submarines for
reduction of the excitation level.
It has now and then been discussed to make use of the elastic
properties of the blades of the propeller in reducing the
load
variations occuring when the blades are rotating in the unequal flowfield behind the ship. The realization of this idea
has
been hampered by the fact that, for a conventional blade,
the
load variations caused by the wake variations cause deformations which are normally directed so that the load variations
are further increased. However, the introduction of modern
composite materials opens the possibilities of controlling
the
direction and magnitude of the deformations by proper com-
I0.22
binations of blade shape and dimensions and directions of the

reinforcements (fibres) of the blades. Development work on
such a concept is now going on in Sweden (commercial name
FLEXPROP). A way to achieve, at least partially,
the same
effect is indicated in /75/. In the "Pinnate" propeller the
pitch of the blades is forced to change in a sinusoidal way by
the influence of a mechanical link system. A reduction of the
pressure fluctuations is reported in /75/.
10.5
Unconventional propulsors and transverse thrusters
Not very much is published in the open literature about the

levels of vibration and noise excitation for unconventional
propulsors and transverse thrusters.
The cycloidal propeller, of which the most widely used type is
the Voith-Schneiderpropeller, has large advantages from point
of view Of manoeuvring. A disadvantage from point of view of
vibration and noise excitation is the fact that the thrust is
realized by the angle of attack rather than by camber and that
the angle of attack is changing with blade position. On the
other hand due to the relatively low peripheral speed, the
blade sections can be made rather thick which makes them less
sensitive to changes of angle of attack. In /76/ some results
of measurements of radiated noise made in full scale for one
ship fitted with cycloidal propellers and similar ships are
discussed. Due to the fact that the ships compared were not
sisterships the comparison is not very conclusive. The most
striking result is that the noise levels for the ship fitted
with cycloidal propellers are higher than the levels for the
other ships in the low frequency range (below 150 Hz).
A thorough study of another unconventional propulsor is presented in /77/, i.e. the water jet. In this system the thrust
is generated by an axial flow pump which, at a first glance
seems to work in a smooth flow. It is, however, shown in /77/
that, if the water inlet is not designed with care, the flow
into the pump will have large velocity gradients which may
cause vibration, noise and blade erosion. In /77/ vortex
generators were used -for improving the flow into the pump in
one case.
A side thruster is supposed to give thrust in both directions.
The logical way of fulfilling this claim is to give the blades
symmetrical blade sections. Thus the thrust has to be created
by angle of attack only which increases the risk of cavitation. This risk is further increased by the disturbance caused
by the gear housing present in the tunnel. Accordingly, it is
shown in /78/ that cavitation can be expected to occur over a
wide range of operating conditions which increases the levels
of the radiated noise /78/. One possibility of delaying the
inception of cavitation is to incorporate extreme forward skew
in the design /79/. The noise radiated into the ship can be
reduced by resilient mounting of the thruster tunnel /80/.
10.23
"\
10.
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/3/
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/4/
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/11/
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10.24
/12/
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/13/
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/16/
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/17/
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/19/
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/20/
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/21/
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/23/
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10.25
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/25/
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/26/
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/28/
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/30/
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/31/
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,/32/
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/33/
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/34/
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Center, Washington, D.C. June 1969
Ie.26
/35/
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propeller blade forces". 14th International towing
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/36/
Wereldsma, R.: "Last remarks on the comparative model

tests on vibratory propeller forces". Ibid
/37/
Miller, M.L.: "Experimental determination of unsteady

propeller forces". 7th Symposium on naval hydrodynamics, Rome, Aug. 1968, Proceedings. Office of Naval
Research (ONR) Publication DR-148
/38/
Parsons, M.G.: "Model coupling in torsional and

longitudinal shafting vibrations". Marine technology,
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/39/
ten Wolde, T., and de Bruijn, A.: "A new method for
the measurement of the acoustical source strength of
cavitating propellers". International shipbuilding
progress, vol. 22, No. 255, 1975
/40/
de Bruijn, A., and Versmissen, A.G.P.: "Model experiments for the determination of the acoustic source
strength of ship propeller cavitation of S.S. Abel
Tasman". Netherlands Maritime Institute, Monograph
M25, Rotterdam, Oct. 1979
/41/
Lo/vik, A.: "Scaling of propeller cavitation noise".

ELAB Report STF*44 A 8013, University of Trondheim,
Febr. 1980
/42/
Bark, G., and van Berlekom, W.B.: "Experimental

investigations of cavitation dynamics and cavitation
noise". 12th ONR Symposium- on naval hydrodynamics,
Washington, D.C., June 1978, Proceedings. See also
SSPA Publication No. 83
/43/
Bark, G.: "Development of distortions in sheet cavitation of hydrofoils". International symposium on

jets and cavities, (ASME W.A. meeting), Miami Beach,
Fla. Nov. 1985
/44/
Tyvand, N.P.: "Theoretical

prediction". Noise sources
Nordforsk Miljdv~rdsserien
son
and N.P. Tyvand, Stockholm
/45/
model for propeller noise

in ships. I: Propellers.
1981:2. Ed. by A.C. Nils1981
Levkovskii, T.L.: "Modelling of cavitation noise".

Soviet physics acoustics, vol. 13, No. 3, 1968
10.27
/46/
Baiter, H.J.: "Aspects of cavitation noise". Symposium on high powered propulsion of large ships,
Wageningen, Dec. 1974, Proceedings, Publication No.
490 from Netherlands Ship Model Basin, Part 2
/47/
Strasberg, M.: "Propeller cavitation noise after 35

years of study". ASME Symposium on noise and fluids
engineering, Atlanta, Ga., Nov.-Dec. 1977, Proceedings. Ed. by R. Hickling
/48/
Blake, W.K., and Sevik, M.M.: "Recent developments in

cavitation noise research". International Symposium
on cavitation noise, ASME, Phoenix, Ariz., Nov. 1982,
Proceedings. Ed. by R.E.A. Arndt and M.L. Billet
Bark, G.: "Prediction of propeller cavitation noise
from model tests and its comparison will full scale
data". Journal of fluids engineering, Trans. of ASME,
vol. 107, March 1985
/49/
/50/
Blake, W.K.: "Mechanics of flow-induced sound and

vibration". Vol. II, Academic Press, 1986
/51/
Bark, G.: "On the mechanisms of propeller cavitation

noise". Doctor's thesis, Chalmers University of
Technology, Division of Mechanics, Gdteborg, Sweden,
1988
/52/
Gray, L.M., and Greely, D.S.: "Source level model for

propeller blade rate radiation for the world's merchant fleet". Journal of the Acoustical Society of
America, Febr. 1980
/53/
Wright, E.B., and Cybulski, J.. "Low-frequency acoustic source levels of large merchant ships". Naval
Research Laboratory; NRL Report 8677> Washington,
D.C. March 1983
/54/
de Bruijn, A., Moelker, W.H., and Absil, F.G.J.:

"Prediction method for the acoustic source strength
of propeller cavitation". 2nd International symposium
on shipboard acoustics (ISSA '86), the Hague, the
Netherlands, Oct. 1986, Proceedings, vol. 1
Dyne, G., and Idunger, L.: "Final report on propulsion, cavitation and vibration properties of large
single screw tankers with different stern shapes".
SSPA Project Report K167-10, April 1973
/55/
/56/
Tomassi, G.B..: "A hydrodynamic study of the cochleachanneled stern". International shipbuilding progress, vol. 4, No. 277, pp. 237-261, Sept. 1977
10.28
/57/
Collatz, G.: "Treibstoffeinsparung durch asymmetrische Hinterschiffsformen fUr Einschrauben-Schiffe"

(Fuelsaving by asymmetric stern shapes for single
screw ships). Schiff und Hafen, vol. 34, No. 1/2,
1982 (in German)
/58/
Ninnecke, E.A.: ""Schiffe mit treibstoffsparendem

asymmetrischen Heck - Anwendung und Erfahrungen"
(Ships with fuelsaving, asymmetric stern - use and
experiencies). Schiff und Hafen, vol. 39, No. 9, 1987
(in German)
/59/
Carlton, J.S., and Bantham, I.: "Full scale experience relative to the propeller and its environment".
Propellers '78 symposium (SNAME), Virginia Beach, Va.
May 1978
/60/
Rutherford, R.: "Aft end shaping to limit vibration".

Trans. NECI, vol. 95, pp. 197-215, 1978-79
/61/
Takekuma, K.: "Vibration problems with a class of

cargo liner and the solution from fitting a fin".
Symposium on propeller induced ship vibration, RINA,
London 1979, Paper No. 18
/62/
"The ideas behind B and W's economy hull design".

Motor ship, vol. 58, No. 688, pp. 70-72, Nov. 1977
/63/
Matheson, N.: "Wind tunnel studies of a ship model

using vortex generators to improve wake velocities".
Aust. Def. Sc. Serv. Note ARL/A 347, 1974
/64/
Flewitt, J.R.. "Problems with stern design on small

ship". Naval architect, No. 6, pp. 238-239, 1979
/65/
Gadd, G.E.: "Flow deflectors - a cure for vibration".

Naval architect, Nov. 1980
/66/
Nagamatsu, N.. "On equalisation of wake non-uniformity". Kansai Society of Naval Architects Journal, No.
168, pp. 45-50,. 1978
/67/
Gerhart, W.S.: "Advanced propulsor design studies".

Pennsylvania Res. Lab. Report CG-D-1-86, June 1985
/68/
Dyne, G.: "Influence of ship size, afterbody shape

and propeller speed of rotation on propeller performance". SSPA Publication No. 79, 1977
/69/
Bjarne, E.: "Propellers with restricted diameter design principles, efficiency and cavitation properties". Conference on Advances in propeller research
and design, Gdansk 1981
10.29
/70/
Cumming, R.A., Morgan, W.B., and Boswell, R.J.:

"Highly skewed propellers". Trans. SNAME, vol. 80,
1972
/71/
Bjbrheden, 0.: "The design and performance of highly

skewed controllable pitch propellers". Motor ship,
Aug. 1981
/72/
Johnsson, C.-A.: "On the reduction of propeller

excitation by modifying the blade section shape".
Naval architect, No. 3, pp. 113-115, May 1980
/73/
Yamaguchi, H. et al.: "Development of marine propellers with better cavitation performance". Journal
Society of Naval Architects of Japan, vol. 163 (2nd
Report) and vol. 164 (3rd Report), June 1988 and Dec.
1988
/74/
Johnsson, C.-A.: "Investigations of a new type of

contra-rotating propellers and other means of improving the propulsive efficiency". Bulletin Association
Technique Maritime et Adronautique (ATMA), April 1989
/75/
Simonsson, P.: "The Pinnate propeller". SNAME Propellers

'81 symposium, Virginia Beach, Va. May 1981
/76/
Wales, S.C., and Adams, B.B.: "Stern-aspect noise

radiated by the cycloidally propeller vessel "Seacon"
and its comparison with that radiated by conventionally propelled vessels". Naval Research Laboratory
Report No.
8623, Washington, D.C., Aug. 1982
/77/
Holden, K. et al.: "On development and experience of

waterjet propulsion systems". International Maritime
Association of the East Mediterranean 2nd International congress, Trieste Sept. 1981
/78/
Yusa, H. et al.: "Study on the characterictics of

propeller cavitation and its noise". 16th ONR Symposium on naval hydrodynamics, Berkeley, Calif. 1986,
Proceedings
/79/
Brown, N.A., and Norton, A.: "Thruster design for

acoustic positioning systems". Marine technology,
vol. 12, pp. 123-137, April 1975
/80/
Nilsson, A.C.: "Noise reduction of bow thrusters".

2nd International symposium on shipboard acoustics
(ISSA '86), the Hague, the Netherlands, Oct. 1986,
Proceedings, vol. 2
10.30
ofg *
beck
hn
bad
( fAo.),
......
........
'
-.............
limit
c u lion
p as ai wp
Fig. I A.
PM
of incidence
Typical cavitation patterns on the blades of a propeller for a single screw ship.
10. 31
Ship No I
Ship No2
40'
Ship No 3
0
E,~
Ship No2
60OiRcrit
Uo.7Rcrt
50OiRit
E
0
0!1
62
02L
OA
OS
0.6
0.7 0+8 0-9 1.0 1.1

1.2
Cavitation number CU.R
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
Ship No 2
0.9 -6
0.8-927
0.7
12020
Ship No.3
150
o
0.Ship Nod.2
180
Shp0o
.0.3-
0.I0
0Q36
15
010.3
3010
Sejtion
Lt
Section 1
Section V
Fig. 2.
factor, Stot,
Calculated values of solid boundary
/15/. Dotted
From
effects.
including free surface
= 2.0.
lines represent the value Sto t
10.33
F2
Fx
Mx
Fig. 3.
Components of shaft forces.
10
.34
(T)
i8 0
360
Jw.L
i
-deadwood cutawa
I--3
:ST,,
0.0
-.6
TTI
I.
I_ 1__
-.241
--
"u---/-
0.o_OL-'--n
I'
de
---
0d.od Cuaway
-.
04.
I
.4 -
2.
Radius, r/R
Fig. 5.
Wake harmonics 1-4 for the wake distributions of

Fig. 4.
10.36
-. 04
- -
X-Ii
~ 04
0.0~~---------------
R adiuas, r/R
Fig. 6.
Wake harmonics 5-8 for the wake distributions of

Fig. 4..
I0.37
6
LKp: 20 log lO Kp
i.
90i
80I
Severe erosion
i
Hi
4Ca
30
"6
0i
Ship No 5
Shi p Noa4/
INo
5 10 20
50 00 2W5
Ship No 4
Multiples of blade frequency
BO
hip Not.1
7i9
Ship NO
80
Ship No4
h1
0V2
T2
so
2I
c-'0
3033
33
Up
60
Fig. 7.
Diode pOS..
90
120
V,degrees
50
Ship NoBS.Tip anid hub vortex onay

Down
Amplitude spectra, cavitation extensions and wake

distributions
for three ships. Spectra from
measurements in points above the propellers and
corrected to a clearance az/D = 0.3.
I. .38
LKP: 20 log 1O6Kp
100
-6-FuH! scale
-6---
Cavi tation t umel
70
---
50
30-
Fig. 8.
__
__
__
__
5
10
20
50
100
Multiples of blade frequency
200
500 1000
Amplitude spectra from full scale measurements

and model tests in the SSPA Cavitation Tunnel.
Ship No. 5 in Fig. 7.
10.39
V-STERN
U- STERN
--
Fig.
9.
BULBOUS STERN
Tanker ship investigation of /55/. Body plans.
IG.40
I_
INI II
II I
i fi
l I
IN
I
iI
q._Lq
ItIII I
1z11
i
-I
-I 1
--23
Eg. i0.
Take
I
sipIneigio
f/5.Wedsrb-
tions.
IO0.41
PDT
(%PT)VF
120
U- stern
V-stern
1,00-
60
7390
100'
rpm
Bulbous stern
0.90
Fig. 21.
Tanker ship investigation of /55/. Comparison of

shaft power.
I.42
V
0
0
Kp
32
030
Fig. 12.
V-STERN
U- STERN
BULBOUS STERN
of
Tanker ship investigation of /55/. Comparison
in
Transducer
measured hull pressure amplitudes.
propeller.
the
the stern above
10.43
Kpo:
0.06
2C 0
2 2
PD n
-1 B080
0.05
Modified curve
0.04
TheoreticoL, curve
0.03
2
0.03
801
0.01-
000.2
0.4
VerticaL clearance oz/D

Fig. 13.
Influence of clearance propeller-hull on the

amplitudes of the propeller fluctuations.
From /11/.
10.44
a9
1.5
1 0
2 UI
Fig. 14.
Ir
It
7F
Different types of stern fins for improvement of

the wake distribution.
10.45
-w
c0o
t0J
0-
00
'I
I0.4
'46 T'4 ao;
90TA8P
Wzs/ w013 -sdxqs peeds

TITMSSJd pa~se66ns ;oO Dfl2UJBOS
C)
C:
CD
n>
10.47
' 9T
TA4
o Conventional prop.Wcgeningen type

o
calc. lifting surface theory.
having extreme skew
, Propeller with axi-symmetric duct
non-axisymmetric duct
--- Propellers having same radial circulation
distribution.
(1I-TI1967) 100 per cent
Efficiency
1118677
-10
-5
0.5
/ P1865
PP1868
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Pitch ratio PO.95R/PO4R
AmpL.
AmpI. 1867
1.0
0.5
Press. fluct.,
blade frecuency
0.5
1.1
P1867
P18Z,2
P18P3
Fig. 17.
1.0
44
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Pitch ratio Pns5R/PohR
1.0
1.1
Influence of radial blade load distribution on

efficiency and pressure flubtuations of blade
frequency. From /74/.
10.48
o Conventional prop.Wageningen type

o
caic. lifting surface theory.
a,
having extreme skew
& Propeller with axi-symmetric duct
d
non-axisymmetric duct
--- Propellers having same radial circulation
distribution.
Ampi.
Ampl.186 7
Press. fluct.
twice blade frequency
1.5
Pi8/-5
1.0
I I
Ploa"/?P1842
Pla3
0.5
0i
P1868
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.1
1.0
Pitch ratio P0.95R/PIAR

Press. fluct.
250 times blade frequency
Ampi.
AmpLlB67
1.5
P1845
P1P4
Lo-
-18
P17
0.5
P8,3
-A
P1868
A(
0 0.5
Fig. 18.
0.6
0.7
0.8
09
Pitch ratio, P0.95R/'P0R
1.0
1.1
Influence of radial blade load distribution on
pressure fluctuations of twice and 250 times blade

frequency. From /74/.
10.49
Peak- to peak
single amplitude
000A
cavi toting
"
Eavitotino
6Rj'..not
1000/4
790
68",
25
00
25
50
.750 skew
oanle
Harmonic components
single amplitude
1000/A
690A0
F
I,4o/
290/6
250
0.
12.3
1.2.34
n-z =blode frequency
Fig. 19.
500
113.L
7l0skew
123.4 angle
Results of systematic tests with highly skewed

propellers. From /71/.
10.50
00
U1
Lii
LO
W
NZ
10.51
D057
00
200
Fig.
21..
Non-axisymnietric ducts of /74/.
10.52
APPENDIX
Calculation of the contribution of cavitation to the surface

forces
Assuming the volume variations of the cavities on the propeller blades to be known, the determination of the contribution of cavitation to the excitation level is made on the
basis of the Bernoulli equation for unsteady flow, as is done
when calculating the other contributions listed above. Thus
- --
84'
+
PPw
UuT
c(t)
(1)
w
where
*
p
p
UT
velocity potential
static pressure at field point
density of water
total velocity at field point (including induced
velocities u.,, u, u,). x, y and z being coordinates of a
coordinate system fixed in space and with the origin in
the propeller centre
The contribution to the potential from thickness and loading

of the propeller blade sections can be determined by replacing
the blades by distributions of sources and sinks and pressure
dipoles or vortices respectively /6/.
The contribution of the cavity to the potential is determined
by representing the volume variations by a distribution of
sources and sinks, the elementary source strength a being
o
(V)
(2)
where
V
= volume of cavity element /7-10/.
After simplification and linearization this gives
av
c=
av(3
(3)
Inserting
4nr
(4)
and
a y1
IC.53
where
r
y
(
distance between elementary source element and field

point
angular coordinate of propeller blade
angular velocity of propeller blade
we get
2
~(1_-a.-)
Pw
4n8y
8Y
4nr
2
-~
a-y
(5)
the last expression being applicable to points far away

from
the propeller for which r = const. After integration
over the
cavity the total pressure in a field point is obtained
/7-10/.
Thus the volume of the cavity, as well as the rapidity
of the
change of the volume is governing how large the amplifying
influence of cavitation on the pressure pulses will be.
Further, the occurrence of 1/r in Eq. (5) indicates
that
amplifying effect of cavitation is larger for the field the
points
far away from the propeller than for points close to
the
propeller, as the non-cavitating influence decays much
more
rapidly.
The discussion leading to Eq. (5) does not apply to
the tip
vortex region, for which modified expressions have to
be
deduced, see /7/.
The effect expressed by Eq. (5) is demonstrated for
three
ship-propeller configurations in Fig. 1 B.
10.54
CHAPTER: 3
TRANSMISSION
16th WEGEMT SCHOOL
DAY
SESSION
CHAPTER
WEDNESDAY
Noise and Vibration

3. TRANSMISSION
INTRODUCTORY LESSON
by
TEACHER
COMPANY
(till 1991)
COMPANY
(since 1992)
COUNTRY
Luciana RICCIARDIELLO
CETENA (Italian Ship Research Center)
Via al Molo Giano (Calata Grazie)
16126 Genova
AUTOMA (Industrial Systems Automation)
Via al Molo Vecchio (Calata Gadda)
16126 Genova
ITALY
TEACHER'S BIOGRAPHY
Born in 1953, she graduated in Mathematics at the University of
Genoa in 1976. In the same year she joined CETENA (Italian Ship
Research Centre) first working at the EDP department and then at
the Noise and Vibration one.
1976 + 1991 Main Activities
development of theoretical models and related software for the
prediction of vibration and noise on board; participation to the
activities of International Technical Committees .(ISSC, ICMES and
ISO Working Groups); responsability of technical aspects and
scientific coordination of EC Projects (MAST, COMETT).
In late 1991, she left CETENA and joined AUTOMA
(Industrial
Systems Automation), Research and Development Department.
At present she is involved in Neural Networks development and
applications.
LESSON 11
16th WEGEMT SCHOOL
SESSION
CHAPTER
TEACHER
COMPANY
COUNTRY
3.
Noise and Vibration

TRANSMISSION
3.1
Interaction Source - Ship Structure
11.
Resilient Mounting
R.G. WHITE
ISVR - Institute of Sound and Vibration Research
Southampton S09 5NH
UNITED KINGDOM
ABSTRACT
Simple models, such as one and two degree of freedom systems,
are considered for representing vibration isolation systems;
these are of use for understanding basic principles but their
limitations are evident.
Impedance and mobility concepts are
introduced in order to enable more representative models to be
developed for practical machinery installations, with particular
reference to high frequency vibration isolation. Consideration
is given to the multi-degree-of-freedom nature of the
machine/seating interface. Finally, some basic active vibration
control techniques are examined.
AUTHOR'S BIOGRAPHY
Professor Bob White joined the University of Southampton from
the Royal Aerospace Establishment at Farnborough in 1967.
He
became a member of the academic staff in 1970 and was appointed
Professor of Vibration Studies in the Institute of Sound and
Vibration Research (ISVR) in 1983.
The ISVR has an
international reputation as one of the leading centres for
teaching, research and consultancy in the noise and vibration
field, and Professor White served as its Director for a period
of seven years.
He has now relinquished this post to devote
more time to his research activities and to serve as Director of
the Institute of Transducer Technology, a new organisation set
up in 1986 at Southampton.
Prof. White has been involved in
dynamic testing, vibration control and the dynamic behaviour of
composite aircraft structures with particular reference to
acoustic fatigue. The vibration control aspects of his research
have principally covered noise and vibration transmission in
ships and have resulted in the development of power flow
techniques for theoretically and experimentally assessing
transmission paths in built-up structures.
11.1
Contents
1.
Introduction
2.
Definition of some vibration isolation terminology
3.
The mass-spring-viscous damper model
4.
The two stage (rigid mass) isolation model
5.
Isolation at high frequencies
6.
The use of frequency response functions in vibration isolation analyses

6.1
Basic concepts
6.2
Application of mobility theory to the vibration isolation problem
6.3
The use of approximate mobility methods for design purposes
6.4
6.5
7.
The multi degree of freedom problem

Some general points
Active vibration isolation
Appendix A - Electro-mechanical analogies

Appendix B - Mobility definitions
Appendix C - Adding simple elements in series and parallel
Appendix D - Coupling together general systems
I Table, 20 Figures
11.2
1.
Introduction
Mach inery-indu ced vibration is often a cause of concern or annoyance in ships and in many
instances it is also required to reduce externally radiated underwater sound. Vibration control
is therefore a topic of continuing concern in shipboard installations. In any such problem, the
first approach is usually to modify the source and to isolarz- it from the supporting structure.
This chapter concerns vibration isolation; transmission of vibration via other paths which
"1short circuit". the isolators and transmission through the ship's structure to internal
compartments of interest and to the hull are considered in Chapter 12.
A great proportion of the literature on vibration isolation, particularly in basic vibration
textbooks, concerns use of mass-spring models of the machine and isolator, or equipment and
isolator in the complementary problem, with a rigid substructure. Such simplifications, which
do not allow for deformation of the systems which are coupled by the isolator, are useful for
obtaining a basic understanding of the problem but only have very restricted validity and
limited range of application to practical cases. This is particularly apparent in the case of high
frequency vibration isolation because in this regime, as described in more detail later,
resonances of the machine and supporting structure occur which make estimates of transmitted
vibration based upon simple mass-spring models essentially meaningless. The need to
consider the dynamic characteristics of both the source (engine, machine) and the receiver
(mounting structure) has led to the development and application of dynamic structural analysis
techniques based upon frequency response methods for predicting coupled system
performances in a manner analogous to that used by electrical enmineers for circuit analysis.
The coupled source-isolator-receiver problem may be studied in detail and such quantities as
force or motion transmissibilities from the machine to the substructure may be evaluated with
consideration of the dynamic characteristics of both source and receiver. The mobility method
and its applications are discussed here; however, there is also a need for a simplified approach
to enable transmissibility studies to be made for isolators coupled to Structures for which
detailed frequency response data have not been obtained, either by experiment orby theoretical
modelling. The approximate mobility method is therefore also outlined.
These notes begin with simple models for vibration isolation which are of use for
understanding basic principles. Impedance and mobility concepts are then introduced and used
to demonstrate isolation problems at high frequencies. Finally, basic active vibration isolation
methods are outlined.
11.3
2.
Definition of some vibration isolation terminology
A very simple schematic diagram of a machinery installation in a ship is shown in figure 1.

Because these notes are only concerned with the vibration isolation problem, no other
transmission paths are shown in the diagram. There will be in practice, of course, pipework,
shafts, cables, etc., and inevitably the acoustic radiation path between the source and the
receiving structure which "short circuit" the isolation system. These other paths are very
significant and must be considered in any installation but the simple source-isolator-receive:
model with paths only through the isolators is considered here. This simplified problem is
defined in figure 1 and the nomenclature is indicated.
Transmission of vibration from the source to the receiving structure is the principal mechanism
of interest and two quantities are involved, i.e. force and motion. Force rransmissibilities
between the source and the receiver are often evaluated and vibration velocity is often
examined. In the latter case, for example, some-definitions are:-
observer (ear),
microphone j
machine
foot
""
source
iso l
ator
seating
receiving structure
radiating structure
detector,
hydrophone J
Fligre 1 Definition of the problem.
11.4
(usually considering magnitudes only)

TR
Relative transmissibility
TA
Absolute transmissibility
TM
Modified transmissibility
Isolator effectiveness
Relative velocity of isolator

Source velocity
velocity
Simultaneous source velocity
=Receiver
Receiver velocity
S
Source velocity before receiver
and isolators added
Receiver velocity when
connected
directly
to source
Receiver velocity
when
connected
through isolators to source

Acceleration and force transmissibilities are also often used.
3.
The mass-snrin -viscous damper model

SP(t)
Machine
Mass, M
I
Isolator
Viscous C
Damper
1$)t
x(t)
k Linear
Spring
Foundation
(rigid)
Figure2
A single degree of freedom representation of a machinery installation.
The most simple model used in vibration isolation theory is the single degree of freedom
system in which the source (machine) is considered as a rigid mass and the receiver as a rigid
foundation. In practice, of course, neither the sources or the receiver are rigid and the
limitations of this simple model are discussed later. The isolator is represented as a linear
spring and viscous damper in parallel. The representation is shown in figure 2. Considering
sinusoidal force excitation of the mass, the force transmissibility, for example, may be deduced
in the following way.
Force acting on mass = P
Force transmitted to rigid foundation = PT= Ci(t) + kx(t)
11.5
Considering sinusoidal motion only, the force transmissibility
P(wO)
w)= frequency, rads/sec

where con = natural frequency =
-=
_.
STATIC
where k = spring stiffness

m = mass
g = acceleration due to gravity
AsTATAC = static deflection
= viscous damping ratio
Figure 3(a) shows a plot of the force transmissibility as a function of the ratio
of the excitation
frequency to the natural frequency of the system for various values of viscous
damping ratio.
It is clear that IT(w)I = 1 at -
= 1.4 and at greater frequencies the transmissibility decreases at
COn
a rate which is dependent on the viscous damping ratio C.

h-0.033
I
"I
I0
1.0
JL
tI
I I .,
'
!'
OA
ilo
0.11
.?,OI'.rl.4
n
Fizure3(a)
-to
Force transmissibility of the system of figure 2.
11.6
Ithas been indicated in the introductory paragraph that the rigid source-isolator-rigid
foundation model of figure 2, which leads to the transmissibility characteristics of figure 3(a),
is not an adequate representation of a machine mounted on a substructure via isolators. Both
the source (machine) and receiver (foundation) have distributed mass and elasticity and hence
will exhibit resonant modal behaviour. This is illustrated for a model system in figure 3(b)
which shows the force transmissibility between a source structure (a beam) coupled via two
vibration isolators to a substructure (a plate). It is clear that above the resonance frequency
associated with mass-spring-like behaviour of the source beam on the isolators, resonances of
the receiver and source cause the transmissibility to deviate considerably from that predicted by
a simple mass-spring-rigid foundation model. This is clearly indicative of the type of
behaviour encountered in practical installations and resonances of the source and receiver cause
peaks in force transmissibility which rise.well above the characteristic from the simple model,
in the high frequency region. In brief, machines and foundations exhibit resonant behaviour
and high frequency trends in isolation system performance, see figure 3(a), predicted from the
simple model of figure 2 are not achieved in practice. This is discussed again later in section 5.
...
....
...
.. .............
........
.......
.....i
40 ..
......
..
. .....
..........
: ...:..,..............
.......
248.......
.......
-2. . .
:i
.. . . . .
...............
t.rq.or CFSF plateF

.............
................. . . .... 1tn

.... ..
.. .........
...
...
. :-....
...
.. ........
..
!........
!......
....
E-20 ........
40
J -
..
......
:i..............
i.......
...
....
...
..
..................
......
.
12b)
Frequency (liz)
Force Transmissibililics of coupled source - isolalor - rectch-r syslen$s
(1)--Flexible source (free - free beam) and flexible receiver (CFSF plate)
(2)
--Rigid
mass and rigid foundation : (a) viscous damping ratio, = 0.1; (b) = 0.01.
Figure 3(b)
11.7
F17
Force transmitted
from machine
Figure4
A two stage isolation system.
A logical extension of the single degree of freedom system is to study the effects of a two stage
isolation via representation with two masses and two springs which represent isolators, see
figure 4. The model assumes rigid body behaviour for M1 and M and the presence of a rigid
2
foundation. The lack of usefulness of these simplifications may be demonstrated, but the two
simple models enable a comparison to be made between two-stage and single stage isolator
systems. If coo is defined as the natural frequency when M2 -4 0 then the two-stage system
will have two resonances in the order co1< o0 < (02 and the transmissibility will be as in figure
5.
At high frequencies T
TAGE
,TSINGLE
,
thus
the two stage system is good at high
frequencies. However, the second resonance is undesirable and for the system to have
maximum effectiveness it is required that both woand w2 be as low as possible. Therefore c12
must be as close as possible to co, this occurs at otr= (1 + j3) whence
W2
(01
_+_
[1/2
This shows that when this two stage system is used as an anti-vibration mounting it is
advantageous to have 0as large as possible(9
1) It is sometimes possible to use large
items of equipment (e.g. batteries) or a raft as M2 . The raft type of installation is often used in
ships and several machines may be attached to the raft.
11.8
MI
Mass ratio = M2
oL = Stiffness ratio
,=k
0-o
-o
0, (simple system)
=-1,
(compound system)
24 dB /octave
-100
1
I
.10
I
100
Frequency
b
1000
Figure 5 Transmissibility of a two stage system.
5.
Isolation at high frequencies
At high frequencies, that is frequencies which are greater than the rigid body natural
frequencies of the ifass-spring systems considered so far, the elements of the system exhibit
resonant behaviour. There are two principal effects:(a)
(b)
The isolator will not behave as an ideal massless spring, and

The source and receiver do not behave as a rigid mass and a rigid foundation.
The limitations and lack of usefulness of the lumped mass and rigid foundation models are
made clear below via simple appraisal of the two points, a and b.
(a)
At high frequencies, wave effects occur in the isolator, e.g. longitudinal, flexural or
shear-type resonances occur. The simple theory based upon the massless isolator does
not therefore give good results. Wave effects cause peaks in the transmissibility in the
by
high frequency region as shown in figure 6. Thus the benefit of the isolator suggested
the simple model is not achieved.
11.9
1.0K
5 0.1
0.
dB.0t
Undamped
i2 dB/Oct
0.00
case
100
011010
Frigfreq.
Rigid body natural freq.
Fizure 6
f
f
Wave effects in an isolator.
The effects of damping in the isolator are:1.

2.
At fn, T is reduced;
At frequencies just above fn, T is reduced (as for the simple model);
3.
4.
Peaks due to wave effects are reduced;

Troughs between resonances arc raised;
5.
At very high frequencies, damping may cause waves to decay before reaching the
receiver thus reducing the transmnissibility.
(b)
Source and receiver resonances

At high frequencies, neither the source or receiver will behave as nigid bodies and flexural
resonances will occur as shown below.
Beam modes
T_
Beam and plate modes
Non-rigid substructure
Non-rigid source
Figure 7
Resonances of source and receiver.
11.10
Now it is clear from the above simple discussion that better representation of the coupled
machine-isolator-system is required as the simple ideal mass-spring-damper models are
inadequate for representing practical systems. In particular, resonant behaviour of the
substructure or machinery seating must be accounted for in the design of installations and
assessment of isolator performance. Frequency response techniques are used for this purpose.
6.
The use of frequency response functions in vibration isolation analyses
6.1 Basic c ncents

In vibration isolation, the problem which confronts the designer is to predict the performance
of coupled systems, i.e. the machine-isolator-substructure system. The inadequacy of simple
models has been demonstrated above and the need to use frequency response methods
demonstrated. These are often implemented in mobility from, mobility being the complex ratio
of velocity to force in a mechanical system, M =
--.
The underlying concepts used here are
explained in appendices to the notes. Appendix A gives an introduction to mechanical

analogies together with definitions of mechanical impedance, mobility, etc. Definitions of
point and transfer mobilities are given in Appendix B which also contains definitions of
mobilities of mass, spring and damper elements. Mobilities of combined simple elements in
series and parallel are discussed in Appendix C. The general case of system coupling, as is of
interest in the coupled machine-isolator-substructure system, is given in Appendix D.
Apnlication of mobiliry theory to the vibration isolation vroblem
The coupled source-isolator-receiver problem may be studied in-detail and such quantities as
force or motion transmissibilities evaluated with consideration of the dynamic characteristics of
source and receiver. The mobility method and its applications are discussed here; however,
6.2
there is also a need for a simplified approach to enable transmissibility studies to be made for
isolators coupled to structures for which detailed frequency response data are not available
either as a result of theoretical analysis or experiment. The approximate mobility method is
therefore also outlined later. With the general principles for analysing coupled systems via
single point attachment now established it is possible to study the vibration isolation problem.
First the transmission of the force from a single degree of freedom system to a rigid foundation
is considered, and then the more general problem of transmission to a flexible foundation will
be covered.
II.II
Transmissibility to a rigid foundation

(i)
Force excited system
VI
Figure 8
Transmissibility is defined as the ratio of transmitted force at 2 to a blocked boundary
to the
input force at 1, i.e. T = IF2/FiIV2 = 0. Therefore, by setting V = 0 in equation (D2)
(see
2
Appendix D).
T= 1'M 1 2 / M22I
where M22 and M 12 are point and transfer mobilities as defined in Appendix B.
(ii)
Base excited system
If the same system is excited with base motion V2 while no force is applied at end 1,
the ratio
between the velocities IVIN 2 1 IF1 = 0 is also termed the transmissibility. By setting
F1 = 0 in
equations (DI1) and (D2) it can be seen that
T = IVI/V2 1 IF, = 0 = 1
M12 / M221
Example
as for the force.
Single degree of freedom system.
F1
----
F~F
Figure9
11.12
-1i
irnm
K422
Therefore
T/
K2
-0
2C2
2 m) 2 + 02C 2
(K - Wo
or
+ 422 2
T1
= (1 - 022)2 + 4Q12C2
where n2, the non-dimensional frequency is defined by

Q2 =
co/Own, co2n = K/m; the viscous damping ratio C= 1/(2"qq-n.
This is the same result as that obtained via a classical analysis in section 3 and plotted in
figure 3. When = 1, T takes its maximum value of 1/(2); when K2 = -1_2, T is unity for any
damping. At high frequencies T = (1 + 4 f22(2)1/2/f22. Thus for light damping T = 11/22; but
for heavy damping when 422?2 > 1, the damping controls the transmissibility which takes a
value of T = 2UQ/2.
Vibration transmission to a flexible foundation
(i) No isolator
Fl_
F2
Fiqure 10
f
When the source is not attached to the receiving structure the velocity at point 2, V (f denotes
free) arises from the internal forces. If the source is now attached to a structure at point 2, a
11.13
force F2 is applied which causes an additional velocity term F2M
22 ,
therefore from equation
D2,
2 = V2f + M 2 2 F
(6.1)
Thus the source strength of a machine can be represented in terms of the free velocity at a point
and the mobility at the same point. For the receiving structure, the applied force = - F2 (equal
and opposite to the force on the source). Also V2 = VR, hence
VR=V
= -F
MR
(6.2)
Therefore the new velocity "V2 at the coupling point is given from the above two equations to be
VR = V2 = V2_- MR / (M 2 + MR)
(6.3)
where MR is the connection point mobility of the receiver.

(ii)
With a massless isolator
Sorc
F1
--
FV2
-PA-
F2
Receiver
-F
Figure II
If a massless isolator is inserted of mobility M, then the isolator and receiver sum in series and
T 2 = -F
(6iR +
(6.4)
therefore
-F 2 - v/
(MR
l + M2 2 )
The velocity of the receiver VR is simply
11.14
(6.5)
(6.6)
F-2 MR
VR
which by substituting for - F2 gives
VR
V2fM
(M-R+M I
M-22)
(6.7)
Using equations 6.1 to 6.7 the isolator performance can be defined in the following ways.
(a)
The absolute transmissibility T_
With the isolator inserted, figure 11, the ratio of the velocities above and below the isolator is
termed the ABSOLUTE TRANSMISSIBILITY,
Ta = ';R / '
(6.8)
which from equations (6.4) and (6.6) is
Ta
(b)
MlR / (MR +
(6.9)
M)
The isolator effectiveness E
This is the receiver velocity, VR with the isolator present, relative to the receiver velocity
without the isolator (i.e. equation (6.7)/equation (6.3)).
E=
(6.10)
I+
MS + MR
in the above
where MS is the source mobility at the connection point to the isolator (= M 2 2
analyses).
source and receiver
Considering the isolator effectiveness; notice (i) it depends upon the
result. If it is equal to unity
mobilities, (ii) itrequires that M41 >> M S + MR. This is a principal
At high frequencies two
the isolation is ineffective, hence a high isolator mobility is required.
i.e. at the resonance
effects are encountered, (i) M I3S and MR can become very large,
M, to become small (the theory
frequencies, (ii) wave effects can occur in the isolator causing
11.15
is not strictly applicable to the isolator with wave effects, only spring and damper combinations
are covered).
(iii) Types of sources
It was shown in equation (6. 1) that a general vibration source can be represented in terms of
thefre
veociy V and the mobility at the connection point 2. Thus generally, connection of
an additional structure to point 2 will modify the velocity of that point. However, it can be
seen that if MR > MS then the velocity V2 is unchanged from the free velocity V f In this
case point 2 is referred to as a VELOCITY SOURCE. From equation (6.10) the effectiveness
of isolation of a velocity source is
E
=Ii
+ M1I / MRI
(that is M = 0).
(6.11)
Similarly it can be shown that a FORCE SOURCE applies the same force to a receiving
structure as to a blocked structure.
6.3 The use of anyroximpte mobility methods for design p2uroses
The influence of source and receiver mobilities on the effectiveness of isolator systems has
been outlined above. At the present time there is little information concerning the mobilities of
sources such as machines and this is a subject of continuing research. However, although
some simplifications may be made concerning the nature of sources by assuming that they are
of either the force or velocity type, the most significant problem at present concerns mobility
characteristics to be ascribed to receivers (substructures) such as floors, bulkheads, machinery
seatings, etc., composed of beams, plates or beam and plate combinations.
Several approaches are available to the practical Structural Dynamnicist:(a)
(b)
(c)
to measure the required frequency response data,

to develop a theoretical model using a finite number of normal modes,
to use a single mode (often fundamental) approach,
(d) to use finite element techniques.

It is possible to make accurate mobility measurements over a wide frequency range (i.e. (a)
above) to provide the required data for use in isolation calculations and if it is not possible to
obtain all the required data during the experiment it is possible to construct a theoretical model
using a limited amount of experimental data in order to predict required functions which have
I 1. 16
not been measured. This latter technique also offers the great advantage that quantifies, such as
cross mobilities*, which are difficult to measure, may be estimated.
The normal mode approach, (b) above, may be used but it again usually requires thle use of
computational facilities and will be of limited validity, particularly at high frequencies. The
single mode method will obviously be even less accurate. Finite element modelling may be
used to advantage at low frequencies and extension to high frequencies is possible via
approximate modelling of local structure only.
It can therefore be seen that if a complete set of measured or predicted data is not available,
assessment methods will be necessarily approximate. Because of these problems and the need
for very simple isolation system assessment procedures, which may be applied rapidly to a
wide range of str uctures without recourse to the computer, very simple, approximate formulae
have been developed for estimating the point mobilities of common structural elements.
If we consider a typical substructure composed of beam and plate elements, at low frequencies
discontinuities cause vibrational waves to be reflected and resonances occur. At higher
frequencies, resonant behaviour is not so clearly apparent, either because the structure exhibits
a very modal density and the point mobility does not exhibit clearly defined, well-separateAd
resonances and anti-resonances or because the vibrational waves are transmitted through the
local boundaries and power is radiated or absorbed in remote parts of the structure: an
illustration of the effect is given in figure 12. It has been shown that in these cases a structure
of finite dimensions may be approximated to by an equivalent structure of infinite extent with
no reflecting devices. This approach may be used for the prediction of the point mobilities of
practical structures at high frequencies where modal contributions have coalesc-,d. At low
frequencies, where the resonances are well separated, this approximation is much less accurate
although it is still valuable since it gives an average level of the frequency -response magnitude.
If broad band sources are being considered, the approximation in the low frequency range, is of
lesser concern than if discrete frequency sources are of interest because, in the former case,
only estimates of mean square values of transmitted quantities are required and these can be
estimated with an acceptable degree of accuracy. In the latter case, the approximate mobility
function may still be used but upper limits of mobility due to resonant behaviour must be
noted, for reasons given above.
*Velocity
response in one plane due to a force in another plane.
11.17
Resonance
10
V)
Mobility of equivalent
infinite structure
-2
E 10
~0
0
10-
-4
10
Antiresonance
-5I
10
Frequency kHz
Figure 12
An illustration of high frequency trends in the modulus of the

point mobility of a structure.
11.18
LIST OF SYmbOLS FOR TABLE I
Amplitude of harmonic displacement
Amplitude of harmonic angular displacement
Cross sectional area of beam
Modulus of Elasticity
Volume density
Torsional stiffness
&
GQ
J
Polar moment of inertia per unit length
Second moment of area of cross section of beam
BP
Bending stiffness of a plate
Poisson's ratio
Plate thickness
to plate
Radius of disc over which moment is applied
Parameter
Length of finite beam
- 2
Eh 3 /12(l U )
which tends to unity for large a/h
plate
Length of sides of finite rectangular
Ti
r,
Loss
factor
Polar coordinates for plate
Frequency in
radians per sec.
11.19
:4
"U
C>
-
'H-
@2
I'
->
!'-
->
'~-
U
C
Ca
II
--- p
N
I-.-.'
-
LI
U
0,
*-'
II
~-.
.2
[I
-
..-
C
i
ft
~-
-Cr'
C-
-K
4tZ
it
<
A
AS
4,
.:
-,
-LI
>
..J
U
-'
'4
:4
-0Ca
--
C
-
:4
>
:4
-~j
:4
>0
:4
U
U
Ca
II
20
-3C
IM'
---
U
Li
11.
Uu
53
ts-~
?II
II
It
0
-,
-,
ml-
Hi
II
I.!
>.
SK
*-
-lie'
--
'S
4-
-,
'V
CN
CN
-I-Z
5
II
K,
o
-
L~I
ELi
f-baC,.'
it!,:
U
-
>~*-
'I
1
-:4
-~
'I
II
II
-I-
-I-
s~
-=
-.
--
-I-
Ii-
i~Z
I-.-
1~-'
Cl
IA~
-~
CLi
r-4'
-1<
C4-.
V
.-
colt
~N
43
3.,
-,
>
0~0*
11.21
-I
0,:
~3*~
.3
-- 0
A
S
~'~N
aoI
~iE
-,
.3
The driving point nmobilities of infinite structures arc givcn for force and moment excitation of
various structural elements in table 1. Structural mobilities are being considered, mobility is
denoted by f3(kn) which is substituted for M(iw) usedl in the exact formulation. The mobility
formulae given apply to infinite structures within which no resonant behaviour can occur. The
point mobilities of finite st-uctures will approximate to these values at high frequencies above
that given in the second column of the second part of table I which shows the frequency at
which the frequency interval between resonances is less than the bandwidth of a resonance.
When a finite structure is being represented by an equivalent infinite structure the largest error
in the estimated mobility will occur at a resonance frequency in the low frequency region. The
largest peaks in the mobility of finite beams and plates have been calculated; these are included
in table I together with a list of the moduli of the ratios of the peak point mobility of the finite
structure to the point mobility of the infinite structure which in most cases is inversely
proportional to the loss factor.
In the latter calculations for torsional and longitudinal waves the response was calculated at the
mid-point of a clamped-clamped beam, whereas for the flexural case a simply supported beam
with excitation at the mid-point was used. In the case of moment excitation the second
resonance frequency was used because this type of excitation applied at the mid-point of a
beam does not excite the first mode. The finite plate considered was rectangular and simply
supported on all edges with central excitation. Again it was necessary to use the second
resonance frequency in the moment excitation case.
6.4 The multi deg'reeof freedom problem
The preceding sections have considered the case in which force and motion in one direction via
one set of connection points were considered. In practice the situation is far more complicated.
At one connection point, i.e. at the machinery seating in figure 1, forces F and torques T may
act so as to cause translational velocities V and rotational velocities b on and around each of the
three coordinate directions as shown in figure 13(a) below. Also, there will generally be a set
of isolators to support the machine, not the simple single isolator model examined above, see
figure 13(b).
Practical installations such as that shown in figure 1 will create vibration in all of the six
degrees of freedom shown in figure 13(a). Models which include all six degrees of freedom
require the measurement or prediction and manipulation of a cn)nsiderably larger set of data than
is required for the simple models described so far. The complete theoretical formulation of the
problem requires knowledge of the full matrix of impedances or mobil'ties for response
prediction. A "twelve port" representation of the coupled system is shown in figure 14.
11.22
Fz, Vz
t'
T", 6x,
T,~, bx4A
Fx
7-/-I
WV.x;
F = force
T = torque
V = translational velocity
8 = rotational velocity
x, y, z = coordinate directions
Figure 13 (a) and (b)
Fs,x
Vs,x 0
Fs,y
Vs,y
Fs,z
-0
VR,x
-VR,x
VR y
-VR,y
Vs,z
12
VR,z
-VR,zO--
Ts X
6s,X 0-.
86R,x
- 8 R,xC--
Tsy
s,y
0
R,y
- 8 R,y
eRz
-eR~z
Ts,
eS,z--
Figure 14
...
- -
Mechanical "12 port" representing the vibration isolator coupled via

six degrees of freedom to the source and the receiver
(corresponding to figure 13(a)).
It is therefore always good practice to examine the possibility of neglecting those motions
which can be shown to have little influence on the overall performance of an installation. This,
however, requires considerable judgement and experience to assess the dominant mechanisms
Any
which influence vibration or radiated noise at some site remote from the source.
11.23
simplification made may only be valid within restricted frequency ranges. In-plane excitation
of bea:m and plate type seatin.- structures may be thought to be a negligible mechanism but it
must t., remembered that longitudinal waves will produce flexural components at junctions
with other structural components and flexural wave motion is usually the dominant contributor
to sound radiation. Negglecting in-plane forces and considering normal forces only can
therefore lead to significant errors in prediction of the response of lightweight, built-up
structures. Again, for beam and plate-type receiver structures, if bending wave phenomena
control the point mobility properties, at short wavelengths, i.e. at high frequencies, the
receiving structure becomes more sensitive to rotational (torque) excitation. The isolator
properties in the various degrees of freedom are also very important in influencing the relative
importance of motions in the six degrees of freedom. It must also be clear to the reader that it
is impossible to compare responses in rotational degrees of freedom 8 with translational
responses V and state which is the most or least significant response. For this, and other
reasons as will be demonstrated in Chapter 12, power transmission methods are now used in
these types of analyses. Power is a basic quantity which can be used to compare the various
mechanisms at the machinery seating.
In the practical case of a machine supported upon a set of, often identical, isolators as in figure
13(b) the simple approach is to assume linearity and use the superposition principle to sum the
contributors due to each transmission path. However, this neglects the phase relationships
between excitations and motions at each connection point, i.e. the degree of correlation
between these quantities for each isolator. If there are many isolators and many degrees of
freedom contributing to the total power transfer, this may' be reasonable. If broad bandwidths
are considered, again this approach may be reasonable. Also, at high frequencies if the
wav elengths of the vibrations in the substructure are short compared with the distance between
isolators, then the correlations may be low. In cases in which there are strong discrete
frequency components in the source, e.g. engines and gearboxes, and particularly when
coupled to structures in the frequency range with clearly separated resonances then the motions
at the coupling points will be well correlated and relative phase is important. It can be clearly
seen that correlation effects depend upon two quantities, the degree of correlation between
source. excitations and the correlation between complex frequency response functions,
mnobilities, at the connection points to the receiving structure. When predicting and measuring
responses, the degree of correlation is important in both areas but power transmission
techniques may again be used to advantage in this context.
11.24
6.5
Some oeneral noints
Frequency response methods may be used to examine the basic source-isolator-receiver

problem illustrated in figure 15 for a force source.
Re!ceiver
1[rcIsolator
Vs
V
ZR = impedancc of receiving structure
VS = velocity at source
VR = velocity at receiver
FS = force excited by source on isolator
FR = force on receiver
Ms = mobility of source
ZS = impedance of source
M! = mobility of isolator
Z, = impedance of isolator
MR = mobility of receiving structure
Figure 15
(a)
For a massless isolator

TM
= modified transmissibility = MS +
TA = absolute transmissibility
MR
+ MR
MR
M1 + MR
= 1 +
E = isolator effectiveness
"MS + MR
For good isolation E should be as high as possible, that is M1 >> (Ms + MR). Note that
E will be low if resonances occur in the receiver or the isolator in the frequency range of
interest.
(b)
The above model assumes that the isolator is massless. The isolator is a structural
element with distributed mass and elasticity. The more complete model, in impedance
terms, is:
Force transmissibility =FR
1
i + :a.
11.25
Velocity transnissibility = VRV-=
ZR
I
Isolator effectiveness for force reduction = EF
FRNI =F
FRI
FN
ZSNI
ZS1
+ L+
Isolator effectiveness for velocity reduction = Ev

ZRNI
ZRI
VRNI
VR I
where the subscripts NI and I denote the conditions with the source connected directly to
the source (no isolator) and with the isolator inserted.
(c)
Simple representations may be made for receiver characteristics by assuming "infinite"

behaviour.
(d)
Analysis of the multi-degree-of-freedom problem and the multi-isolator problem require

engineering judgement if reduction to a manageable model is to be achieved. In the
former case, great care has to be taken to include the dominant mechanisms in the
frequency range of interest and power transmission analysis is of assistance. In the latter
case, the degree of "correlation" between excitations and receiver responses has to be
estimated.
g2/Hz 10-2
10-4
10/Hz
F
Wit mount
m0)
10-6
106 Spr~ing
10-7
10
theory
100
1000
10000
Frequency Hz
Fieure 1
Receiver mean square acceleration below a diesel generator with and

without isolating mounts.
11.26
(e)
Finally in this section, figure 16 shows the mean square excitation on a receiving
structure below a practical diesel generator set, with and without vibration isolators. The
reduction in vibration levels due to the presence of the isolators is clear at frequencies
below about 100 Hz. However, at greater frequencies there is no further reduction in
vibration levels because of resonances in the receiver (MR) and in the isolators (M1 )
(probably at about 1000 Hz). This is typical performance for a typical single stage
isolator system, although isolator resonances may occur at much lower frequencies with
larger isolators/larger machines. This example illustrates points made in the preceding
sections.
7.
Active vibration isolation
Active techniques for vibration and noise control are currently under development. Some basic
consideration of active vibration control is made here. Considering a simple single degree of
freedom mode], it is clear that several types of cancellation technique are possible; these are
shown in figure 17. In figure 17(b) direct cancellation of the primary force is indicated; 17(c)
shows cancellation at the receiver by driving W2 (cn)) to zero using an exciter attached only to the
substructure; 17(d) shows cancellation by driving W2 (co) to zero using a force generator
attached to both the nass and the substructure.
Expressions for the amplitude versus frequency characteristics of the secondary force for cases
(c) and (d) are given in figure 18 (case (b) has an obvious solution fs(o) = - fp(co4). These
results are illustrated graphically for t = 0.01 in figure 19. The effects of damping are shown
in figure 20. It can be seen that practical limitations are severe as W -4 0 in the case of
cance-llation at the receiver with reaction against the source! Details of a model scale experiment
carried out at the ISVR are given in figure 21. Electrodynamic exciters were built in to the
isolator system of a resiliently mounted body. An experiment was carried out to minimise the
sum. of the squared acceleration amplitudes measured at eight locations on the supporting
(receiver) structure. The results are shown in figure 22. Theoretical (full curve) and measured
data are shown in this figure. The improvement in isolation achieved by the active system is
about 20 dB compared with the passive system.
Generally, active techniques are currently better developed and established for noise control.
Active vibration control is severely limited by the lack of lightweight, high force, low distortion
actuators. There is also the problem of how to react the force against a flexible structure, if
inertial devices are not used. It appears that, for the present, passive vibration control methods
will generally be used whenever possible and active methods will only be used when the limits
11.27
of passive techniques are reached in a given installation and weight and expense are not limiting
factors.
(b) Cancellation at the source
(a) Basic system

IFp (0)
Fp (co)
Substructure
-T
Fs (Wo)
2()Substructure
(d) Cancellation at the receiver with

reaction against the source
(c) Cancellation at the receiver
Fp (cw)
Fp (a)
c
F(CO)
2(O
W 1(o)
),,
F(CWO)
Substructure
7W.2(C)
V W1 (co)
k)
Substructure
-2 (O
Fp (co) = Primary force

Fs (co) = Secondary force
Figure 17
Some simple representations of active vibration cancellation systems.
II.28
THE RESULTS NON-DIMENSIONALLY
EXPRESSION OF
For cancellation at the receiver:

fs(O)
(-(.
-(.)coc + k)
m + jcnc + k)
fp(w)
-(jcoc/m + k/m)
-co2 + jcoc/m + k/m
but the undamped natural frequency of the system is given by con
and the system damping ratio is defined as = c/2mcon, and thus
2
-(2jw(con + COn )
fs(co)
=W2 + 2jcoc(On + COn
or in terms of the ratio
a = m/con
f(C)
we can write
(1 + 2j1C2)
=a2 1 - 2j fa(c)
-
For cancellation at the receiver with reaction against the source:

fs(Ca)
kkymP()
can be written in non-dimensional form as
fs(W)
(I + 2
11.29
)
f2)
SECONDARY
FORCE STRENGTH
REQUIREMENTS
A comparison of the ratio of the optimal secondary force magnitude to

the primary force magnitude for the three possible modes of application of
the secondary force. The graph shows the ratio Ifs(co)/fp(co)I for a.damping
ratio of =O0.01.
100
Cancellation at receiver
'//
Cancellation.at the source
Cancellation at receiver
with reactlon against the source
.01
2=1
NON-DIMENSIONAL FREQUENCY
Fipure 19
11.30
THE INFLUENCE
OF DAMPING RATIO ON SECONDARY

FORCE REQUIREMENTS
100
Decreasing damping ratio
fso
0
--
=1
Non dimensional frequency

Cancellation at the receiver
100
fso
0I
fb
Increasing damping rado
0.1
0 '
=1
Non dimensional frequency
Cancellation at the receiver with reaction against the source
Fi13ure 20
11.31
2.5
LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS ON AN ACTIVE

VIBRATION ISOLATION SYSTEM
(Jenkins, 1989)
Primary force generating

unit
(c il and magnet).
Secondary,
force
actuators (coil
and magnets).
Clamping
Sensor inputs (accelerometers)

to the control system.
Receiving
strcture
Finite "cylinder"
isolator.
/sensor inputs
0
Clamping
secondary force
actuators
primary force
actuator
S
Figure 2
11.32
COMIPARISON OF FINITE ELEMENT MODEL

PREDICTIONS WITH RESULTS OF LABORATORY
EXPERIMENTS
(Jenkins, 1989).
Measurements show the results of the isolation efficiency with passive

isolation only and with passive plus active isolation. Note that the isolation
efficiency ratio is defined as
10 logl0
N
I Iwn(CD)12 without isolation
nil
N
dB
T. Iwn(co)j 2 with isolation

n=l
50
40
30
-:
00
20
10
Frequency -Hz.
I
-10
100
Isolation efficiency curves for the passive system and for an

active cont-ol system with eight sensor inputs
(i) results for active system with 8 sensor inputs
(ii) passive curve
- measured passive isolation results
o measured ac"ive isolarion results (with 8 sensor inputs)
Fipure 22
11.33
200
Appendix A
Electro-mechanical analoeies
Analysis techniques analogous to those used in electrical circuit theory may be used to study
interconnected mechanical systems in which force and velocity are the dynamic variables
analogous to current and voltage.
In a mechanical system the applied force Ft per unit velocity V, of an element is termed as the
IMPEDANCE Z, i.e.
as in the electrical case. The velocity per unit force is called the MOBILITY M, i.e.
-i
Alternatively, displacement or acceleration can be used in place of velocity, giving rise to the
definitions below. However, the analysis procedures which follow are equally applicable for
any of these defined quantities.
Force/displacement
Dynamic stiffness = icoZ
Displacement/force
Receptance = M4/(ico)
Force/acceleration
Apparent mass = _/(ico)

f Inertancte
Accelerance = icom
Acceleration/force
For measurement reasons, mobility is a more convenient quantity than impedance and will
therefore be generally used in the analyses presented here.
It is assumed in all the analyses that the forces and responses may be represented in the complex exponential
term, e.g.
Ve" t .
The - depicts a complex quantity and embodies the phase information.

The ei l t time dependence is suppressed for the sake of brevity.
11.34
Appendix B
Mobility definitions
IX
F1
IF
General system
VI
A general system is shown above, with inputs at points 1 and 2. The POINT MOBILITY is
given as the velocity at a point per unit force at the same point and direction. The applied force
is solely responsible for the velocity. On the figure above, the point mobilities at positions 1
and 2 are given as
M 11 - -F1
*F2 =
1422
-=
F2
F1 = 0
The TRANSFER MOBILITY is the velocity per unit force, when the force and velocity are
measured at two different points. The force in question is the only one responsible for the
velocity response. For the system shown above the transfer mobility between points I and 2 is
an d
-M 2
F2
NOTE:
F1 = 0
- V- = M
21
F,
F2 = 0
(i)
For a linear system M 12 = M)I
(ii)
If the system is sy.nmetrical about line x-x then M, = M2
Simple Elements
The fundamental elements in mechanical analyses are the spring, dashpot and mass.
Stiffness, k
11.35
(i)
The spring is a massless element and therefore transmits all the applied force Fl, without
change of magnitude or phase. Using the relationship F = Kx, the mobility is given as
the relative velocity between the ends per unit force.t
(ii)
Likewise the viscous dashpot, which is massless, applies a force that is proportional to
the relative velocities between each end,
C
F1
F1
and has mobility given as
1
C
(iii)
V1
V2
In contrast a mass has an acceleration which is proportional to the differential force

applied to it.
F1
VI= V2
VI
iom F, - F:2
" It is sometimes assumed that a spring representing an isolator has hysteretic damping (damping
proportional to displacement). This is modcl!zd with a complex stiffness K -K(O + iTl) where "1is the loss
factor.
11.36
Appendix C
Adding simple elements in series and in narallel
The total mobility of interconnected simple mobility elements can be determined by summing
groups of elements series-wise or in parallel, after the manner of electrical circuit analysis.
(i)
Elements in series
Mechanical elements may be summed in series if the same force is applied to

the front of each element. This can only occur when all elements, save the terminating
element, are massless, then the same force (without change in magnitude or phase)
is applied to all elements. Therefore for N elements connected end to end the mobility at
one end is
N
MTOT =
Mj
j=1
Examnle
F1
Stiffness, k
F1
V,
V2
V3
The point mobility, at end 1 is given as

- V,
ict
I
Mll= - =K +c
-,
F,
As the same force F1 acts through all elements the transfer mobility between points 1 and 3
is given as simply
413 = V
1
(the point mobility of amass).
F11icm
11.37
(ii)
Elements in parallel
The mobilities of mechanical elements can be summed in parallel if they have

the same velocity at the "front" of each element. This only occurs when the fronts of
the elements are rigidly connected together. For N elements connected in parallel,
N
j=1
Alternatively under these conditions it could be said that the impedances sum in
NOTE:
series, i.e.
N
Zj
ZT= X
j=l
&amk
The single degree of freedom system.
P.
F 1 -----
C
VI
1
___
F1
--
Zfl
co
m
K
+
Therefore
ico
(K - co2 m) + ioc
I1.38
V2 =0
Appendix D
Counline together peneral systems
(a)
In series
If two or more arbitrary systems are coupled together it is possible to express the point and
F1
Iik
bF2
H HV
-0 - F3
a]
V3
transfer mobilities of the coupled system in terms of the point and transfer mobility of the
individual systems (I & II) at the force input or coupling points.
For system I the velocities v1 and v2 can be expressed in terms of the two forces acting.
V1 = MI 1F, +M 12 F2
(D1)
V2 = M2 1F1 + M22 F2
(D2)
Linear behaviour is assumed, therefore the contribution to V1 from F1 .and F2 . can be simply
summed (according to the theory of superposition). Remember also the definitions of point
and transfer mobilities given in Appendix B and the reciprocity conditions.
For system fl it is only necessary to consider one coupling point, i.e.
(D3)
V3 = M33 F3
The point and transfer mobilities of the coupled system can be determined from the continuity
conditions of the boundary between the two systems, i.e.
F 3 = - F2
(D4)
V3 = V2
(D5)
11.39
Using equaiions (D2), (M3) and (D4) gives

(D6)
T2=F12/(M22 + M33)
which on substitution into equation (Dl) enables the coupled mobility at point I to be written as
2
= 21I coupled = 1411- (G4i
12 ) /
(r-2
(07)
+ K4 3 3 )
The transfer mobility between points 1 and 2 is found by substituting for F2 in equation (06)
into equation (D2).
- M12 Coupled = M12 M33 /
(0A22
(D8)
+VK33)
The natural frequencies of the new coupled systems occur when the denominator
/(222
system is
+ M4
3 3 ) -4 0. The equation for the natural frequencies of a coupled
(D9)
M 2 2 (CO) + M 3 3 (0) = 0
(b)
In parallel
F
F2
_F3
SV
or
____.E._
FF 2_
I1.40
a common velocity at the

If an external force is shared between two coupled systems, i.e. with
junction, then
030
pD10)
F0 =F2 +F3
Dividing equafion (DlO) by V2 gives
F 0 /V, = F2 /V 2 + F3 /V 2
1
McouPled
M 22
M 33
(Dll)
11.41
LESSON 12
16th WEGENT SCHOOL
SESSION
CHAPTER
TEACHER
COMPANY
COUNTRY
3.
3.1
12.
Noise and Vibration

TRANSMISSION
Interaction Source - Ship Structure
Resiliently Mounted Engines
R.G. WHITE
ISVR - Institute of Sound and Vibration Research
Southampton S09 5NH
UNITED KINGDOM
ABS TRACT
Power transmission analyses may be carried out to examine the
relative importance of the various paths between a machine and
the supporting structure.
Theoretical models and measurement
techniques for determining the vibrational power transmission
through. isolators, pipes and supporting structures are
discussed. An appendix contains a complementary SEA analysis
including an acoustic path.
Brief indication is given of an
active power control method.
AUTHOR'S BIOGRAPHY
Professor Bob White joined the University of Southampton from

the Royal Aerospace Establishment at Farnborough in 1967.
He
became a member of the academic staff in 1970 and was appointed
Professor of Vibration Studies in the Institute of. Sound and
Vibration Research
(ISVR) in
1983.
The ISVR has an
international reputation as one of the leading centres for
teaching, research and consultancy in the noise and vibration
field, and ?rofessor White served as its Director for a period
of seven years.
He has now relinquished this post to devote
more time to his research activities and to serve as Director of
the Institute of Transducer Technology, a new organisation set
up in 1986 at Southampton.
Prof. White has been involved in
dynamic testing, vibration control and the dynamic behaviour of
composite aircraft structures with particular reference to
acoustic fatigue. The vibration control aspects of his research
have principally covered noise and vibration transmission in
ships and have resulted in the development of power flow
techniques for theoretically and experimentally assessing
transmission paths in built-up structures.
12.1
Contents
1.
Introduction
2.
Vibration isolation of machines, coupling to structures, power input to structures

and power flow through isolators
2.1
2.2
2.3
3.
Machinery installations
Power input to substructures
Power transmission from machines through isolators
Power transmission through structures

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
Power transmission through branched beams (pipes)

Measurement of transmitted power in beams
Measurements on a beam (pipe) carrying flexural and
3.2.1
longitudinal waves simultaneously
Summary of simple "two transducer" methods for flexural
3.2.2
power measurement with no other types of wave present
Measurement of transmitted power in plates
Active control of power transmission in a beam
Appendix A
Some comments on regions 1 and 2 of figure 2 and power

input characteristics in the modal region
Appendix B
SEA example of an isolated machine in an enclosed volume
References
2 Tables, 17 Figures
12.2
1.
Introduction
A typical machine installation consists of a source of vibration mounted on resilient isolators

attached to a flexible substructure. There are usually also other vibration transmission paths,
such as pipework, shafts, etc., which act as short circuit elements across the isolators. It can
thus be seen that there are a variety of mechanisms by which vibration is transmitted from the
source to the point of interest on the substructure. The power flow approach to this type of
problem is a basic concept which enables the relative importance of the various transmission
paths to be critically assessed. Work has been carried out on the estimation of vibrational
power transmission between coupled systems, using approximate mobility methods, and this
has led to the establishment of some design rules for machinery searings, together with simple
formulae for estimating point mobilities of structures. Experimental techniques have also been
developed. One concerns measurement of vibrational power transmission through isolators, so
that for one machine mounted on a set of isolators or even an array of machines, the mechanical
power inputs to the substructure at each isolator connecting point can b&determined. The
other, most recent development is structural intensity measurement technique s which enable
one and two dimensional power flows to be measured in beams and plates. Intensity maps can
be plotted for plate-type structures, for example.
2.
Vibrational isolation of machines. coupling to structures. power input to structures and

power flow through isolator.,
2.1 Machinery installations

If one considers machinery installations in a ship it can be seen via the simple representation
given in figure 1, that the point of concern or interest where the vibration level is to be
minimised is often remote from the source or the attachment points of the vibration isolators.
The vibration transmission characteristics of structures are therefore of concern. That problem
will be considered later in section 3; first consider only the vibration isolation system which
consists of the source, isolators and substructure (receiver) coupled together. Procedures for
the prediction of coupled mechanical system response are developed in [I] using receptances
and the methods are well explained. Receptance is the ratio of displacement to force as a
function of frequency. Recently, mobility methods have been more widely used, although the
procedures are essentially as outlined in [1]1. Mobility is the ratio of velocity to farce and is
probably more commonly used now than receptance because of measurement techniques which
enable complex frequency response data of this type to be readily obtained without the often
troublesome need for the additional stage of integration. The. reader's attention is drawn to [2]
for a very good explanatio n of measurement problems and the application of frequency
response data in mechanical system analysis.
12.3
ACCUS::
~It:
Figure 1 A machine installation.

Returning to figure 1 and only considering at this stage vibration transmission through an
isolator, coupling of the isolator to the substructure and the system layout may cause forces and
moments to act such as to produce velocities in all three coordinate axes and rotations (angular
velocities when considering mobilities) about these axes. The motion at the attachment point of
the isolator to the substructure, the machinery "seating", is therefore generally complicated and
complete description of all the point and cross mobilities is required if the induced structural
responses are to be estimated.
At the present time there is little information concerning the point mobilities of sources, such as
machines, and this will be a topic for continuing study. Although some simplifications may be
made concerning the nature of sources by assuming that they are either of the force or velocity
type, the perhaps more significant problem concerns mobility characteristics to be ascribed to
receivers, i.e. substructures such as floors in buildings, machinery seatings, etc. The
excitations which act at isolator attachment points usually, predominantly induce flexural wave
motion in substructures. The point mobilities of typical structures in flexure through a wide
frequency range are complicated functions of frequency and some possible trends in behaviour
are illustrated by the dashed lines in figure 2 for mobility modulus.
At low frequencies, in region 1, either mass or stiffness behaviour will be observed according
to the boundary conditions of the structure. In region 2, wave effects dominate the motion and
this is well illustrated by the modal behaviour of plate-type structures in flexure. A measured
mobility modulus plot for a plate is superimposed on figure 2, in region 2. It is well known
that in the modal region, particularly towards the higher resonance frequencies, the average
12.4
DECREASING
AREA Or
j COUPLING
RESONANCE
MOBILITY OF
EQUIVALENT
INFINITE
FREE
', STRUCTURES
STRUCTURE
kAS-C
," N N
I-jSTIFFNESS
GROUNDED
SSTRUCTURE
02
LOW
FREOUENCY
REGION
I
\ANTIRESONANCE
WAVE CONTROLLED MOTION
MODAL BEHAVIOUR
3
LOCAL
STIFFNESS
4
LOCAL
MASS
LOG FREQUENCY
Figure 2 Possible trends in the driving "point" mobility of a structure.

of the
point frequency response characteristic tends to lie along a line which is the characteristic
dashed line in
equivalent infinite structure [3,4]. This is clear in region 2 of figure 2. The
material properties
region 2 is the point mobility of a structure (plate) of the same thickness and
structures can be
as the practical case but of infinite length and breadth. All ideal infinite
form. Thus, by
predicted to have a non-resonant frequency response charcteristic of simple
length and plates of
considering beams with practical cross-sectional dimensions but of infinite
may be predicted which
finite thickness but infinite area, simple point mobility characteristics
such simple formulae are
give a good guide to average behaviour in the practical case. Some
excitation [5,6]. The
given in Chapter 11, for beams and plates under point force and moment
by this method is clear. In
ease by which structural parameter studies may be carried out
is controlled by local
region 3,local stiffness effects become important: that is, the response
even higher frequencies and
stretching of the structure in the region of the attachment. At
controlled, as indicated in
shorter wavelengths of the flexural waves, the motion becomes mass
driving point mobility but the
region 4. The characteristics indicated in figure 2 give those of a
response measurements and
word point is suitable annotated in the figure title. All frequency
The effects of finite
practical characteristics pertain to a given, finite area of connection.
as would be expected, and the
coupling area are most pronounced at very high frequencies,
by coupling area in the manner
mobility modulus levels in regions 3 and 4 are controlled
1 and 2 are given in Appendix A
shown in figure 2. Some further comments on regions
modal region.
together with some points relating to power input in the
12.5
Vibration isolation systems may be designed via knowledge of the coupling point mobilities of
the source and receiver to be coupled. As noted above, the flexible receiver is of most concern.
2.2 Power input to substructures
the
The power input to a structure from a sinusoidal force source may be calculated in
following way.
the
If a force IF1 sin cot is applied to a linear structure with a driving point mobility M and
in
resulting velocity at the driving point is IVI sin (cot + 0), where co is the excitation frequency
radians/sec, then the time averaged power input to the structure is
I T
P=T
IFI IVI sin cot. sin(ot + ) dt
(1)
where
T = 2rc
0)
whence
(2)
P = 1 IF12 Re {M)
where Re denotes the real part of the point mobility (M).

The vibrational power input to the structure can therefore be seen to be dependent upon the real
of
component of the point mobility (vel/force) and, correspondingly, the imaginary component
accelerance (acceleration/force).
For a velocity source,
1
where
(3)
Re(M)
IMI2
IMI = the modulus of the point mobility.
is given by
If the source is a random load with force spectral density GFF, then the input power
Power/Hz = GFF Re (M]
= Re GFV
(4)
where GFv is the cross spectral density between the force and velocity.
12.6
In practice, for ease of measurement w&e often use accelerometers and the corresponding
expression in this case is
(5)
(oPower/Hz =Im (GFA]
where Im denotes the imaginary part and GFA is the cross spectral density function between
into a
force and acceleration. A comparison between measured power input from a machine
together with
foundation using force and acceleration measurements is shown in figure 3
power predicted from knowledge of the point mobility [7].
Now, from above, the vibrational power input to a structure is dependent on the real
component of the point mobility or the imaginary component of accelerance.
100
Measured
-2-2
3 10
10
cFrequency [Hz]
Fjgiure3
So
Comparison of measured and predicted input power.
(5.5m length) obtained

Figure 4 shows the imaginary component of the accelerance of a beam
of the equivalent infinite
via various procedures [8]. The straight line is the characteristic
curve. The other two curves
beam. Experimentally measured data are indicated by the dashed
one case the whole beam was represented
come from two Finite Element (F.E.) analyses. In
used in the forced vibration
by twenty elements and measured modal damping values were
was represented using 10
calculations. In the other, the central region only (im length)
12.7
Kg -
100_
Z-
ic
wz
Li z....
wej01
r
1
C,
"L
<U
0<
LI-
O .0 1IL
0.01
10
. .T,
100
.. ''
1000
' ' . .
oc
iO0O
FRECUENCY (HZ)
INFINITE BEAM
EXPERIMENTAL
........... F.E. WHOLE BEAM
F.E. CENTRE SECTION
OF BEAM ONLY
Fi.gure 4
Imaginary component of the point inertance (accelerance) of a beam

obtained by several procedures.
elements and very high modal damping values to suppress resonant behaviour. In all finite
cases the boundary conditions were clamped-clamped. The data presented in figure 4 clearly
show that if averaged power input over a broad frequency range from a broadband source had
to be predicted, the simple straight line approximationwould be helpful and the very limited
F.E. analysis would be very useful up to quite high frequencies. If strongly harmonic
excitation were present, more detailed information would be used such as from the more
accurate F.E. analysis, although the upper frequency limit would be lower than in the previous
methods. If the power input to a large structure is to be estimated, it is possible to model small
areas around the forcing points with "patches" of finite elements and make adequate
predictions.
In the introduction it was pointed out that several types of motion can occur at the point of
attachment of the isolator to the seating. Translational and rotational motion may occur via
direct and cross relationships. It is important to know which degrees of freedom are significant
in an isolation system. It has long been the practice to consider only translational motion
normal to the surface of the seating and to ignore other dynamic effects. This is done partly for
simplicity of calculation but also because comparison of effects of the source in two of the
types of freedom is impossible, i.e. one cannot compare, for example, rotational mobilities
12.8
with translational mobilities and deduce that one is more important than the other in causing
structural response. It is possible, however, to predict the vibrational power input to a
structure via various mechanisms and establish the relative importance of each mechanism. It
is often the case, for example, that an isolator is attached to a substructure, perhaps a plate,
through a "stiffener" which could be a beam with a "T" shaped cross section. If the isolator is
attached exactly on the axis of the "T"then force excitation of the plate occurs, but if the
attachment is off-axis then moment excitation is also present. Using the simple mobility
formulae to represent the point frequency response characteristic of the structure, expressions
for the power flow into structural elements such as beams, plates and combinations of elements
may be derived. Some examples of results of such predictions are given here in figure 5.
PLATE:
1CT1-
C'TA'ON
--
161
MOMENT EXCITATION
10
102
FREQUENCY
Figure 5
t~
a14
105
Hz
Power input to flexural wave motion in a beam or plate due to

force or moment excitation.
It can be seen quite clearly from this diagram that moment excitation should be avoided because
this mechanism induces more flexural wave power in beam and plate-type structures at high
frequencies than does excitation by a force normal to the surface. The implication is clear;
avoid machinery installations which involve moment excitation and high frequency problems
will be minimised. This type of power flow study coupled with approximate mobility analyses
is most valuable in revealing the practices which are good or poor in machinery installation
design.
For complicated structures that are built up out of beam or plate components the average value
of the point mobility depends upon the frequency regime. More specifically it depends on the
relative sizes of a characteristic free wavelength and the distance between stiffening elements.
12.9
"
5 m~~m
plate,"
10
100
.]
1000
10.000
Freqoency PHiz
Figure
Measured accelerance at the centre and edge of the beam top flange.
imaginary component, ... modulus.
Centre of flange: Edge of flange: ...... imaginary component, ---modulus.
Figure 6 shows the accelerance (acceleration/force) of a steel plate stiffened with five T-section
beams. The excitation point was on top of the central beam. When there is more than one half
of a flexural wavelength in the plate between beams the point accelerance tends to that of an
infinite T-section beam. Other configurations are covered in [20].
2.3 Power transmission from machines through isolators
The obvious way of measuring power input to a substructure from a machine would be to
measure the force and velocity beneath each isolator. It iS not a practical proposal to mount
force transducers beneath isolators for experimental studies and another more suitable method
had to be developed based upon measurement of motion above and below the isolators and
knowledge of the isolator characteristics. If the accelerations "above" and "below" an isolator
are al and a2 respectively, then it can be shown [9] that an approximate expression for the
transmitted power may be derived. If the transfer apparent mass (force/acceleration) of the
isolator is defined as
A1
A_1_F2(O)
2al(co)
0
(6)
F1 (co)
a2(cW) ai = 0
12.10
where F 1 and F2 are forces at the ends of the isolator which produce corresponding
accelerations ai and a,, then the time averaged, transmitted power, PIR, is
For sinusoidal excitation
PTR 7
(7)
_-.
Im (A12 al a2*1
2co
For random excitation

PTR/Hz
*1
-.
(8)
Im [AI2 Ga 2 al}
where * denotes the complex conjugate and Ga2al is the cross spectral density between the
accelerations.
Thus, from knowledge of A1 2 and by processing acceleration signals al and a2, PTR may be
estimated.
L
t
To
LL
..
I0
T00
Fiure 7
1000
Fr.qu.ncy (Hz)
1O.0O0l
Measured power input from a machine.
Figure 7, from [7] shows power input to a foundation from a machine; the dashed line is a plot
of power measured by the two accelerometer method and cross-spectral density analysis; the
full line is derived from cross-spectral density analysis of force and velocity measured at the
foot of the isolator. The airborne noise path contributed to the velocity on the substructure and
12.11
Front Left
10
100
1000
Front Right @
10
1000
Freq.
wattsLeft
Rear Right
10
1510
L16~~~
10
100
10
1000
100
1000
Freq. Hz
co x normalised power transmitted by each isolator
watts x
N2
to
In-4
10-51
10"6,
1000.
100
10
Frequency (Hz)
to x normalised power input to the motor and total wo x normalised power
transmitted by the four isolators. x predicted power transmission peaks,

-
transmitted power, ....input power, - - - - force source approximation.
21ire
12.12
the dominance of this path in the mid-frequency range is clear in the plot. This was confirmed
by supporting the machine above the substructure with no isolators. Mid-frequency range is
clear in the plot. This was confirmed by supporting the running machine above the
substructure with no connection to the seating and measuring the response of the substructure.
Figure 8 gives an example of the power transmission measured for each of the four isolators
supporting an electric motor upon a plate [16]. Note that negative power can occur at some
frequencies for the individual isolators, which means that the power is being transferred from
the plate to the motor. However, the sum of the four powers from the isolator is positive
indicating the net power flow at all frequencies is from the motor to the plate.
It is clear that if source characteristics and receiver characteristics are such that the excitations at
the 'tops" of a set of isolators are uncorrelated and the responses at the 'bottoms" of the
isolators are uncorrelated, then to estimate total power from the source the individual power
transmitted through the isolators are simply summed. This approximation is often reasonably
valid at frequencies of a few hundred Hz. It can be seen, for example, that if the isolators are
mounted on the substructure with several structural vibration wavelengths between them then
the velocities will tend to be less well correlated than if they are a fraction of a wavelength
apart.
The general statement of a multi-point problem is, however, given below; this is applicable in
the case of correlated excitations and responses - but of course will apply in the situation of low
correlation. The formulation is due to Pinnington [26]. The coupling above and below the
isolators could be taken into account via a matrix version of the expression for the power input;
however, this would involve a large amount of measurement or mathematical modelling [27].
There is, however, an alternative 'multipole analysis' approach [26] which can be used if the
axis
receiving structure is symmetrical (or approximately so) about the horizontal x-x and y-y
seen in figure 9 in the plan view of a four point mounting system. By measuring the four
velocities V 1 , V2 , V3, V4 on the machine above the isolators and four point and transfer
whole
mobilities on the receiver M 11, M 12 , M 13 , M 14 the total power transmission over the
frequency range can be written as
N
2 I
P =N21lZ
11
1U~ 2 xRe [Me)
p=I
12.13
(6)
where Z1 = the transfer impedance across the (identical) isolators, N = 2n where N is the
number of isolators and n is integer (i.e. for the method to be correct N = 2, 4, 8,16, etc.).
Y
pSI1
p+
+
X
SX
Y
V
p .3
-+
p=.4
Figure 9
The polar source velocity Up has four values, p = 1, 2, 3, 4 where
1
Up=R (VIV2 V 3 V 4 )
There are four receiver mobility poles Mp,p = 1, 2, 3, 4 where
1
Mp=N (Ml 1 M 12 M 1 3 M 1 4 )
The plus or minus is selected according to the scheme in figure 7. Pole 1 corresponds to the
monopole, poles 2 and 3 are dipole, pole 4 is a quadrapole.
3.
Power transmission through structures
The power flow approach in vibration isolation shows clearly which isolator or which machine
is injecting most vibrational power into the substructure. It is also clear from figure 1 that in
only considering the transmission paths through the isolators in a machinery installation one is
taking a somewhat naive approach to the problem. Even the simple representation in figure 1
shows that transmission between source and receiver takes place not only through the isolators
but also through other parallel paths which "short circuit" the isolators; the parallel paths are
12.14
through the air", or surrounding medium, pipework, shafts, etc., and other essential
connections to the machine. In conventional vibration analyses the transmission characteristics
through all of these paths between the source and receiver can only be described in different
terms which do not permit comparison in order to establish which paths dominate in the
transmission of vibration from source to receiver. Power flow analysis facilitates this
comparison. One should be able to study power transmission through isolators, pipes, shafts,
acoustic paths, etc. When vibration has been created in the substructure by these different
mechanisms it is transmitted through the various structural/acoustic paths to the area of interest.
Again, study of power flows is vital in as much that the dominant vibration transmission paths
should be determined and sensible vibration control procedures applied. Both theoretical and
experimental approaches have therefore been made in the study of structural power flow.
Acoustic intensity measurement methods are now well developed after the work of Fahy [10]
which enabled acoustic transmission paths to be characterised and sources to be ordered in
relative importance. Acoustic intensity measurement is not discussed fuither here, attention is
given later to the development of structural power flow measurement methods. It is perhaps
worth noting at this stage that the term "intensity" in structural measurement means "power
flow per unit width". First, however, some theoretical work on power transmission in
structures is described.
3.1 Powver transmissionthrough branched beanis (nines)
Theoretical studies of power transmission in structural. elements have been carried out for
beams and plates. In the case of beams, the reasons for carrying out the work have been
twofold. First, studies of power reflection and transmission at joints have been made for
conditions in which a beam is a good representation ot a pipe which could transmit power
between a machine and a substructure and secondly, a structural intensity measurement method
has been developed for beam and plate-like structures..
When a beam experiences flexural or longitudinal travelling wave motion, it is possible to
calculate the magnitude of the transmitted power from knowledge of the properties of the
structure and the internal loads which act. From beam theories for flexural and longitudinal
travelling wave motion, the time averaged transmitted power may be calculated.
notes primarily concern mechanical paths between the source and the substructure. However,
Appendix B gives a simple Statistical Energy Analysis (SEA) of a machinery installation with isolators and
an acoustic path.
*These
12.15
2
Flexural power f = EL wok' IAf
EA k1o IA112
Longitudinal power i =1
(7)
(8)
where EI = flexural rigidity of the beam

A = area of cross-section of the beam
kf = flexural wave number
kl = longitudinal wave number
w = frequency in rads/sec
Af = flexural wave amplitude
A1 = longitudinal wave amplitude
denotes time averaged
<>
It is clear that if wave amplitudes are known in the branches of a jointed beam, then it should
are
be possible to predict the proportions of incident flexural and longitudinal waves which
reflected and transmitted at the discontinuities into the various members.
Figurel1
Wave motion in a branched beam.
impinge upon the

Figure 10 shows a branched beam with incident waves in branch 1 which
3. Obviously, at an
joint to give reflected waves in arm 1 and transmitted waves in arms 2 and
wave may produce both
angled joint, wave type conversion occurs, that is an incident flexural
theoretical study of
flexural and longitudinal waves in the transmitting arms. A comprehensive
[11). To show the type of
this problem has been carried out and some results are presented in
11 and 12, which show
results which were obtained, two figures are presented here, figures
data for a jointed three beam system as indicated in figure 10.
arm 3 fixed at zero angle
The two diagrams show the power transmitted in arns 2 and 3, with
1. The transmitted power is
and arm 2 at various angles from 0 to 1800 from the axis of arm
the joint from the "source"
expressed as a percentage of the impinging power incident upon
beam, arm 1.
12.16
i 0 0-r
!.
.q
if
II
0
t90
180
180,
ANGLE OFARM 2
ANGLE OF ARM 2
Figure I
Transmitted power in arm 2.
Figure 12
Transmitted power in arm 3.
The notation used in figures 11 and 12 is:ff

fl
If
1
flexural power produced at a joint by an incident flexural wave

flexural power produced at a joint by an incident longitudinal wave
longitudinal power produced at a joint by an incident flexural wave
longitudinal power produced at a joint by an incident longitudinal wave
change.
As the angle of arm 2 varies from zero to 1800, the proportions of power transmitted
power
It can also be seen that the different impinging wave types produce different
transmission characteristics. This type of study is useful for examining the power reflection,
and hangers in the
transmission and conversion characteristics of. pipework. with joints
of work,
frequency range where the behaviour is beam-like. From the complete programme
from study of a
which produced a large number of sets of results, the general conclusions
three-arm system were:(i)
of the same
in the arm carrying the impinging wave, the dominant power component is
type as the impinging wave;
(ii)
flexural power is
when a flexural wave impinges on a joint, the transmitted
at extreme angles;
approximately constant and almost independent of arm angle, except
(iii)
longitudinal power
when a longitudinal wave impinges on a joint, minimum transmitted
is induced in an arm when it is 900 off axis;
12.17
(iv)
when a flexural wave impinges on a joint, minimum transmitted longitudinal power is

induced when the angle of arm 2 is zero;
(v)
when a longitudinal wave impinges on a joint, the majority of nett power is induced in
the arm with the least off axis angle whilst when a flexural wave impinges, the majority
of nett power is carried in the arm with the greatest off axis angle.
It is clear from the results of the above investigation that when designing a beam (pipe) system
for either minimum or maximum power transmission, care must be taken in the choice of arm
angle. It is possible to greatly change the po~ver transmission in an arm by only changing an
arn angle by a few degrees. It should also be noted that different impinging wave types
produce different power transmission characteristics. It is important to determine types likely
to be induced by the source when designing a pipework system which will be connected to a
machine so that the wave type impinging on the joint is known before the angles of the joint are
chosen (if static considerations leave a choice!). An arm angle which minimises power when a
flexural wave impinges may maximise it when a longitudinal wave impinges on the joint.
These results have considerable significance when considering the choice of pipe hanger size,
location and orientation.
The theoretical studies of discontinuities in beams which have been carried out on the basis that
the power transmission models developed are adequate for representing pipework, have been
extended to the case of two discontinuities in a straight pipe, separated by a section whose
properties are representative of a flexible pipe isolator [11 ]. These are often referred to in
pipework as 'bellows". In the double discontinuity system, m,.ltiple reflections occur. The
situation is complicated but assuming that the system is lossless, a closed form solution can be
obtained for transmission and reflection characteristics based upon the convergent series of
reflection and transmission terms in the 'nave amplitude expressions. It is possible to
determine the nett power in a beam with two discontinuities. The results from studies of
discontinuous and branched systems indicate that it should be possible to design systems for
minimal power transmission.
Measuirement of ~rrcvsriutednowerin beams
A major attraction in the use of the vibrational power flow concept in structural system analysis
is the prospect of developing practical experimental methods for the measurement of power
flow through structures in the field. This would provide practical means for locating the
primary transmission paths between machinery installations and any particular sites of interest.
The experimental measurement of power transmission within a structure is complicated by the
3.2
number of different travelling wave types which are associated with the transmission process.
12.18
It is generally possible to have longitudinal, flexural and perhaps torsional waves contributing
to power transmission. A further complication is that is must be possible to make
measurements near discontinuities in "near fields" and in structures with standing waves which
may have amplitudes which are much greater than those associated with the travelling waves
which are causing power transmission. It is clear that any structural intensity measurement
scheme must have a good theoretical basis, be capable of accurate use in the above conditions
and have a very simpletransducer system. Pavic [12] carried out a fundamental study of
possible techniques for measuring vibrational power transmission in beams and plates due to
flexural waves. Possible sourices of error in practical implementation were critically examined
by Redman-White [13] who developed the analogue structural intensity meter which uses
accelerometers as the sensing elements.
If one considers a beam carrying a flexural wave travelling in the x-direction, then vibrational
power is transmitted via a bending moment component and a shear force component. These
are:The shear force component, Ps, which is the product of the shear force and the
transverse velocity,
Ps
El
(9)
aw
The bending moment component, Pm, which is the product of the bending moment and
the rotational velocity,
Pm
El
a 2w
ax2
a2 w
axat
(10)
where EI has already been defined, w is the deflection, x is the distance along the axis
of the beam and t = time.
The total power is therefore,
P = Ps +
P m =:EI
[aw a a-iw
La3
a 2 x-w a 2 w]
(11)
Pavic [12] began a study of power flow measurement from the above equation which shows
that one could determine the time and spatial derivations of the motion in order to evaluate the
terms within the large square bracket in the above equation. The time derivatives may be
12.19
obtained via signals from transducers mounted on the structure, and the spatial derivatives may
be approximated to via a finite difference method. In the far field, away from discontinuities
the shear
and the influence of decaying near field waves, the time averaged (< >) values of
force and bending moment components are equal.
i.e.
(12)
<Pf> = 2<Ps> = 2<Pm>
This simplification, albeit with a qualifying assumption, leads to the possibility of considerable
simplification in experimental technique. A "two accelerometer method" for measuring one
dimensional power flows has been developed by Redman-White [13]. It does rely on the fact
that, as already stated, measurements are made in the far field and the shear force component is
measured and multiplied by two. Analytical work carried out to examine errors in the much
simplified method shows that if an error of t 20% can be tolerated, as is probably reasonable
in this type of work, measurements may be made as close as one tenth of a wavelength from
discontinuities. Errors due to basic assumptions and sources of experimental error are well
discussed and quantified in [13]. The two transducer method appears very useful for taking
measurements on beam-type structures, which, of course, include pipework which is often a
path in parallel with vibration isolators. In the "two accelerometer method" the flexural power
is derived in the following way:
'
4Pf>
<(a2 - al)(a2(q) + al(q))
(13)
ACO2
or in simplified form:
<Pf> = 2
ACO2
<ai a2 (q)>
(14)
where a, and a2 are the two measured accelerations

(q) = phase shift of 900
Mb = mass per unit length of beam
= accelerometer spacing, which is small compared with the flexural
A
wavelength
= frequency in rads/sec
co
in
These expressions facilitate measurement of magnitude and direction of power transmission
a beam.
12.20
0.11
Total Input Power
Frequency
1,00
Figure 13
FHz
10
Input and transmitted power - infinite beam.
Figure 13 taken from [7] shows measured input power to a beam, from force and velocity
measured at the driving point, which was excited at the centre and had its ends embedded in
boxes of sand to give non-reflecting terminations. The predicted power in one arm and power
measured by the above "two accelerometer method" are shown.
3.2.1 Measurements on a beam (pipe) carrying flexural and longitudinal waves simultaneously
If the beam carries more than one wave type it is necessary to separate the desired travelling
power
wave amplitude from any other travelling wave amplitude which may be present before
is calculated. If spurious wave components are superimposed on the measured accelerations,
the calculated value of transmitted power will be in error.
Consider the situation in which it is required to measure transmitted power in a straight
usual
structure such as a pipe carrying both flexural and longitudinal travelling waves. The
this.
objective is to measure the power carried separately by each wave type. It is possible to do
on the
via appropriate measurements and signal manipulation using six accelerometers mounted
objective is to
pipe as shown in figure 14. At the outset, it must be stated that if the primary
their principal
measure longitudinal wave power then the transducers should be mounted with
is primarily of
axes of sensitivity parallel to the pipe axis. Conversely, if flexural power
plane). It
interest then the transducer axes should be normal to the pipe axis (i.e. in the radial
on such a
is, however, most convenient generally to mount piezoelectric accelerometers
configuration is
structure with their principal axes of sensitivity normal to the pipe axis and this
is sensed directly
shown in figure 14. In this configuration flexural wave motion
12.21
andlongitudinal wave motion is sensed via the Poisson's ratio effect. Analyses have been
carried out in [28] on this type of measurement problem to separate wave types and, in the case
of flexural wave motion, to measure power flow in the principal radial direction of vibration.
Q3
t
A
y
Qe6
. PRINCIPAL AXIS OF SENS[TIVITY
Fieure 14
Accelerometers mounted on a pipe.
To summarise, using table 1, the indicated transducer configurations may be used to measure
transmitted power in the given situations. The transducer configurations are illustrated in
figure 15.
12.22
12.23
Number
Wave types
WaLve x
ia~Structure
Present in
Structure
Measured
QfConfiguration
(see figure 15)
Transducers
Flexural
Beam
Flexural
2)
Flexural
Beam
Flexural/
~Longitudinal
________________
Rod/Pipe
Flexural
________
_____
__
Flexural
_______________
Flexural
_____________
Longitudinal
_________
Longitudinal
___________Pipe
____
Rod/Pipe
Flexural/
______________
Longitudinal
Beam/Rod/
Longitudinal
Pipe
Bearn/Rod/
(see note)
C
________
_______
2
_
Flexural/
Longitudinal
_______________
Table 1 Transducer configurations for various transmitted power measurement situations.

Note:
To determine the true flexural wave amplitude in this situation requires only four
transducers using positions 1 and 3, 4 and 6, i.e. pairs positioned at fight-angles on the
pipe.
3.2.2 Summary of simple "two transducer" methods for flexural power measurement with no
other types of wave present
If there are only travelling flexural waves present in the beam, the simplified equation (14) may
be used.
<Pf=2 EIpA .<a1 a2 (q)>
(15)
Now two points remain to be considered which may be illustrated by use of equation (15); that
is, displacement, velocity or acceleration may be measured and it is also possible to use
frequency domain analysis. The expressions corresponding to these conditions are given
below in table 2. It must be stated again, however, that the presence of any other types of
wave will cause this method to yield spurious results.
12.24
Time domain
Frequency domain
R <a2 a, (q)>
ACCELERATION
W2
RIf
aaj dco
00
R <v 2 v I (q)>
VELOCITY
R f ImGv 2 vl dco
0
cn2 R <w 2 wI (q)>
DISPLACEMENT
C02 ImGw 2 w1 do
0.
Table 2
a
v
Time and frequency domain expressions for f.
= acceleration
= velocity
w =
p =
displacement
density
A = area of cross-section of beam

E = Young's modulus of elasticity
I = second moment of area of cross-section
2 4'pA EI
A
G = cross-spectral density
Im = imaginary part
q = quadrature (phase shift by - nt/2)
12.25
Measurement of trnsmittedvower in lates

In the case of plates, the theory is necessarily more complicated and there are three components
of power flow, shear, bending and twisting. Expressions for the three components may, of
course, be written from plate bending theory. Following the above approach of simplification,
rather than measuring all three components, it may be shown that the intensity P in a given
3.3
direction in a plate in the far field is given by:

<Px> = 2 <Psx> = 2 [<Pmx> + <Pnx>]
= intensity in the x direction
where P.
and
(15)
Psx = shear force component

Pmnx = bending moment component
Ptx = twisting moment component
Equation (15) may be invoked for power transmission measurements in plates. This enables
intensity (power per unit width) measurements to be extended to two-dimensional
measurements on uniform, flat plates. To obtain simultaneous measurements of the intensity
components in two orthogonal directions, four accelerometers may be disposed symmetrically
at a distance of A/2 from the nominal measurement position, see figure 16.
Fgiure 16
Acceleration positions for two dimensional narrow band finite

difference intensity measurements.
The x-direction signals are obtained from the transducers at positions 1 and 2 and the
y-direction signals from positions 3 and 4. Defining position I as x, and position 2 as x2 and
*positions 3 and 4 as y1 and Y2 respectively, then the shear force intensities in the x- and ydirections may be obtained as follows.
12.26
2Acn
x 2 - ax 1)(a x2 (q) + axj (q)) )(}a

{_;5t(a
2Ao 2
{(a Y2
and correspondingly
where
M~
ay 1 )(a Y2 (q) + ay1 (q))})
mass per unit area of the plate

E
=flexural
rigidity of a plate, = 1(
=transducer
(16b)
spacing as defined in figure 16

frequency rads/sec
a
(q)
h
=measured
E
v
=Young's
acceleration
=quadrature
=plate
=Poisson's
thickness
modulus of elasticity
ratio
It is possible to obtain better signal to noise ratios in measurements by use of all four signals to
obtain a better approximation to the lateral acceleration at the centre of the array. However, the
basic technique is outlined above.
Most of the error analyses carried out for the two accelerometer method for beam
measurements are applicable in this case - the similarity between equations (16) and (13) is
clear. However, there is an additional error due to the apparent value of A varying with the
incident wave direction. With reference to figure 16 it can be seen that as the incident wave
angle ax changes, then so does the trace wavelength on each of the chosen axes. This variation
may be studied by considering a plane propagating harmonic wave travelling at an angle (x to
the chosen coordinates of the system. This has bu~en done [14] and although a simple finite
difference correction is not possible to obtain, parameter studies showed that for values of A up
to O.2% (X = wavelength of flexural wave in the structure) the errors will be small for moderate
angular variations.
Redman-White built the first-ever structural intensity meter and concluded from the principal
results of his studies that "reliable power flow measurements can be made in many situations
provided that adequate care is taken in experimental technique". The finite difference procedure
outlined above was advocated and amongst the conclusions of the work, the following points
*were made:-
12.27
I.
Avoid making measurements close to discontinuities (i.e. closer than X/2).
2.
Use values of A in the region of A = 0.15k to O.2X. Mount the accelerometers first and
then measure A accurately.
3.
Make appropriate corrections to the data as suggested by the theory.
4.
Measure in narrow bandwidths.
5.
Take the utmost care in achieving the closest possible phase tolerances in the
instrumentation and signal processing systems. The method of mounting the
accelerometers on the structure can be quite significant in this respect. The signal
processing system should have a phase tolerance of 0.3' or better.
6.
Dynamic range problems are the main source of error and large standing wave
components can render results meaningless.
The above points are useful in relation to practical testing and now that digital data analysis
systems are used for this type of work, analysis system phase criteria are easily met.
However, residual phase errors which cannot be compensated occur in measurement systems,
but errors up to I' are tolerable in most circumstances [28]. Concerning the spacing of
transducers, accurate measurement of A is required (see note 2 above); laser-based
measurement systems are now coming in to use and this problem will be obviated, as will be
the need to attach transducers accurately to the structure [29].
An example of intensities mapped in a plate are given in figure 17(b). A series of experiments
were carried out on a large steel plate of dimensions 2.5m x 1.3m and 5.8mm thickness. Dry
sand above and below the periphery of the plate in a wedge shape provided 'anechoic"
boundaries.
For the test conditions of figure 17, two identical lengths of rectangular sectioned steel bar
were attached to the plate to provide partially reflecting boundaries near each end. The bar at
thle left hand end was well fixed to the plate by a layer of cyanoacrylate adhesive but that at the
right hand end was only attached via spots of adhesive. Narrow band excitation was used in
the formn of a frequency modulated signal, the plate being excited by an electrodynamic exciter
coupled to the plate at its centre. The four acceleromercr method was used for intensity
measurement at 0.05m spacing (corresponding to 0.158 wavelength at the centre frequency).
12.28
(a)
ACCELERATIONS OF THE PLATE
(b
POE
Figure
17
An~~
addtina
tihere
Poe
FLO
flow
accleomte
17s Powhessrefletows
DU
an
TO
FLXUA
WAV
aceeain
wa
placed.-
at th
plt
ceteo
andacceeratonsr
inwe
aoti
Aondaaddintionaleaccelromegtermwsilaedatin
acfelerainat
mthed measurehment poinoe
the
MOIO
IN
TH
PL-ATE
/n
wihrfetn
/evcsah
ns
ra
wihrfetn
plate
ieo eie
h
indct
tothesends.
Thes cifenrenoctes carra toacinedicte the RMS

washoeinexcityatiorns
bandwqidth.Te difearenceappin
boundSarycndirtionsisplotear
in figure 17(b). donoth lefhand soayindelicttle powe crosedather

bawr
andw tohe
rintnsty
patend sisconfued duertoel
ciclattiong
fcpower.tions
thesrigt handusiefu
reflect.Teiontandit
more powearflowe thowthis swpaetyidenohltocosthea
theoreain
wasmcles
boundarye odintontheasringitiermiaton
. Thtucueae shonte differeneta
byte ascribed
tion
tewof
power flow methods.

3.4
Active control of power tratnsmission iii a beam
Experimental work has been carried out on the active control of flexural wave propagation in
beams [30]. A long slender beam with non-reflecting terminations was driven by an exciter
which represented a primary source of vibrations; the apparatus is indicated in figure 18(a). A
pair of secondary exciters was used to cancel the flexura] wave power transmitted in one half
12.29
in
of the beam. The success achieved is clear in figure 18(b) which shows transmitted powers
watts.
Li
Casinouls
Li
.cuo
B
vc Icdcm
Cotm U ..
51qnlso-0sc
'
84
Itad
-rrC
IC
-Ito
seccondaiy ezacatioo
Eigurni8
(a
Experimenalrsut forteanctive (onorlav
Secndoy
12C.30mi Piar
fexra wave proagaton

pof
rfo
APPENDIX A
Some comments on regions I and 2 of figure 2 and power input
characteristics in the modal reEion
The point mobility of a typical structure can have the four regions of behaviour shown in
figure 2. The low frequency region and the modal behaviour region are discussed here.
1. The low frequency region (region I in figure 2)
At low frequencies a freely suspended structure moves as a rigid body in a possible six
degrees of freedom. The mobility for a simple mass in translation is
M = xi =)m
3-M
Alternatively, a structure that is connected to ground behaves as a spring and dashpot

combination:
K
A spring
'K
-,
A dashpot
These are the simplest mobility elements which may be added in various arrangements to
model more complicated structures in what is called a lumped element formulation.
2. The modal re-ion (resion 2 in figure 2)
In the second zone, at higher frequencies than the rigid body motion, the structure deflects in
behaves as a single degree of
its natural modes of vibration. The mobility of each mode 'p'
freedom system.
12.31
F
P
Fp= generalised force
= generalised mass
= generalised stiffness
Cp = generalised damping
qp = generalised displacement
aMp
cKp
The point mobility of the structure at a point r therefore appears as the summation of all the
modal responses.
light damning r2
log IMrJ
.4
/ /
/ ,2
/K
/"
',~
heavy damping
log frequenc:.
= mode participation factor

T" = loss factor
where O
At high frequencies, or with heavy damping, the resonances overlap to an extent whereby the
mobility tends to that of an equivalent.infinite structure, MINI. At lower frequencies when the
resonances are discernable, the frequency averaged value of point mobility is that of an
equivalent infinite structure MINE. The implication of this is:
(i)
the average power input to a structure can be easily predicted for broadband
excitation;
(ii)
the average power input for broadband excitation is independent of damping.
For the above statements to be true there must be a simple link between modal density n(f)
(modes/Hertz) and the real component at mobility. This is for a plate,
12.32
n(f)
Re(M) = 4 Mo
of the shape or boundary

where Mo is the plate mass. Note that this is, of course, independent
conditions of the plate.
12.33
APPENDIX B
SEA example of an isolated machine in an enclosed volume
xxz
W3
33
2.
FigureBI
A representation of a machine in a compartment and the SEA model.
A machine (1) is supported upon N isolators. When operating, it radiates noise into the
acoustic volume (3), and also transmits vibrational power into the flexible floor (2). The
objective is to predict the mean square energies of the floor qnd the volume.
The machine is assumed to vibrate as a velocity source, i.e. the vibration level and hence
energy level Eis not affected by the isolators.
Now considering generally two weakly coupled systems a and b, the energy input to the two
systems will be:
Wa =T'laCO-a + TlabCO Na ya
Nb)
(B 1)
and
Wb =nbm(DEb + bw3Nb
12.34
Na
where for each system, in a given bandwidth,

W =
=
time averaged power into the system

spatially averaged energy of the system
number of modes
system loss factor
flab, flba = coupling loss factors
N =
-1 =
and
system of figure B 1, we need

Now applying the above SEA energy balance equations to the
only consider the resonant systems 2 and 3.
1n2
+ T123C (E2 - E3
W2 = "l2()o2
n3
)
(B2)
W 3 = T130X3 + 1l230) (3(Fn3
2-
the isolators and is given by

W 2 is the time averaged power input to the floor by
2N
W2 = O1 Re(M2,,IZI
comal
(B3)
point mobility of the floor. ZI is

Re{M20 is the real component of the frequency averaged
of isolators, assuming that the
the transfer impedance of a single isolator. N is the number
independent. ml is the mass of the
isolators are sufficiently spaced as to be regarded as being
machine.
N.B.
el
(B4)
ml<Vi > 2
surface. The power radiated into the air is

<V1 >2 is the space averaged velocity of the machine
given from equation by.
(B5)
W 3 =coi.P3C3013S 1
013 is the radiation efficiency, S1 is the

where P3,c3 are the air density and speed of sound;
more rapidly with increasing frequency
area of the machine surface. Equation (B3) decreases
that acoustic radiation can be more significant
than equation (B5), supporting the observation
than isolator transmission at higher frequencies.
12.35
The loss factor of the acoustic space 113 is

(B6)
S3(x
V3P3ci
where S3, V3 are the surface area and volume of the acoustic space. a is the averaged
absorption coefficient. Note that this loss factor tends to decrease with increasing frequency.
The coupling loss factor between the floor and the volume, T123, is given from equation (B5).
123
(B6)
P3c3a23S2
com2
where Y23 is the radiation coefficient, S2 the area of the floor and m2 is the total floor mass.
The modal density of the floor n2 is, assuming a homogeneous plate,
I
n2n2
=
(B7)
m2h
,S2B
where B is the bending stiffness.

The modal density of the acoustic volume is
2
nS3f
f'
n3
4n V3 f +
(8
(B8)
Substitution of equations (B3 - B8) into equation (32) provides the mean square energies F2
and E3 in the floor and acoustic space respectively. These are related to the mean square
velocity of the floor by
(B9)
2 = m2 <i2> 2
and to the mean square space averaged pressure <P2>.

v 3 <p2>
V
p3c3
(B0o)
12.36
Equation (32) reduces to

W 2 + 3 W3
q
,r1 n2)13
(B11)
= W)E2
113
where
7123
T1l23 + n21 "113
n123
in the acoustic volume,

When there is strong coupling due to light damping
equation (E11) becomes
2 =W
--
I3
I and
(B 12)
+W 3
CLIT12
either by the isolators or as sound must

indicating that the total power radiated by the machine
is greater than the isolator power W 2 ,
be dissipated by the plate. Thus, if the sound power W3
vibration. This permits the regions of strong or
the sound will be the dominant source of plate
weak coupling to be assessed.
REFERENCES
Mechanics of Vibration", Cambridge
R.E.D. Bishop and D.C. Johnson, "The
[1]
University Press, 1960.
Research Studies Press, John
D.J. Ewins, Modal Testing: Theory and.Practice.
[2]
Wiley, 1984.
of impedance or mobility". Journal of
measurement
"Experimental
Junger,
M.C.
[3]
Applied Mechanics, 277-278, June 1955:
a finite or infinite number of resonances".
E. Skudrzyk, "Vibration of systems with
[4]
30, 1140-1152, 1958.
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
power flow from machines into built-up
H.G.D. Goyder and R.G. White, "Vibrational
[5]
Journal of
of beam and plate-like foundations".
structures. I - Introduction and analysis
Sound and Vibration, 68(1), 59-75, 1980.
edited by
I". Chapter 26 in Noise and Vibration,
Control
"Vibration
White,
R.G.
[6]
1982.
R.G. White and J.G. Walker, Ellis Horwood
Pinnington, "Study of machinery induced
B.J. Dobson, J.L. Horner and R.J.
[7]
Defence
concept of vibrational power". Undersea
vibration of ships' structures using the
London.
Technology Conference, October 1988,
12.37
[81
B.J. Dobson, "Prediction of mechanical power inputs to structures using Finite

Element Techniques", ISVR, to be published.
[9]
R.J. Pinningtoh and R.G. White, "Power flow through machine isolators to resonant
and non-resonant beams". Journal of Sound and Vibration, 75(2), 179-197, 1981.
[10]
F.J. Fahy, "Measurement of acoustic intensity using the cross-spectral density of two
microphone signals". Journal of Acoustical Society of America, 62(4), 1057-1059, 1977.
[11]
J.L. Homer and R.G. White, "Prediction of vibrational power transmission through
bends and joints in beam-like structures". Journal of Sound and Vibration, 147(1), 87-103,
1991.
[12]
G. Pavic, "Measurement of structure-borne wave intensity. Formulation of the
methods". Journal of Sound and Vibration, 49(2), 221-230, 1976.

[13]
W. Redman-White, "The experimental measurement of flexural wave power flow in
structures". Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Recent Advances in
Structural Dynamics, ISVR, April 1984.
[14]
W. Redman-White, "The measurement of structural wave intensity". PhD Thesis,
University of Southampton, 1983.
[15]
R.J. Pinnington. Using the envelope of the frequency response in the measurement of
power absorbed by a finite structure. Journal of Sound and Vibration (1986) 109(l), 127139.
[16]
R.J. Pinnington. Vibrational power transmission to a seating of a vibration isolated
motor. Journal of Sound and Vibration (1987) 118(1), 123-139.
[17]
E. Skudrzyk. Simple and complex vibratory systems. Pennsylvania State U.P., State
College, P.A. (1968).
(18]
E. Skudrzyk. The mean-value method of predicting the dynamic response of complex
vibrators. JASA 67(4), April 1980, 1105-1135.
[19]
M.A. Heckl. Compendium of impedance formulae. B.B.N. Report No. 774, (1961).
[20]
R.J. Pinnington. Approximate mobilities of built-up structures. ISVR Technical
Report No. 162.
[21]
R. Lyon. Statistical Energy Analysis of dynamical systems. MIT Press, Cambridge,

Massachusetts and London.
[22]
B.L. Clarkson and R. Pope. Experimental determination of structural modal densities
and average loss factors. Proc. of a Conference on Recent Advances in Structural Dynamics,
(1980), Southampton University.
[23]
F. Hart and K. Shah. Compendium of modal densities of structures. (1971) NASACR-1773 (obtainable from the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia
22151, USA).
12.38
R.J. Pinnington. Vibrational power transmission from a short source beam to a long
finite receiver beam via a vibration isolator. (1984) Second Int. Conf. in Recent Advances in
Structural Dynamics, Vol. II, p. 55.
L.L. Beranek (ed.) Noise and Vibration Control. (1971) McGraw-Hill Book Co.
[25]
[24]
Inc., New York.

R.J. Pinnington and D.C.R. Pearce. Multipole expansion of the vibration
[26]
transmission between a source and a receiver. Journal of Sound and Vibration, 142(3), 461479, 1990.
J.W. Verheij. Multi-path sound transfer from resiliently mounted shipboard
[27]
machinery. Institute of Applied Physics TNO-TH, Delft, 1982.
[28] J.L. Horner and R.G. White. Measurement of vibrational power in a beam-like
structure carrying two types of wave. To be published.
[29] J.R. Baker, N.A. Halliwell and R.G. White. The application of laser technology to
the measurement of structural intensity. Conference on Structural Intensity and Vibrational
Energy Flow, Senlis, France, August 1990.
[30] W. Redman-White, P.A. Nelson and A.R.D. Curtis. Experiments on the active
control of flexural wave power flow. Journal of Sound and Vibration, 112(1), 187-191,
1987.
12.39
LESSON 13
16th WEGEMT SCHOOL
SESSION
CHAPTER
LESSON
TEACHER
COMPANY
COUNTRY
ABSTRACT
Noise and Vibration

: 3. TRANSMISSION
: 13. Propeller/Hull Interaction
Anders C. NILSSON
THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Brinellv. 28
S-100 44 Stockholm
SWEDEN
Four methods for the measurement of the

source strength of propellers are compared.
acoustical
The
response of the hull plates located above
a
cavitating propeller is discussed. Measured and predicted
results are compared. The pressure measured by flush
mounted hydrophones depends on the response of the hull
plates
as well as on the source strength of the
propeller. The power induced in the hull can in the .low
frequency region be reduced if the frame distance is
reduced or the thickness of the hull plates is increased.
BIOGRAPHY
Professor in technical acoustics and head of department

at the Royal Institute of Technology in
Stockholm.
Previous positions at the Boeing Co.', Det norske Veritas,
the
Danish Acoustical Institute and the
Technical
Universities in Lund and Gothenburg.
Dr. Tech. from the Technical University in Gothenburg in
the field of sound and vibration. Main field of activity
is vibroacustics in particular with applications to ship
structures.
13.1
13.1 INTRODUCTION
In order to optimize a ship construction with respect to noise, vibration, weight,
economy etc it is necessary to make a noise prediction at the early design stage.
The accuracy of a noise prediction depends, however, on the accuracy of the input
parameters.
In most prediction programs the structureborne sound induced by a noise source
is introduced as a velocity lever at, say, the foundation of a source. The three
major noise sources on board are in general propeller, main and auxiliary engines.
Of these the propeller is perhaps the most unpredictable factor. This can be
rather critical for the accuracy of a noise prediction since the propeller can very
well be the dominating source - in particular if the main and auxiliary engines
are resiliently mounted. The propeller noise problernis of course most critical on
small ships where accommodation is close to the propeller, but even on large
tankers the propeller can determine the noise levels in the aft accommodation.
This is discussed in [1] and illustrated in Figure 1. In this figure the dB(A) levels
in cabins most exposed to propeller noise are plotted as function of the dead
weight of the ship. In order to reduce these high noise levels either noise reducing
measures could be introduced in the cabins or the acoustical power induced by the
propeller in the ship could be reduced. The first solution can be very? costly. The
reason for this is that the propeller noise has a low frequency character and that
for example floating floors can be rather inefficient in the low frequency region.
Today there exists a number of semni-emnpirical formulae for the estimation of the
source strength of propellers, see for example [2] - [6]. However, these formulae
do not yield a satisfactory agreement with, full scale measurements. The reason is
that such important parameters as propeller geometry, wake distribution and hull
construction are not included.
,The acoustical power induced in a hull structure is first of all a function of the
acoustical source strength of the propeller and then also of the response of the hull
plates. Based onl the propeller geometry and the wake field the cavitation volume
onl a blade canl be calculated for example by using the lifting surface theory as
described in for example [1] and [7]. Then assuming the cavitation volume on each
blade as a monopole source the resulting pressure or acoustical source strength
13.2
can be calculated. Finally, the response of the hull plates can be determined as
function of the incident pressure.
An alternative method to determine the acoustical source strength of a propeller
is according to [1] to use the result of model scale measurements carried out in a
cavitation tank. These measurements in combination with the appropriate scaling
laws can then be used to predict the source strength of the full scale propeller.
The propeller as an acoustical source is discussed in a separate chapter.
13.2 BACKGROUND
Whatever technique used to estimate or predict the acoustical source strength of
a propeller the method must of course be verified through full scale
measurements. Four measurement methods are listed below.
i)
Stationary hydrophones
A number of hydrophones are positioned at different water depths. The
noise in the water is recorded when the ship is passing the hydrophone
array. There are some obvious difficulties with this technique. The position
of the vessel relative to the hydrophones must be known as function of
time. Not only the propeller but the entire ship hull is radiating noise.
Reflections from the sea bottom and the water surface must be considered.
The method is next to impossible for large sea going vessels.
ii)
Reference noise source

A source with a well definied acoustical strength is mounted on a propeller
blade while the main machinery is out of operation. The response - noise
or vibration level - is measured on board close to the propeller. The
response is thereafter measured in the same way and at the same position
when the ship is in normal operation . Assuming a linear transfer function
the source strength can thereafter be determined. The procedure involves a
number of practical problems. A suitable reference source must be found
and there after mounted on a propeller blade. The source must be fairly
large which of course means great difficulties for the divers during the
mounting.
13.3
iii)
Reciprocal measurements
This technique has primarily been developed by de Bruijn et al at
TNO-TPD and is summarized in [6].
It is assumed in [6] that the propeller can be modelled as a monopole. The
resulting pressure in the water at a distance r from a monopole with the
volume velocity U is
p = p.f.U/2r
(I)
where f is the frequency and p the density of the fluid. The volume velocity
of the propeller can be determined as illustrated in Figure 2.
In the first ("silent") experiment the transfer function is measured and it is
determined by a reciprocal technique for practical reasons. In the second
("sailing") experiment the noise or vibrations due to the propeller
cavitation at an arbitrary point in the accommodation are measured. These
results represent the combined effects of the source strength of the
operating propeller and the transfer function describing the relation
between the source strength and the vibrations in the selected point in the
accommodation. In practice the procedure is as follows. A reversible linear
mechanical- or electrical-acoustical transducer is installed in the
accommodation. In principle the transducer can be placed anywhere in the
accommodation above the propeller,.but-in~most cases a location close to
the propeller is chosen in order to obtain the highest signal-to-noise ratio.
In the first experiment the ship propeller is idle, thus not rotating. A
number of hydrophones is mounted onto the blade in the upper position.
The transducer is used now as an exciter, driven by an electric current i,
while the average resulting pressure p is measured by means of the
hydrophones. In the second experiment the propeller is in operation and
the output open voltage e of the transducer is measured. According to the
reciprocity principle the volume velocity of the cavitation U is given by
e-i/p
(m3 /s)
(2)
13.4
iv)
Measurements with flush mounted hydrophones

The noise induced by the propeller is measured directly by means of
hydrophones mounted in the shipstructure above the propeller. The total
noise measured by the hydrophones is the sum of the noise radiated by the
propeller and the vibrating hull plates. In order to calculate the source
strength of the propeller the measured noise must be corrected with respect
to the reflected noise from the hull plates. This procedure is discussed
in [1] and [8] and summarized below.
13.3 RESPONSE OF HULL PLATES

The acoustical power induced in a ship by a cavitating propeller is a function of
the acoustical source strength of the propeller and the response of the hull plates.
The total pressure on the hull plates is a function of the incident pressure and the
pressure reflected or generated by the vibrating hull plates. Thus, if the acoustical
source strength of a propeller is to be determined from presure measurements
with hydrophones mounted in the hull plates above the propeller, then it is
necessary to consider the response of the hull plates.
In Figure 3 a typical section of a hull is shown. It is assumed that the hull form is
such that the plate elements above the propeller can be treated as being flat. This
is equivalent to the curvature of the aft peak structure being negligible. A
co-ordinate system is defined such that a plate element in the aft peak is located
in the x-y plane with the x-axis perpendicular to the frames.. The z-axis is thus
perpendicular to the plate element as indicated in Figure 3.The dimensions of the
plate in the x and y directions are denoted by a and b respectively. The distance a
between two parallel frames is generally of the order 0.6 m and is smaller than the
length b of the plate.
Let the total velocity potential induced by the operating propeller and the
vibrating plate be described by 4' in the region z < 0. The velocity of the plate
resulting from the pressure in the fluid is given by 0. The pressure in the large
enclosed air-volume in the aft peak tank above the plate (i.e. for z > 0) is
neglected. When a time dependence e - iwt is assumed the differential equation
relating the plate velocity and the velocity potential 4 in the fluid at the
boundary z = 0 is given by
13.5
V2(V2
4-
0 p/D)bz 0o
(3)
In this expression n is the wavenumber for free flexural waves in a plate without
fluid loading, D is the flexural rigidity of the plate and p the density of the fluid.
Let the field incident on the plate element be described by
to = F(x,y)e zz
(4)
where k, is the wavenumber in the fliud in the z-direction. The free field velocity
potential (i.e. in the absence of the hull) is thus equal to 4o. The total velocity
potential 7 in the fluid is thus
= F(x,y) (eikzZ+ e-i ' zz ) + JfdSot(ro)G(r ro)
(5)
The Green function G is defined as

G(r ro) = (1/27rR) eikR,
R = ((x-xo)2 + (y-yo)2 + z 2 )O.5
(6)
In the low frequency range the fluid loading will increase the apparent mass of the
plate. For frequencies well below coincidence the power radiated into the fluid
from the vibrating plate is small and willitherefore not significantly increase the
losses of the plate. The power II fed into the plate is thus, as a first
approximation, proportional to the real part of the scalar product between the
incident field and the plate velocity. Tlhus.H = Re J Pincident* dS. The pressure
p in the fluid is obtained from p = p 0/0t. A function N1o may be defined as
proportional to the input power H to the structure, consequently
Ho=
2 (u
p/D) J FO dS
(7)
Equation (7) provides the basis for a variational expression for the determination
of the response of the plate element as a function of the incident pressure. The
general procedure of the variational technique is described in reference [9].
13.6
By multiplying the basic eq. (3) by 4 and integrating over the area of the plate
the following expresion is derived:
*
(u1p/D) I dS'I'z0o
J dS(
2(V2) -,l41
VI
21)
(8)
A variational expression is obtained by adding the expressions (7) and (8). In

view of the definition of Pz--o - eq (16) - the result is
1`0 = 4(cs0p/D)
J 4'F dS
+ (Up/D)
-f dS(n41 011 - V2(V2))
J dSre
(r) J dSoo(ro) G(r ro)
(9)
This expression canl be used as described in reference [9J, to determine the

amplitude of a certain assumed plate vibrational mode so that the resulting*
average plate velocity will be as close to the correct value as the chosen form
permits.
The response of the plate is clearly a function of frequency. In the very low
frequency range the plate moves like a rigid plate. As the frequency is increased
the first plate resonance starts to dominate. Thereafter the higher modes or edge
modes are excited first along the one side and then along the other as determined
by the dimensions of the plate element.
The motion of the plate can be assumed to be described by one or a combination
of appropriate eigenvector functions which can be denoted by gmn(x,y). These
functions should fulfil the boundary conditions for the plate. The boundary
conditions for a plate element in a hull structure, however; cannot be readily
defined. The impedance of the hull is considerably higher along the frames than
elsewhere. The lateral motion of the frames and thus of the edges of the plate is
thus small compared to the average motion of the plate. This has been confirmed
by full scale measurements. If the torsional of bending stiffness of the frames is
high, then the plates can be considered to be clamped. However, the dimensions of
the frames are often such that a rotation along the junction between plate and
frame can be assumed to take place. For this case the plate should be considered
to be simply supported rather than clamped. For a simply supported plate the
13.7
eigenvectors can be defined exactly, whereas for a clamped plate no exact solution
can be formulated and hence approximate solutions must be used.
For simply supported boundaries the eigenvectors can be written as:
g.. =2 sinkmx sinkny/V'aU
m
r ;k = n2r.- Kmn
a -= {km 2 + k.2}0.
(10)
The eigenfrequency for the mode m,n is denoted by fm. n.

13.4 TRIAL FUNCTIONS
In the frequency range well below the first plate resonance the response of the hull
is determined by global vibrations of the aft peak structure. The resulting velocity
level of a plate element or a stiffener is thus a function of the mass and stiffness of
the entire construction. In this frequency range the finite element method can be
used to determine the response of the hull. For increasing frequencies the first
plate mode or resonance starts to dominate. Above the first resonance (i.e. for
frequencies higher than f11) the first edge mode becomes excited. The frequency f
13
for which this occurs is determined by the largest plate dimension - in this case b.
For still higher frequencies the edge modes along both axes are excited. This is for
frequencies above fs.
3
The response of a plate is mainly determined by the edge modes. This is shown,
for example, in reference [10]. For a uniformly loaded plate the contribution from
the modes for which m,n > 3 is small in comparison with the edge modes and is
therefore neglected in the analysis.
The trial functions describing the velocity of a plate element can thus be written
as follows:
f < f11,
= 4qigl
fil < f < f3l,
f31 < f < <e,f
ngin
Oi
='lngln + OmIgm]
13.8
(11)
The upper frequency limit is set to be the coincidence frequency fc for the fluid
loaded plate. The mode numbers in and n in the expressions above must in all
cases be such that the corresponding wavenumber Kmn is as close as possible to the
wavenumber for flexural waves on the fluid loaded plate. The amplitudes Oun in
eq (11) are all determined from the variational expression (9). The procedure is
described in detail in reference [8].
13.5 RESULTS
The frequency and space averages of the pressure and velocity squared can be
summarized as shown below. The results are valid for plate elements which can be
assumed to be simply supported at the boundaries and are presented for three
frequency regions (i) - (iii). The incident pressure on the hull is denoted by Pin
and is thus equal to the free field pressure at the observation point in the absence
of the hull. By introducing the parameter
Omn = u,n/IFI 17
The results are:
(i)
f < fil
f I
P2
2_
4
(1
Pi
wit
where
16 Oap
D
7r2
(nil-KI)
and
il=
n 4 (l +
/t fl3 )
I3.9
(ii)
fit < f < f13
1 2 11
p2 = 2
2= Pin
'p
(13)
where
-12
1
8bi/
([S)21
a -
and 77 is the loss factor and Kin defined as

gin = K[1 +
Kin
4---]
should however always be larger than n13-
(iii) f43 < f
P'=2=Pn[4 +[olnll+l:l
=p
pI2 {L
I
"Im 12]
+ Ii2} / pp2(
inII/~
(14)
0m. is defined in a similar way as Oin.

13.6 MEASUREMENTS
Full scale measurements have been carried out on a 32000 tdw product carrier.
An overall view of the aft body of the ship is shown in Figure 4. Propeller and
plate induced pressure in the water as well as acceleration levels on the hull
plating were measured with seven hydrophones and seven accelerometers mounted
in the aft peak tank: the shaded area in Figure 4. The measurement positions
were distributed over an area of approximately 25 M2 . In each of the seven
measurement positions one hydrophone and one accelerometer were mounted
13.10
together as close as possible to the centreline between two parallel frames. The
positions, as seen from above, are indicated in Figure 5. Another view, seen from
the aft, of the positions 2, 3 and 4 is shown in Figure 6. All positions are well
below the waterline. The spacing between the frames is 0.6 m and the thicknesses
of the plates are 30.5 mm in position 1, 14 mm in position 4 and 18 mm in the
remaining p6sitions.
The hydrophones (Brflel & Kjaer type 8103) were mounted in special holders
which were screwed into the plates. The hydrophones protruded 25 mm from the
hull (see Figure 7). During all measurements the signals from hydrophones and
accelerometeres were registered simultaneously.
The loss factors (or rather reverberation times) for the plate elements were
measured with the propeller and main engines stopped. The plates were excited
with handheld sledgehammers. In order to obtain a good response in both the high
and low frequency range, various types of hammers were used. The distance
'between the impact point and the measurement position was also varied.
The pressure and acceleration levels were recorded on board for three typical
service conditions in deep sea. Wheather and sea were stable and calm during all
measurements. The service conditions are clasified as follows:
Condition
A
B
C
Propeller rpm
115
131
120
Speed (knots)
14.2
15.8
14.3
The draught aft was constant and equal to 11.3 in.

In addition to the seven positions shown in Figure 5 accelerometers were mounted
on the frames in the aft peak tank and on the aft deck.
13.7 COMPARISON BETWEEN MEASURED AND PREDICTED RESULTS
In the low frequency range - below 40 Hz - the velocity level of the hull plating is
determined by global rather than local vibrations. In this frequency range the
velocity levels measured on the plate elements, the frames and the aft deck are
13.11
more or less the same: i.e. the aft of the ship vibrates like a solid body. For higher
frequencies the velocity levels of the plates are appreciably higher than elsewhere
in the aft body. The plate model is consequently not valid for frequencies below
approximately 40 Hz. In the low frequency range the finite element method has,
as mentioned above, been used succesfully to deternmine the response of the hull.
In Figures 8 and 9 the measured quantity Lp - L, is compared to the predicted
results for positions 2 and 4 shown in Figure 5. Lp is the total pressure level in dB
relative to 10-6 Pa, and L,(re 10-9 m/s) is the velocity level measured in the same
point. The plate dimensions of element 2 are a = 0.6 m, b = 2.0 m and its
thickness is 18 mm. The corresponding dimensions for element 4 are 0.6 m, 1.6 m
and 14 mm. Measurements and predictions are based on a third octaveband
analysis. The measurements are averaged over a time period of 64 s. The
predicted and measured results start to deviate for frequencies below 40 Hz, as
should be exspected.
The total pressure on the plates depends on the running condition - if the
propeller rpm is increased, then the pressure increases. However, the measured
quantity Lp - Lv is in general within 0.5 dB for the three conditions A, B and C
except when the global vibrations dominate. For low frequencies the difference
between the results for the three conditions can be as large as 10 dB.
The pressure measured at a given position is not only a function of the distance to
the source but also a function of the plate dimensions. The pressure level
difference between two positions - for example 1 and 3 - can be written as
ALp(pos. 1) - ALp(pos. 3) + 20 log[r3/rl]
where r3 and r1 are the respective distances to the source. ALp is the pressure
difference between the total pressure on the plate and the incident pressure. In
Figure 10 the measured and predicted pressure level differences between positions
1 and 3 are compared. The first plate resonances occur in the 80 and 250 Hz third
octavebands for plates 3 and 1, respectively. In the low frequency range ALp(l) =
ALp(3) = 6 dB and the level difference between the measurement positions is
determined by the distances r1 and r3 and is equal to 3.4 dB. For frequencies
approaching the first resonance for plate 3 the induced pressure in this position
13.12
increases rapidly. At resonance ALp(3) = 14 dB whereas ALp(i) is appoximately

6 dB. The pressure is consequently 5 dB higher in position 3 than in position 1, as
shown in Figure 10. For yet higher frequencies, ALp(3) decreases whereas ALp(l)
increases. This example illustrates that the effect of the plate on the total
pressure close to the hull can be considerable.
13.8 DISCUSSION
If flush-mounted hydrophones are used to measure the source strength of a
propeller, then clearly the pressure induced by the hull plates must be considered.
The predicted level difference between the total pressure on the hull and the
incident pressure is shown in Figure 11 for plate element 2. As stated before, the
correction to free field conditions can be as large as 15 dB. In the low frequency
range well below the first plate resonance the plate impedance is high which
results in a doubling of the pressure or a level increase of 6 dB. In the high
frequency range the plate dimensions are large compared to the wavelength in
water and again the pressure increase approaches 6 dB as would be obtained for
an infinite plate. The pressure increase has distinct maxima when the frequency is
equal to f11, f13 and f3s as determined by the first resonance and the edge modes.
The main parameters which determine the response of a plate are the frame
distance and the thickness of the plate. The length of the plate is of less
importance as long as this dimension is significantly larger than the frame
spacing. If the length of a 0.6 m wide plate is reduced from 2 m to 1.6 m, the
velocity level is only slightly reduced.
In Figure 12 the quantity L, - Lp is shown for the three frame distances 0.5, 0.6
and 0.7 m. The thickness of the plate is 18 mm and the length 2.0 m. It is evident
that in the low frequency range the velocity level can be decreased if the distance
between the frames is decreased. However, the opposite is true in the
mid-frequency region.
If in a cabin the noise level is determined by the propeller, then a noise reduction
in the low frequency range can be obtained if the frame spacing is decreased. This
is shown in Figure 13. The solid line is the measured noise level in a cabin which
is mainly exposed to propeller noise. The noise level in the cabin after the change
of tie propeller design is also indicated in the figure. The frame distance in the aft
13.13
peak is 0.6 m. The dashed line represents the predicted noise level in the same
cabin when the distance between the frames is reduced to 0.5 m. The A-weighted
level is decreased by only 3 dB(A). However, subjectively the improvement
should be favourable.
The power fed into a plate is a function of the plate thickness. Figure 14 shows
the computed quantity 10 log(flabsorbed/flincident) for two elements with the
thickness 18 and 24 mm. The other plate dimensions are 0.6 and 2.0 m. Again
it
is shown that when the hull construction is made stiffer - in this case by
increasing the plate thickness - then the absorbed power and thus also the
velocity level are decreased in the low frequency range.
13.9 CONCLUSIONS
In the frequency range where propeller noise dominates the acoustical power
induced in the hull can be predicted. The pressure generated by the vibrating
hull
plates is a function of frequency and the plate parameters. This generated
pressure must always be corrected for whenever the acoustical source strength
of a
propeller is to be determined through measurements with hydrophones mounted
in the hull plates. The influence of the propeller on the noise levels in the
accommodation spaces can be reduced if in the aft peak construction the frame
distance is decreased, the plate thickness is increased or if the losses are increased.
The last effect could be achieved if damping layers are applied to the hull
plates.
13.10 REFERENCES
[11
A.NILSSON and P.TYVAND 1981. Noise in Ships, Part l:Propellers.
Nordforsk, Stockholm.
[2]
H.JANSSEN and I.BUITEN 1973. ProceedingsINTER-NOISE 73. An

acoustical design on naval architecture.
[3]
ACOUSTICS DESIGN MANUAL FOR SHIPS 1976. The Brittish Ship

Research Association.
[4]
N.BROWN 1977. Proceedings of the International Symposium of

Shipboard Acoustics, Amsterdam. Cavitation noise problems and solutions.
13.14
[5]
D.ROSS 1976. Mechanics of UnderwaterNoise. Pergamon Press, New

York.
[6]
A de BRUIJN, W.H.MODELKER and F.G.ABSIL 1986. Proceedings 2nd

InternationalConference on Shipboard Acoustics. Prediction method for
the acoustic source strength of propeller cavitation.
[7]
A.C.NILSSON, B.PETTERSSON and P.TYVAND 1981. Proceedings

SNA ME. Propeller induced noise in ships.
[8]
A.C.NILSSON 1980. Journalof Sound and Vibration 69(4), 539-557

Propeller induced hull plate vibrations.
[9]
P.MORSE and U.INGARD 1968. Theoretical Acoustics. McGraw-Hill,

New York.
[10]
G.MAIDANIK 1962. Journal of Acoustical Society of America 34,

809-826. Response of ribbed panels to reverberant acoustic fields.
13.15
NOISE LEVEL IN
MOST EXPOSED
ION
AC COMMODAT
do IA)t.
2 10, r NMira
goo
A .00.
A,
70
so-
So
RECOMMENDED
UPPER LIiTS FOR
ACCOMMOOATIONS
- --
0oO0
too
2;
LOW
TO0
s0
LENGTN m
00
APPROX.
TONS
GROSS
Fig. 1. Propeller induced noise, measured in cabins most exposed.
First experiment
Second experiment
Propeller In operation
Propeller not in operation
Measure e2
Measure 12 and PI
acoustical
hydroptofle
transducer96
Fig. 2. Test procedure for determining the volume velocity of

propeller cavitation. From [6].
13.16
A SH P LATE
FRAME
"
-HULL
PLATE
Fig. 3. Model of hull-plate construction.
CD,'
i Jo o
'"-
----
DC
no
-T -- -----S II
- .-.---.............
*
t
CC
cc
iII
,I...-.
F 4aie-lL ....- .o-aft'

'f.
t~~t
A?
iC
------
..
--.
T --
i\ ,
.:
..
4/A
-l
II.4
.1
OCDO
-h
--
M-.a
Jt,. I
,
rement
posi,
.It
...
L..
Fig. 4. Overall view, of aft body. Measurement positions located
in aft peak tank-the shaded area.
13.17
WASHPLATEr,
WASHPLATE
4- -1-
Ni
*-T-
I16
-r
mm
PLATE
WASI4PLATE
NUBR
r-
PLATE
r-
1-F
Fig. 5. Measurement positions as seen from abd~ve.
POSITION
Fig. 6. Positions 2, 3 and 4 as seen from the aft.
13.18
MOUNTING
BOLT
HYDRO PHONE
Fig. 7. Flush mounted hydrophone.
0
70
.0
0
65-
-I
0E 0
000
45
00
LS
31.5
63
125
250
Soo
IK
2K
FREQUENCY
Fig. 8. Measured (0000) and predicted

function for plate element 2.
13.19
(HZI
(--)response
4K
SK
65
0
0;
60
0/
600
C0
0.
0
55
50
0o
450
oO
0
40
250
125
63
31.5
S0o
2K
IK
FREQUENCY
Fig. 9. Measured (cooco) and predicted

function for plate element 4.
AK
(Hz)
(--)response
00
16
63
31.5
250
125
FREQUENCY
(Hz)
pressure
Fig.1O.* Measured (ococ) and predicted (-)
level differences between positions 1 and 3.
13.20
SK
10
31.5
63
125
250
500
1K
FREQUENCY
2K
&K
(Hz)
Fig.11. Predicted level difference between the total pressure

on plate 2 and the corresponding incident pressure.
-30-
-3
15
63
12
oo
FRQECY
K&
(Z
/iPrdceIlt
.2
epnea ucino niei
prsuefr
he
0.-m( - . , .6
-13.21
rmedsacs
), .m/
BK
go
SO
70
60
50
N.
31.5
63
125
250
So
1K
2K
4K
FREQUENCY
(Hz)
Fig.13. Influence of frame distance on the noise

level in
a cabin exposed to propeller noise.
Smeasured, frame distance 0.6 m.
predicted,frame distance 0.5 m.
measured, frame distance 0.6 m after modification
of propeller.
0
-IV/
6.,
-. -20
"
0-I
.0/
-0
/
31.5
/9
63
15
2,50
2KI
FREQUENCY
2K
/.K
Ill:)
13.2
Fig.14. Power absorbed by ,plates 0.6*2.0 m2 .Plate

thickness
18 mm
(-)
and 24 mm
13.22
(---).
5K
LESSON 14
16th WEGEMT SCHOOL
SESSION
CHAPTER
LESSON
TEACHER
COMPANY
COUNTRY
Noise and Vibration

:3. TRANSMISSION
3.2 Description of Structure-borne Sound Transmission in
Ship Structures
:14. Empirical. Statistical, Theoretical Approaches
Anders C. NILSSON
Brinellv. 28
S-100 44 Stockholm
SWEDEN
ABSTRACT
Four methods for the prediction of the propagation of

structure borne sound in ship structures are briefly
empirical,
The methods could be termed
discussed.
statistical and analytical. Empirical methods can be very
informative during the acoustical planning of a ship.
Predictions based on empirical methods should be limited
The upper frequency limit for a FEM
to standard ships.
calculation is too low to make it feasible for standard
is
Whenever an SEA calculation
noise predictions.
attempted it must be verified that the basic assumptions
are satisfied. The propagation of structure borne sound
can with a certain degree of accuracy be of fairly simple
plate models.
BIOGRAPHY

Stockholm.
Previous positions at the Boeing Co., Det norske Veritas,
Technical
the
structures.
14.1
14.1 INTRODUCTION
Noise problems on ships have attracted increasing attention during the last two
decades. National and international organizations have issued requirements or
recommendations concerning limits for noise levels in sleeping quarters or working
areas. In the IMGO code on noise the maximum noise level in sleeping cabins is
set to 60 dB(A). This noise limit can in general not be achieved if not noise
reducing measures are introduced onboard. This is illustrated in Figure 1. The
histogram shows the measured dB(A) levels on some randomly selected ships
built in Norway before the introduction of noise requirements. The 60 dB(A) level
is exceeded in 2/3 of the cabins. This despite the fact that noise reducing
measures had been installed on some of the ships. For many passenger vessels
built today the maximum noise level in cabins is set to 45 dB(A).
With these requirements from authorities and shipowners it is of course essential
that the noise levels onboard can be predicted already at the design stage. By
means of a prediction program the construction and general arrangement can be
optimized with respect to noise, economy, weight etc.
The noise situation on board a ship is determined by the sum of noise contributed
by the many and varied forms of noise sources. Effective shipboard noise control
therefore requires identification and knowledge of all significant noise sources.
The most important noise sources are main and auxiliary engines, propeller, gear,
casing and exhaust systems including funnel;' various -pumps;,compressors,
hydraulic systems and fan equipment including air intakes and outlets. In rooms
containing noise sources such as engines, fans or pumps the sound pressure level is
almost entirely determined by airborne sound. Methods to predict afid reduce
airborne sound are well known and are extensively treated in the literature. See
for example the references [1l and [2]. Typical sound reducing measures are
partitions, hoods, screens and sound absorbing materials.
In accomodation spaces other than those mentioned above, with the possible
exception of rooms directly adjoining a source, the noise level is determined by
structure-borne sound.
14.2
The term structure-borne sound refers to structural vibrations in the frequency

range 16 - 20000 Hz. High frequency flexural vibrations are well coupled to water
and air and radiates audible noise into these media.
Structure-borne sound is directly induced by any mechanical force. The
mechanical power transmitted from a source through its connection to the
foundation propagates into the structure. The power can propagate in the
structure as flexural, longitudinal, transverse and torsional waves. The relative
importance of these wave types has been discussed in the references [3] - ]8).
The resulting engergy flux in a structure is attenuated as function of the distance
from the disturbance. The attenuation depends on losses in the structure and also
on the number of obstructions or discontinuities (decks, platforms, frames) in the
propagation path. At the receiving end - in for example a cabin - the acoustical
power radiated from a structure depends on the velocity level of and the material
parameters and dimensions of the structure. To make a prediction of resulting
noise levels in an accommodation space possible, the following quantities must be
known:
i)
ii)
iii)
source strengths
transmission properties of steel structure
radiation properties of structures at the receiving encb
A flow chart for a typical noise prediction procedure is given in Figure 2.

Generally the main problem is the characterization of the acoustical properties of
.the main sources, their coupling to the shipstructure and the propagation of
structure borne sound from a source to a certain deck structure.
It is often argued that the acoustical energy flow in a shipstructure can be
determined by means of empirical methods, finite element methods, statistical
energy analysis or analytical methods.
14.2 EMPIRICAL METHODS
One of the first empirical methods was introcuced by Buiten [9] in 1973. The
method is very simple but still very informative. Although every ship is
14.3
:individually designed the basic structure must satisfy certain classification rules.
This implies a certain conformity between standard ships.
In Buiten's model the attenuation of structure borne sound from a souce to a deck
is assumed to be 5 dB per deck for the first four decks and then 2 dB for each
additional deck. The attenuation is assumed to be independent of plate thickness,
framne distance and other design parameters as well as of frequency. For a
standard type of ship with a conventional superstructure this simple model gives
fairly accurate results.
The outline of Buiten's procedure has been copied in numerous other prediction
schemes. The essential difference between these is the description of the
attenuation of the energy flow in the steel structure. Another widely used
empirical method was published by ESRA [10]. This method is also based on the
principles outlined by Buiten.
Classification societies and other organizations have access to drawings and noise
measurements for a large number of ships. This type of information can be the
foundation for a more or less sophisticated data base. This is for example
discussed in [11]. This type of data base can be used at the very early design stage
so as to avoid any major misstakes with respect to the acoustical planning of the
new building.
Very often today yards are mainly interested in prediction for specially designed
ships of a type not previously built. This means of course that there is no data
available to form the basis for any type of empirical estimates.
14.3 FINITE ELEMENT METHODS (FEM)Some type of FEM calculation is often carried out during every new building
program. The purpose could be to determine the first few resonances of the
superstructure or the entire hull. Alternatively the forced response of certain hull
sections or other substructures could be calculated. Most frequently FEM[
calculations for large structures are only carried out in the low frequency range
for example below 20 Hz. The frequency limit could of course be higher but the
upper limit is always well below the frequency range of interest for a typical noise
prediction. The number of degrees of freedom for a FEM1 calculation is increasing
14.4
rapidly as the frequency is increased. For example a complete FEM model at 2000
Hz of an ordinary passenger car would be of the same order of magnitude as the
largest FEM calculations ever carried out.
In order to estimate the velocity levels in a structure like a car or a ship
frequency averages for 1/1 och 1/3 octave bands are required. This means that for
each band the calculation procedure must be repealed say 200 times. In addition
calculations have to be repeated several times during the design phase whenever
an alteration is suggested.
Although the capacity of computers is rapidly improving any attempt to calculate
the forced response of an entire ship structure beyond 50 or 100 Hz should not be
considered. It is of course always feasible to make FEM calculations for certain
substructures even in the high frequency range. This requrires that the proper
boundary conditions for the substructure can be formulated. For vibration
calculations in the low frequency range certain simplifications of the structural
model are usually made. This procedure is illustrated in Figure 3 and discussed in
[12]. Similar and more extended simplifications of large structures might be a
future possibility to use FEM calculations to predict noise.However the accuracy
suffers from too many simplifications as shown in Figure 3.
14.4 STATISTICAL ENERGY ANALYSIS (SEA)
The SEA method was introduced 25 years ago. The method was initially
developed for the prediction of the response of space craft. structures during
take-off. Fundamental work was carried out by Lyon, Scharton, Maidanik, Smith
Jr and Fahy. The basic results have been summarized by Lyon in [13].
As the name of the method implies the SEA procedure is a statistical method.
The basic parameter is energy. The method is developed for systems excited by
white noise. A system can consist of a number of coupled subsystems.
In practice this could mean an assembly of plates and beams which are
mecanically connected. The total energy and thus the average velocity of each
subsystem is calculated within a frequency band - for example 1/1 or 1/3 octave
bands. Each subsystem should have a large number of resonances within the
14.5
"\
frequency band of interest. This means that only the resonant transmission of
energy is considered. The SEA formalism is very simple which might be one
reason for its popularity.
Initially two coupled oscillators as shown in Figure 4 were investigated in [14]. It
was shown that the energy flow 1112 between the two lightly coupled oscillators
excited by white noise can be written as:
1712 = wR1 2 (EI-E 2 )
-1121
(1)
In this expression w is the angular frequency corresponding to the centre

frequency of the frequency band of interest. The parameter 1712 is the coupling loss
factor between the two oscillators. E1 and E 2 are the total energies of the two
subsystems 1 and 2. The energy flow from system 2 to system 1 is denoted
1121.
The power flija induced in system 1 by some external force is equal to;
Him = 1112
where
id
+ 1'ld
(2)
is the power dissipated in system 1. This quantity can also be written
as;
11
1d =
wijE 1
(3)
Here 77,
is the internal loss factor for system 1.
The basic method can be generalised and applied to multi modal systems if;
-
The systems are weakly coupled, for example I7

<<<1
12//1
The systems are resonant
Low internal damping
All resonant modes within frequency band for one subsystem have the
same energy
All resonant modes in one subsystem have the same coupling to each of the
resonant modes in any other system
External forces are uncorrelated
14.6
"%
Modal overlap between the systems which in practice often is equivalent to

a high modal density in both systems.
If these basic assumptions are satisfied the power balance between two coupled
oscillators can be written as;
flin = w[in2E, - rt2iE2] + wrqlEl
l-in2 = w[,piE2 - rn12E1] + wlnE2
(4)
If the number of resonant modes within a frequency band for the two systems are
N1 and N2 then;
N1 7712 = N 2 772 1
(5)
The equation (4) can be generalised to describe the coupling between several
oscillators. For subsystem i, which is part of a large system, the power balance
can be written as;
llini = w .[rijE i - 71ijEj] + w77iE
J
(6)
where Ni77ij = Njqj i.

Thus, if the coupling factors are known the energy and the average velocity
squared for each subsystem can be calculated as function of the induced power to
each system.
The application of the SEA method for ship structures is for example discussed in
[15]. A ship structure and a corresponding flow chart is shown in Figure 5. The
coupling loss factor between two adjoining plates is a function of the so called
transmission coefficient. This transmission coefficient is equal to the ratio
between the transmitted and incident energy flow over the junction between the
structures.
In [15] this coefficient is calculated based on the assumption that the adjoining
[4.7
plates are semi infinite. Other SEA models are for example discussed in [16]-[18].
For a typical ship structure the modal density for plate elements is fairly low.
The coupling between plate elements is not necessarily weak. Forced rather
than
resonant transmission can be dominant. A prediction of ship noise based on
the
SEA method could therefore be questioned since the basic assumptions are
not
satisfied.
14.5 WAVE GUIDE MODEL
This approach to the propagation problem was first presented in reference
[5] and
then in a more generalized form in reference [8]. The method is based on a
technique previously used by Heckl [19] to determine the vibration of grillages.
In
references [5] and [8] the basic assumptions concerning the adaptation of the
method to ship structures have been discussed at length.
The method can be used to determine the vibration levels of plate elements
in a
vertical section of a ship structure, as shown in Figure 6. The plates in the
section
are restricted by the frames and have junctions with other plates-decks or
vertical partitions. The dynamical coupling between the plates in a section
can be
calculated on the basis of the following assumptions: (1) a ship construction
can
be considered as an acoustical wave guide system; the parallel frames constitute
the boundaries for each wave guide; the transverse motion of the plates is
negligible at the boundaries; (2) the main power flow from a source propagates
as
flexural waves in the plate elements within the wave guide system; (3) the
coupling between two plate elements is caused,by rotation, or a bending moment
at the junction between the plates, perpendicular to the frames.
The relative importance of flexural andlongitudinal waves has been discussed
in
reference [5]. The results of the study indicated that the main power flow
in a
ship structure is caused by flexural waves.
In references [5] and [8] model and full--scale measurements have been compared
with predicted results for frequencies above the cut-off frequency for the wave
guidesystem. For a full--scale ship sturcture this limit corresponds to
approximately 100 Hz. In a ship the thicknesses of the plates are greater in
the
hull and tank top than in the superstructure. Consequently the cut-off
14.8
frequencies can be comparatively hig.h for the elements in the tank top. The
method described in reference [5] therefore has certain limitations with respect to
frequency range when its application is extended to include not only
superstructures, but also propagation paths all the way from the engine
foundations. For this reason it is of importance to determin~e the propagation
pattern even for frequencies below cut-off. This is discussed in [8].
A detailed knowledge of the mechanism describing the power flow from the engine
foundations could eventually lead to new design criteria for the minimization of
the noise levels on a ship and also to the noise radiated out into the water. A low
level of water-borne noise is of great importance on e.g. fishing and geophysical
vessels.
The basic wave guide model is fairly simple. Initially a vertical section of a ship
construction is considered. One example is shown in Figure 6. The width of the
section is determined by the distance between the parallel frames. The plates in
the structure are assumed to be excited by a bending moment acting on one
element, perpendicular to the frames. The power flow to the adjoining and
subsequent elements is then generated by the resulting angular displacement at
each junction. The lateral motion of the boundaries is small compared with the
displacement of the plates. This has been confirmed by full-scale measurements
on typical ship structures. Therefore the transverse-motion of the boundaries and
the twising moments at the junctions have been neglected in the analysis. As a
consequence of this the displacement and thus also the bending moment for any
plate element can be derived as functions of the rotation at each junction.
However, this is based on the assumption that the angle between two plate
elements is not changed by the rotation. The coupling between the elements can
then be calculated based on the fact that the sum of the bending moments around
each junction should equal zero.
This final condition makes it possible to form a system of equations relating all
the angular displacements at the junctions of the structure. The solutions to this
set of equations determine the displacement and thus also the velocity of each
plate as functions of the initial forcing bending moment. This is discussed in
reference [8].
14.9
The boundary conditions for the plate along the frames are essential. Various
models are discussed in [8]. Once the appropriate boundary conditions along the
frames have been established the bending moments acting on the plate element
can be determined. For the plate element shown in Figure 7 the bending moment
Mmn (0y) can be written as;
Mmn(Oy)
Xmn "7m- Ymn "-n
(7)
where Xmn and Ymn are functions of the dimensions and material parameters of
the plate element between the junctions m and n. The functions Xmn and YXmn
defined in reference [8] also depend on frequency.
The total bending moment around a junction is equal to zero. This means that
the angular displacement at each junction can be solved as function of a force or
moment exciting a particular element. In matrix form the resulting system of
equations can be written as;
[A]{rl = 1m),
M2
{1} r2
=
f. .
{Mf =
(8)
The total number of junctions in thestructure is dendted'by N: The elements Amn

in the N x N matrix A are defined as
Amn
S Xmn,
n
Ae
-Ymn for mi# n.
(9)
njm
The function Xm.n and Ymn are zero if there is no plate element between the
junctions m and n. The matrix A is symmetric: i.e., Amn=Anm. The elements Mm
are equal to zero except at those junctions where the structure is excited. In most
cases only the velocity level difference between a certain plate element and a
source element is of interest. In that case the parameters Mm in the matrix above
are zero except for the two junctions bounding the source element where the
14.16
moment is set equal to unity. The resulting angular displacements are calculated.
Thereafter the average velocities for the elements and finally the velocity level
difference between the elements in the structure and the source element can be
derived. The procedure must be repeated for each source element in the structure.
the velocity of a plate element is a rapidly varying function of frequency. The
total kinetic energy of a plate element in a certain frequency band must therefore
be determined by means of numerical integration: i.e. summation within each
frequency band. For a typical noise prediction the nine octave bands with the
centre frequencies 31.6 Hz to 8 kHz are of interest. In each of these frequency
bands the average velocity should be based on 100-250 separate calculations. If,
for a typical ship construction, the number of summations within a frequency
band is extended from 250 to 500, the resulting velocity level differences between
the elements in the structure can change by a few dB.
The method discussed above has certain limitations; The model can not be used
for ship constructions with longitudinal web frames. For ships with frames
perpendicular to the centre line the frame distance should be the same
everywhere. The mode] can therefore not be used without certain manipulations
for ships with ice frames.
Results based on this model depends on how well the structure can be described.
This requires a certain experience. In particular with respect to the modelling of
engine foundations.
14.6 MEASURED AND PREDICTED RESULTS
Although two ships can be very similar with respect to outer dimensions, number
of decks etc, thle attenuation of the acoustical energy flow in the ship structures
could be quite different. This is discussed in reference [5]. In this paper
measurements carried out on two 130 000 tdw tankers are compared. The tankers
were of the same type. However frame distances and plate thicknesses differed.
The velocity levels of the decks in the superstructures were measured. The
excitation source was one auxiliary engine. The superstructures were of a box like
design as shown in Figure 8. The velocity level differences between the main deck
(structure 6) and the upper decks (structures 5 to 1) were measured. The
corresponding level differences were calculated by means of the wave guide model.
14.11
The results are compared in Figure 9. It is obvious that the velocity level
differences AL65 between the decks 6 and-5 etc are all functions of frequency.
The
level difference is fairly small in the low frequency range even between
the decks 6
and 2. Further the energy flow differs considerably between the two ships.
If an
empirical model had been used the same level differences would have
been
predicted.
A narrow band frequency analysis of the velocity squared measured on deck
3 on
one ship is shown in Figure 10. Within the 1 kHz 1/3 octave band only
two
distinct response peaks are recorded. This indicates that the modal density
is too
low for an SEA calculation.
Various means of reducing the acoustical energy flow in ship structures
are
in [7]. The simple model shown in Figure 11 was used for the
experimental work. The model was excited by a poinit force at the
position 1. The
resulting velocity level differences between the deck structures were
measured and
calculated based on the wave guide theory. The effect of damping layers
were
considered. The following configurations were investigated;
-discussed
1)
2)
3)
Bare steel model

Damping layers on the plates 4 and 6
Damping layers on the plates 5 and 7:-
The properties of the damping layers were~such that the velocity level
of a plate
element in the model was decreased by 10-15 dB when the damping was
applied.
Based on an SEA prediction for model 2 the velocity levels of the plate
elements
numbered 7 to 11 should be reduced 'by approximately the same amount
as the
velocity levels of the plates 4 and 6. This would mean a reduction of 10 to
1.5 dB.
However, as shown in Figures 12 and 13, the velocity level of the top deck
(nr 11)
only varied by a few dB. The predicted results shown in Figures 12 and
13 are
based on the wave quide model. For a comparison with a full scale structure
the
frequency for the model scale measurements should be divided by a factor 20.
The failure of the SEA method in this case can be attributed to the low modal
density. Further the acoustical energy flow in a ship structure is caused by both
14.12
forced and resonant transmission. Only resonant transmission is included in the

SEA approach.
Predicted and measured velocity levels on a 34 000 tdw conventional tanker are
compared in [8). The predicted results are based on the waveguide theory. The
ship and the corresponding element model are shown in the Figures 14 and 15.
Material parameters plate dimensions etc are listed in [20].
Measurements of velocity levels were carried out during ordinary service
conditions. Measurement possitions are indicated in Figure 14. Accelerometers
were mounted on the steel plates along the centre line between the frames 35 and
36. The distance between two positions was 0.75 mn. The standard deviation
between individual measurements on a plate element is of the order 1.5 dB in the
mid frequency region, about 0.8 dB in the 4 kHz octave band and 2 dB in the 63
Hz; band.
Predicted and measured velocity level differences between element 25 and the
elements 2, 8 and 17 are compared in Figure 16(a)-(c), respectively. In general,
and as indicated in the figures, the at tenuation increases as the distance from the
sources is increased. However, the attenuation is not only a function of the
location of the plate but also of the plate dimensions.
Predicted velocity level differences between element 25 and the elements 2 and 4
are shown in Figure 17. The last two elements represent the platings between Cand D-deck and the plate structure in C-deck. It is evident that the power flow
to the deck is greater than to the adjoining ship side in the low frequency region.
For high frequencies the opposite is the case. The result - or rather the frequency
dependence for the various coupling factors - which is shown in Figure 17 is
representative of this type of junction between ship side and deck. The reason for
the result is quite simply that the material parameters - total weight, stiffness,
etc. - are not the same for a deck construction and a ship side.
The transmission of structure-borne sound from the engine foundation to the hull
has also been investigated. The bottom part of the cross section previously
referred to is shown in Figure 18. In this figure L, denotes the average velocity
14-13
level on the ship side between the tank top and the lplatformn deck. The positions 2
and 3 correspond to plate elements in the tank top and in the engine foundation.
In Figure 19(a) the predicted and measured velocity level differences between the
ship side and tank top elements axe compared. In the low frequency range the
velocity level on the ship side is higher than on the tank top. This is mainly due
to two reasons. Primarily, the first resonance frequency for the water loaded plate
is much lower than for a plate in the tank top. The plate in the hull is
consequently easier to excite. Secondarily, the power flow from the bottom plates
to the ship side is significant in the low frequency range.
In Figure 19(b) predicted and measured velocity level differences between the ship
side and the engine foundation are compared. The difference in stiffness between
the elements in the ship side ahd foundation is here much more pronounced than
in the previous case. The result is that the velocity level difference between the
elements is much larger than in the previous case for low frequencies. The same
observations have been confirmed by other full-scale measurements.
14.7 CONCLUSIONS
Empirical methods can be very informative during the acoustical planning of a
ship. Predictions based on empirical methods should be limited to standard ships.
The upper frequency range for a FEM calculation is too low to make the model
feasible for standard noise predictions. However REM calculations could be used
for the investigation of the coupling between various substructures. Whenever an
SEA calculation is attempted it must be verified that the assumptions on which
the method is based are not violated. In general ship structnres are out of range
for SEA calculations. Additional work could probably make the technique more
general. The propagation of structure borne sound in ship structures can with a
certain degree of accuracy be predicted by means of fairly simple plate models.
However the method should be generalized.
14.8 REFERENCES
[i]
HANDBOOK FOR SHIPBOARD AIRBORNE NOISE CONTROL- 1974
Coast~ard Technical Publication 073/0/100.
14-14
[2]
J.W.E. PETTERSEN and J.STORM 1975. Noise Control in Sips

Norwegian Council for Technical and Scientific Rerearch, Oslo.
[3]
F. FAHY and E.LINDQUIST 1976 Journal of Sound and Vibration 45(1),

115-138 Wave propagation in damped stiffened structures characteristic of
ship constructions.
[4]
A.C.NILSSON 1976 Journal of Sound and Vibration 44, 393-406. Wave

propagation in simple hull frame structures of ships.
[5]
A.C.NILSSON 1977 Journalof Sound and Vibration 55(1), 71-91.

Attenuation of structure borne sound in superstructures on ships.
[6]
B.S.SELAND 1978 DnV-Report, Det norske Veritas, Oslo. Propagation of

structure borne sound in stiffened plates.
[7]
A.C.NILSSON 1978 Journal of Sound and Vibration 61, 45-60. Reduction

of structure borne sound in simple ship structures: results of model tests.
[8]
A.C.NILSSON 1984 Journalof Sound and Vibration94(3), 411-429.

A method for the prediction of noise and velocity levels in ship
constructions.
[9]
J.H.JANSSEN and J.BUITEN 1973 Proceedings INTER-NOISE 73. An

acoustical design on naval architecture.
[10]
ACCOUSTICS DESIGN MANUAL FOR SHIPS 1976 The Brtitish Ship

Research Association
[11]
K.ANDRESEN, A.C.NILSSON and E. BRUBAKK 1986 Proceedings

2nd IntyernationalSymposium on Shipboard Acoustics. Noise Prediction
and Prevention.
[12]
K.SKAAR et a] 1987 Vibration Control in Ships. Veritec, Det norske

Veritas, Oslo.
14.15
[13]
R.H.LYON 1975 Statistical Energy Analysis of Dynamical Systems: Theory

and Application. Cambridge, Massachusetts: M.I.T. Press.
[14]
T.SCHARTON and R.H.LYON 1968 Journal of Acoustical Society of

America 43(6), 1332-1343. Power flow and energy sharing in random
vibration.
[15]
J.ODEGAARD JENSEN 1977 Proceedings 1st InternationalSymposium

on Shipboard Acoustics, Calculation of structure borne noise transmission
in ships using the SEA approach.
[16]
J.PLUNT 1977 Chalmers Technical University Gbteborg, Part 17, Report

17-42. Methods for predicting noise levels in ships.
[17]
R.J.SAWLEY 1969 in Stochastic Processes in DynamicalProblems. The

evaluation of a shipboard noise and vibration problem using statical energy
analysis. New York: American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
[18]
J.SUHARA 1977 Proceedings of the InternationalSymposium on Practical

Desighn Analysis and prediction of shipboard noise.
[19]
M.HECKL 1964 Journal of Acoustical Society of America 36, 1335-1343,

Investigation of the vibration of grillages and other simple beam
[20]
structures.
A.C.NILSSON 1983 Addendum to LI Report No 103, Ship, propulsion and
measurement data.
14.16
30-
25-
0,
S20-
Ii-
SI
so
55
60
MEASURED
65
dO JIA
70
LEVEL
IN
75
CABINS
Fig. 1. Distribution of A-weighted noise levels in 282 cabins on

15 randomly chosen ships.
S"
14-17
14.1
80
LtP
i Lv
SOURCE I
SOURCE I
AIRBORNE
SOUND
TRANSMISSION
THROUGH
STRUCTURES
F
ATTENUATION
IN
STRUCTURE
DECK
LVL
LP
INDUCED NOISE
LEVEL IN
CABIN BY
AIRBORNE
SOUND FROM
SOURCE I
p
INDUCED NOISE LEVEL IN CABIN
BY STRUCTUREBORNE SOUND FROM
SOURCE I
I-F
TOTAL CONTRIBUTION FROM SOURCE I

OCTAVE BAND SOUND PRESSURE LEVELS
I RESULTING NOISE
iNCBN
LEVEL*
IN CABIN
TOTAL SOURCE
CONTRIBUTION]
K---FROM
I
,zI
I\
TOTAL CONTRIBUTION
IFROM SOURCE III

NOISE LEVEL IN dB(A)
INCABIN
OTHER SOURCES
Fig. 2. Flow chart for a typical noise prediction procedure.
14.18
I. SUPERSTRUCTURE
1.1
1.2 2-DIM.
BEAM
2. AFTERSHIP MOD.
1,3 3-DIM.
3. FORESHIP MOD.
2.1 BEAM
3.1 BEAM
2.2 DOUBLE
2.3
MODELS
3.2 DOUBLE
2-DIM.
3.3 2-iim.
2.4 3-DIM.
3.4 3-DIM.
SUPERSTRUCTURE
FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY
MEASURED VALUE 8.3 Hz
FINITE
ELEMENt
.. J
MODEL
MODEL SIZE.
NUMBER OF:
ELEMENIS NODESSUPER-ODES
464
FREOUENCYIERROR
O.OF.*
Hz
,1.
11.5
39
130
52
61
1190
00
68
165
9.0
1500
510
13
315
8.8
2150
810
185
45
8.2~
*DEGREES
OF FREEDOM
Fig. 3. The figure shows various types of FEM models for global
vibration analysis.The table shows predicted results
based on reduced structural models, where
A-superstructure clamped to main deck.
B-engine room below superstructure included.
C-complete model of aft body.
D--complete ship included.
Figure and table reproduced from [12]
14.19
-1
Fig. 4. Two linear resonators Coupled by spring, mass and

gyroscopic elements. From f[13].
1.
Pi&diss
21
P4,5P6d,ss
6I
42V.5J
I11
27..5
619
'72
p
14.20
Fig. 6. Vertical section of a ship structure.
Mm, (Lm,,, Y)
Fi7.Pat
lmetb
th
Junction n
Junction rn
.-
/"..
Fig. T.Plate element between the junctions mn and n.
14.21"
DECK I
~DECK
--
Lzn
DECK
2"
P?
DECK k
NDECK I
Fig. 8. Model of a superstructure.
14.22
AL
AL
(dB)
63
-'
"-
-'
0-
Io
I .
(d B)
c'p
x
0 0J
ZL64 (dB)
I 'co
l:..LDA62
(dB)
2o
65
0-
f0
2-
00(0
*1 \
n
00
a.
ro
0-0
000
0
0e
0)
0
IM-
A,
N4.2
14.2
3-0
2-0
V
1.0
800
900
1000
1100
1200
Frequency (Hz)
Fig.10. Narrow band analysis of the measured velocity v of

deck 3
3
on ship B. Arbitrary units.
8 00 "9-t
to9
8C0
0-060-72
6
R4
0o18
&
34
Fig.11. Basic model used for tests. Frames not indicated in

figure.
Thickness of plates 1-3 is 1mm, all other plates 0.6mm.
Dimensions shown in figure in m.
14.24
10
<
0.
1.6
3-15
6.3
12.5
25-0
500
Frequency (kHz)
Fig.12. Measured(oo) and predicted(-) velocity level differences

for the basic configuration, model 1.
200
S/
5
"
"
1.6
3-15
-x
6.3
12-5
2,5-0
Frequency (kHz)
Fig.13. Measured and predicted velocity level differences:

ooo, measured
model 33
predicted model
=xx measured model 2
-- predicted model '2
14.25
50-0
Fig.14. View of the aft body of the ship.

Measurement positions located in shaded area.
D--deck
G)
C - deck
68- deck.
A-deck
00
UIb
Fig.15. Element model of ship shown in Fig.14.
14.26
30
(b)
(a)
25 -a,j
20
------.--
15 10
31"5
125
315
8k
2k
500
125
500
2k
20
(c)
15-
-4
5
0
8k
2k
500
125
31.5
Frequency (Hz)
Fig.16. Predicted and measured velocity level differences between

the elements (a) 25 and 2 (b) 25 and 8 (c) 25 and 17.
Compare Fig.15. - - - Measured:-
30
Predicted.
II
- -
--
25-
-J20
15
20
II
2k
500
125
Frequency (Hz)
31"5
8k
Fig.17 Predicted velocity levels between elements 25 and 2 (-)

and 25 and 4 ( -
-).
The results illustate the coupling
between ship's side and deck.
14.27
8k
Fig.18. Cross section of engine foundation and tank construction.
L1 ,L2 and L3 indicate average velocity levels for plate

elements in the stucture.
20-
~(a)
15 -
"
05
0
31.5
63
125
250
500
1k
2k
20 - X _
4k
b
m10-
S-10
-20 -
0I
31,5
63
II
125
250
500
Ik
2k
4k
Frequency (Hz)
Fig.19. Velocity level difference between ship's side L1 and
(a) element in tank top and (b) engine foundation L3.

o--o Predicted;x--x measured.
14.28
LESSON 15
16th WEGEMT SCHOOL
SESSION
CHAPTER
LESSON
TEACHER
COMPANY
COUNTRY
Noise and Vibration

3. TRANSMISSION
3.2 Description of Structure-borne Sound Transmission
in Ship Structures
15. New Materials
Anders C. NILSSON
Brinellv. 28
S-100 44 Stockholm
SWEDEN
ABSTRACT
Some materials used for the construction of high speed

vessels are compared. Acoustical and dynamical properties
of sandwich elements are discussed. The derivation of
wave numbers, lossfactors and apparent bending stiffness
is indicated. In additions the sound transmission loss of
sandwich plates is examined. Measured and predicted
results are compared. It is found that bending stiffness
and loss factor not only depend on material parameters
and plate geometries but also on frequency. The core
thickness is very critical for the acoustical performance
of a sandwich structure.
BIOGRAPHY

Stockholm.
Previous positions at the Boeing Co., Det norske Veritas,
the
Technical
structures.
15.1
15.1 INTRODUCTION
The first ships to cross the Atlantic, 500 years before Columbus, were wooden
constructions built by the Norwegian Vikings or small vessels made of animal
hides and navigated by the Irish monks. Thor Heyerdah] has proved that sea
going vessels in ancient times could be built of almost any material. Considering
this it could be argued that the ship building industry has not been very inventive
during this century. However the fast passenger ships built today are presumably
more comfortable than the old viking ships.
During the last decade or so vessels for the transportion of up to 500 passengers at
40 knots or more have been constructed. The trend to build faster and larger
vessels continue. These vessels are either built of aluminium or sandwich. Steel
can not be used due to the weight factor. Single skin glass reinforced plastic GRP - is no longer of interest since moulding tools etc are required. The cost of
tools can exceed the building cost of the vessel.
Ships must be built according to certain classification rules. A sandwich vessel
which comply with these rules can on the average be made 10% lighter than a
vessel of the same size built of aluminium. This is reported in [1]. With respect to
cost the opposite was previously the case. By means of various methods for the
optimization of the structure it is now possible to reduce the cost.
The parameters considered to be of greatest importance for a high speed vessel
have been evaluated with respect to the material used. The result is reported in
[1] and summarized in TABLE 1. The materials considered are steel, aluminium,
glass reinforced plastic laminates (GRP) and sandwich. Parameters like weight,
cost etc. are given a certain weighting factor. This factor can vary between
6-important- and 1-inisignifi cant. For each parameter the performance of each
material is alotted a certain poinit from 1 to 6. The highest point corresponds to
the best performance. The score, abreviated to sc. in the table is equal to the
weighting factor times tlie number of points. Some of the weighting factors and
the points given could certainly be discussed. However the total score for the
sandwich material is far better than for any of the other materials.
15.2
TABLE 1 EVALUATION OF MATERIALS FOR A HIGH SPEED CRAFT [1]

Parametre
Weight
Cost
ProductionQA/QC
Fire
resist.
Impact
resist.
Ice performance
Fatigue
properties
Water degradation
Noise
Thermal
insulation
Damage
detection
Maintenance&
repair
Total score
Weight
factor
Steel
pts
sc.
Al.
pts
sc.
GRP
pts
Sc.
sandwich
pts
sc.
2x 6
3
3
1
6
5
12
18
15
5
5
4
60
15
12
3
3
4
36
9
12
6
5
4
72
15
12
12
12
16
12
10
12
12
12
18
18
3
3
6
2
18
6
5
2
15
6
6
4
18
12
6
5
18
15
12
18
18
18
12
24
20
16
16
162
185
173
227
15.2 BACKGROUND
The number of applications for sandwich panels is steadily increasing. The term
"sandwich panel" here refers to a structure in the form
of a lightweight core with
thin laminates bonded to each side of the core. One reason for the growing
interest is that today it is possible to manufacture high-quality laminates for
many applications. The materials used in the laminates is often glass-reinforced
plastic, abbreviated to GRP. The composition of a laminate and thus its material
parameters can be varied considerably in the manufacturing process.
Various types of core materials are commercially available. The technique of
bonding core materials and laminates as well as different plate structures is well
understood, although still developing.
15.3
In the shipbuilding industry in particular, the use of sandwich materials is well

established. Small and very fast passenger vessels have for many years been built
in sandwich materials. For these vessels weight and strength are of vital
importance. For navy vessels, and especially for mine sweepers, GRP sandwich
constructions offer some additional advantages. The use of sandwich plates for the
construction of railroad cars and other means of transportation is also widely
discussed today.
In the building industry special types of sandwich plates have been introduced.
These plates can, for example, consist of a lightweight core bonded to plates of
lightweight concrete.
It is often stated that sandwich elements compare favourably to some traditional
construction materials with respect to cost, weight, strength and thermal
insulation. However for certain types of sandwich plates the acoustical properties
can be very poor. The lack of acoustical quality can severely restrict the use of
sandwich elements.
A GRP laminate is built up of a number of layers: consequently its dynamical
properties can be very complex. A number of papers and textbooks on
applications, measurements and theories concerning laminated plates have been
published: references [2--6] are just a few examples. The finite element method is
widely used for the prediction of the non-linear response of orthotropic laminated
plates; see references [7-9]. However, for many applications the laminates are
constructed in such a way that they, as a first approximation, can be considered
as isotropic. The amplitude of a plate excited by an extended force or an
acoustical field is so small in the audio frequency range that any major non-linear
effects can, in general, be neglected.
It is well known that the dynamical properties of typical sandwich elements laminate, core and laminate - are frequency dependent. This has been discussed
for example, in [10-12]. The bending stiffness of a sandwich plate is st *rongly
dependent on frequency and decreases with increasing frequency. The reason for
this behaviour is the shear and rotation effects in the core. These effects increase
the flexibility of the plate. In the by now classical paper of Kurtze and Watters
[9), a model was developed for the description of this additional flexibility. In this
15.4
model the effects only of shear in the core were included. The laminates were
treated as thin plates. Measured and predicted phase velocities for transverse
waves and sound transmission losses were compared. For certain types of panels
the agreement between predicted and measured results was found to be very good.
The shear stiffnesses for the core materials investigated, for example wax, are
in
general v~ry low. The bending stiffnesses of the skins, for example steel plates,
are
comparatively high. The relative difference between the stiffness of core and
laminates is not the same for typical GRP sandwich plates as for the
constructions investigated in reference [10].
The sound transmission loss of sandwich panels has been discussed in references
[13,14]. The models used were approximate or based on the results given in [10].
The core in a sandwich construction can be described as a thick plate. The wave
propagation in thick plates has been treated extensively in the literature: some
examples are refereces [15-17]. In reference [15] the shear and rotation effects
in
this type of plate were described. The wave fields in a thick plate can be derived
as functions of the boundary conditions at each side of the plate. Consequently,
the coupled motion of several plates joined together can be described if the
boundary conditions at the junction between two plates are considered. This
procedure was followed by Ohyoshi [18]. The wave propagation in a symmetric
three-layered structure was described. The resulting expressions giving the
wavenumbers are of some complexity, as could be expected for a structure such
as
this. Numerical difficulties in solving the equations should not be underestimated.
The laminates in sandwich panels frequently used in, for example, the
shipbuilding industry are corriparati'vely thiin; of the order 3-6 mm. The laminates
can therefore be treated as thin plates according to classical theory in the
frequency range up to 16 kHz. Below this frequency limit the description of the
coupled motion between laminates and core can be simplified, as compared to
the
method described in reference [18]. This approach is pursued in what follows
for
synunetric and asymmetric three-layered sandwich plates. Bending stiffness,
loss
factors, wavenumbers and sound transmission losses are discussed for this type
of
structure.
15.5
15.3 BENDING
In order to determine the response of a sandwich plate excited by an acoustical
field or any force acting perpendicular to the plate the wave numbers in the
structure must be known. In particular this applies to the waves which basically
determine the lateral motion or apparent bending of a plate.
In the low frequency limit the wavenumber is equal to:
KB
= (pwP/Do). 25
(1)
In this expression p is the total mass per unit area and Do the bending stiffness of
the plate. The suffix B to the wavenumber denotes that only bending is
considered.
The bending stiffness Do of a structure shown in Fig 1 is in the low frequency
limit given by
Do =YI E(y(yy-yo)ldy
(2)
The coordinate Yo defines the neutral axis and is according to standard procedure
obtained from
Y3
f E(y)(y-yo)dy = 0
(3)
E(y) is equal to the apparent modulus of elasticity of the various plate elements
or layers in the construction. For increasing frequencies the bending stiffness is
decreasing as discussed below.
15.4 GOVERNING EQUATIONS
The geometry of the type of sandwich panel considered here is shown in Fig 1. In
general the construction is synmnetric with respect to the centreline. The
thickness of the light weight core is typically of the order 25 to 75 mm. The
thickness of the laminate could vary between 3 and 8 mam. The E-modulus for a
15.6
laminate is high and much higher than the corresponding modulus for the core.
Each laminate is built up of a number of layers. The reinforcing fibres in these
layers are oriented in such a way that the strength of the plate at least as a first
approximation is independent of direction in the panelplane. The laminates are
assumed to be isotropic. Within the frequency range of interest i.e. below 16 kHz
the deflection of the laminates can be described by means of the theory for thin
plates.
According to reference [19] a plate can be treated as thin as long as the wave
length for pure bending waves in the structure is larger than six times the
thickness of the plate. For the lateral motion or the bending of the entire
sandwich construction it is therefore assumed that the displacement of a laminate
is determined by flexural and longitudinal waves.
For the rather thick core the displacements must be described in a general way.
Thus bending, rotation and shear as well as longitudinal deflection should be
included in the model. Again according to [19] the entire deflection of the core can
be described by means of a combination of longitudinal and shear waves. The core
materials discussed below can be considered as being isotropic.
For laminate 1 in the structure shown in Fig 2 the displacements in the directions
of the x- and y-axes are given by C,and 1 respectively. The governing equations
for bending and longitudinal deflection can be written as:
a2
[a 21/D1 ]y=o
+ k2
[r721 (1-v
(4)
2 )/tiE
1
]y=o
(5)
The time dependence of exp(iwt) has been omitted throughout. In the equations
thickness, density and Young's modulus are denoted by ti, p,and Ei respectively.
The stress components r and a are indicated in Fig 2. In (4) and (5) the following
notations are introduced for bending and longitudinal wavenumbers and bending
stiffness:
15 .7
t;l = (pijO/D1 ).25
E-'= El/(I-u1 2 )
kIL =(pilugEl).5
D= Elt1 3 /12
Poisson's ratio is given by v, and the mass per unit area of the laminate by Pl.
In equations (4) and (5) the laminate is assumed to be thin compared to the core.
The neutral axis of laminate 1 is now given by y=O. An exact description
according to Fig 1 should mean that the neutral axis is located at y=tm/2. The
interface between laminate and core should be at y=tm. This discrepancy can to a
certain degree be compensated by setting the core thickness equal to h+(t +t )/2.
1
3
In this way the core thickness is in the prediction model defined as the distance
between the neutral axis of the laminates.
For laminate 3 the corresponding wave equations are:
a
--3
+ k2
= -
(o23/D3)y-h
(6)
[r23(1-V32)/(t3E 3 )]y~h
(7)
Wavenumber etc for plate 3 are defined in a similar way as for laminate 1.
The normal and the shear stresses in the core can be written as:
E1-V2)
or=
+2(-2
7-
2J
R2v
#_]
+
V2x
[(9j anzj
(8)
(9)
The displacements Cand 77 along the two main axes are determined by transverse
and longitudinal waves propagating in the core. These wavetypes can be
15.8
cxpresscd as functions of a scalar stream function V and a velocity potential 0.

Consequently the displacements C2 and r. along the x- and y-axes can be written
as:
C(10)
rI2
=Y
PX(11)
The velocity potential which determines the propagation of longitudinal waves

in a medium without cross sectional contraction must satisfy the wave-equation:
V20 + aOp 2 /E 2 t'
= 0
-(12)
where
E2'= E2(1-V2)/[(1+v 2 )(1-2v9 )]
(13)
The transverse waves in the core are given by the stress function !b.The
governing differential equation for this function is:
V2P + w2p2/G
G2
?b =
(14)
= E 2 /[2(1+v 9 )]
(15)
The displacements along the two main axes are continuous at the two junctions
between laminate and core. This implies that:
W2 ;
CI = C2
for y = 0
(16)
772 = 7n3 ;
C2 = 3
for y = h
(17)
771
With respect to forced propagation of waves in the x-direction in the sandwich

construction it is assumed that all wave types are governed by the overall
propagation constant k and a time dependence of exp(iwt). The flexural waves
propagating along the positive x-axis in the laminates can, omitting the time
15.9
dependence, lie written as:

7=
A11.exp(-ikx)
n = 1 and 3
(18)
The corresponding expression for the longitudinal wave is:

G = Bn.exp(-ikx) ;
n = 1 and 3
(19)
The stream function and the velocity potential describing the transverse and
longitudinal waves must satisfy respective differential equation in the core i.e. for
0 < y < h. Considering the boundary conditions (16) and (17) the propagation
constant in the x--direction for the waves in the core must be the same as the
wavenumbers describing the wavemotion in the adjoining plates.
The general expression for the longitudinal waves in the core is of the form;
0 = e-ikx[A2 e-iXLY + A 4 ei)XLYI
(20)
This expression must fulfil the wave equation (12). Thus;

AL = kOp2/E2' - k2J .5
(21)
The corresponding expression defining the transverse waves is;

,0 = e-ikx[B 2 e'viTY + B 4 ei>,TY]
(22)
From (14) AT is obtained as;

AT = [p
2 /G 2 -
k2].5
(23)
These basic equations are sufficient to solve k as described in [23].

Laminates and core have of course losses. These can be included in the model by
introducing a complex E-modulus for each structure. According to standard
procedure the E modulus can be written as;
15.IG
E = E51+i6)
(24)
In this expression b represents the losses or rather the loss factor in the structure,
ER is real. Thus, if the losses are known for the laminates as well as the core then
by introducing these by means of the expression (24) in wave equations etc. the
total lossfactor for the entire structure is obtained. The resulting wavenumber k
for propagating "bending" waves derived as outlined above is thus also complex.
The apparent and complex bending stiffness of the structure is for the first mode
for propagating waves on a symetric plate given by;
D =Ptot"w2 /k4 = DU.(i +ibw)
(25)
where Mtot is equal to the total mass per unit area of the sandwichplate. The real
part of the bending stiffness is DI. The total loss factor for the structure is
denoted bT. The resulting bending stiffness corresponds to an equivalent
E-modulus for the plate. This can be written as;
Eeq
= 12D(1.-/ 2 )/ttot3
(26)
Here ttot is the total thickness of the sandwich plate and v the the Poisson's ratio
which in this particular case can be assumed to be .3. Thus if the structure were
homogenous with mass and thickness equal to ptot and trot and with a bending
stiffness of D then the apparent Young's modulus for the plate would be Eeq.
15.5 RESULTING WAVENUMBERS
Some predicted wavenumbers for a symmetric sandwich plate are shown in Fig 3.
The dimensions and material parameters for the plate are shown in TABLE 2.
15.11
TABLE 2
DIMENSIONS AND MATERIAL PARAMETERS

Thickness
mm
laminates
core
5
50
E
N/m 2
1.67x010
.013x010
kg/m 3
1760
130
2
1.5
v
.3
.3
Laminates and core are assumed to be isotropic. In Fig 3 two parallel lines are
indicated. The lower line corresponds to the wavenumber for pure bending of the
entire construction. The upper line represents the wavenumber for flexural waves
propagating in an uncoupled laminate. It is found that the wavenumber for the
first propagating mode for the inphase lateral motion of the laminates
asymptotically approaches the lower curve for decreasing frequencies. In the high
frequency range the upper curve is the asymptote. Thus, as should be expected
the lateral motion of the laminates is mainly determined by pure bending of the
entire construction in the low frequency region and by the bending stiffness of one
laminate in the high frequency range. In the mid frequency region the predicted
curve starts to deviate from the lower asymptote when rotation and shear effects
are becoming of importance.
For frequencies just above 2kHz the second propagating mode for the inphase
motion of the laminates can be excited. The consequtive modes are excited for
even higher frequencies.
The purely imaginary wavenumbers corresponding to the near field solutions or
the evanescent waves for the inphase motion have two branches in the low
frequency region. One solution has in the limit the same absolute value as the
wavenumber for the first propagating mode. The other solution is constant in the
low frequency region and thereafter approaches a limit determined by the
material parameters for the laminates. If the thickness of the core is decreased the
level of this branch is increased in the low frequency range.
15.12
For the antiphase motion there is one solution which up to approximately 6 klIz
is determined by quasi longitudinal waves propagating in the structure.
Nonporopagating modes change to propagating modes at just above 2 kllz for the
inphase motion and at 6 kHz for the antiphase motion.
The incipience of the first nonpropagating mode of the antiphase motion of the
lamninates coincides with resonance frequency related to the mass-spring-mass
system of the plate. For a sandwich plate the laminates are roughly equivalent to
these masses and the core to the spring. The number of solutions in k are clearly
increasing for increasing frequencies.
In Fig 4 the calculated total lossfactors for a symmetric 5-50-5 mm sandwich
plate for three different cases are shown. In the examples the lossfactor for the
core is set to equal 2%. The lossfactors for the laminates are for the three cases
1.5, 3 and 6%. The remaining parameters are given in TABLE 2.
In the low frequency region the lateral motion is determined by pure bending.
Consequently the total losses are more or less determined by the expansion and
contraction of the laminates. For increasing frequencies the lateral motion of the
entire construction is influenced by rotation and shear in the core. In particular
this additional deflection in the core increases the total lossfactor for the structure
with the laminates with the lowest lossfactor. If the losses for the laminates are
doubled the maximum total lossfactor is increased by approximately 10% since
the lossfactor for the core is unchanged. When the losses for the laminates are
increased even further the total lossfactor has a minimum in the frequency range
where shear and rotation in the core is of main importance. In this frequency
domain deflections in the core mainlycontriblute to the total losses.
In the high frequency range the motion is dominated by flexural waves in the
laminates. The total lossfactors therefore again approach the lossfactors for each
lamninate.
15.6 SOUND TRANSMISSION LOSS
The sound transmission loss of a single leaf panel is a function of the bending
stiffness of the plate and a number of other parameters. It is often convenient to
15.13
introduce the coincidence frequency or rather the frequency fc for which trace
matching between flexural waves on the plate and waves in the surrounding
medium can occur. The frequency fc for which
kPlate = kair
is given by
fC = C2
where c is the speed of sound in air and m the mass per unit area of the plate.
The parameter fc can according to [23] also be written as;
fc
k2Iate
"-ir
(27)
For a thin single leaf panel f, is a constant. For a sandwich plate the expression
(27) is a function of frequency. The bending stiffness of a sandwich plate can be
derived if the apparent coincidence frequency given by (27) and the mass of the
plate are known. The sound transmission loss for a sandwich panel can quite
simply be derived based on the results in [21] if instead of a constant coincidence
frequency the expression (27) for fc is introduced. Alternatively the bending
stiffness for the sandwich plate can be calculated and thereafter used to determine
the parameter fc. The two methods are equivalent. For a sandwich plate the
parameter f: should be considered as a measure of the bending stiffness of the
structure.
In Fig 5 predicted sound reduction indices or sound transmission losses are shown
for three plates with different core thicknesses. The laminates are the same for the
three plates. Material parameters etc are given in TABLE 2. The wave numbers
for the first inphase propagating mode are shown in Fig 3. These wave numbers
are used to calculate the parameter fc according to (27). If any of the other modes
are used the corresponding reduction indices are increased. Thus the first mode
yields the lower limit for the reduction index.
In Fig 5 it is shown that the core thickness can have a significant influence on the
15.14
reduction index. The thin plate, which has a rather distinct and high "coincidence
frequency", has a sound reduction index very similar to a single leaf panel. The
stiffer 50 mm plate has an "extended coincidence". The consequence is that the
sound reduction index curve is rather flat in the mid frequency region with no
apparent coincidence dip. The bending stiffness is even further increased for the
75 mm plate and thus the coincidence is shifted downwards.
Sound radiation ratios for mechanically point-excited sandwich plates can be
calculated according to the model described in [22]. For the sandwich plate the
definition (27) of coincidence frequency must be used.
The effect of water load on a sandwich plate is discussed in [23].
15.7 MEASUREMENTS AND COMPARISIONS WITH PREDICTED RESULTS
For a number of sandwith constructions the following parameters have been
measured; bending stiffness, lossfactor, sound transmission loss and sound
radiation ratio.
The predicted and measured bending stiffness for one plate are shown in Fig 6.
The material parameters for the plate are presented in TABLE 2. However the
loss factors for laminates and core were .7 and 1.5 % respectively. The bending
stiffness D is compared to the low frequency limit Do - from (2) - Which is equal
to 1.17. 105 Nm. In addition the equivalent E-modulus, defined in eq (26), for the
entire structure is given on the vertical axis.
It is evident that the bending stiffness of the structure is declining rapidly for
increasing frequencies. At and above 1 kHz the bending stiffness of the plate is
just a few percent of the value in the low frequency limit.
In Fig 7 predicted and measured loss factors are compared for the same panel. In
the prediction model the loss factors for core and laminates have been set to 1.5%
and 0.7% respectively. These values are based on measurements for the first few
resonances of each separate structure. It would perhaps be expected that these
loss factors should be frequency dependent. However this could not be verified.
For this reason the losses for each separate structure have been assumed to be
15.15
constanit in the lprediction model. The agreement between predicted and measured
total loss factors is satisfactory for mnost applications.
The loss factor for a typical sandwich plate is of the order i00 times higher than
for a free steel or aluminium plate. It is well known that the losses for a plate
which in part of a large construction are much higher than for free plates. This is
due to the additional losses at junctions etc. In Fig 8 loss factors for some typical
deck constructions on ships are compared. In the figure loss factors measured in
situ are given for: A - a bare 6 mmn steel deck, B - 6 min steel deck plus a thin
layer of a 2-A mmn standard type of levelling compound, C - steel deck plus
damping layer and levelling conpound as constraining layer, D - a 60 mmn
standard sandwich plate.
The results indicate that the losses for a standard sandwich plate by far exceed
the losses of other typical damped and undamped deck-structures, On ships,
structure borne noise is of dominating importance. Consequently the high loss
factor for a sandwivh construction makes such a panel a suitable building
material for small and fast vessels for which weight, strength and noise are of
major concern.
The sound transmission loss and sound radiation ratio for some of the sandwich
plates and laminates were also measured. The sound transmission loss was
measured according to standard ISO procedures [20]. Samples with the
dimensions 1.2 x 2.3 1m2 were mounted in a test opening between two reverberant
rooms. The outer dimensions of the wall separating the rooms were 3.5 x 4.5 in2 .
The boundary conditions for the plates in the testopening could be characterized
as simply supported. Rubber linings were used along the perimeter of the plate to
obtain this boundary condition.
The transmission losses for the sandwich panels were predicted according to the
procedure outlined above. For comparison the transmission loss was calculated for
a single laminate. Material parameters for the structures are given in TABLE 2.
Predicted and measured results for the sandwich plate and the laminate are
shown in Fig 9. The result based on the simple mass law is for the sandwich plate
also shown. It is interesting to note that for this particular case the. sound
15.16
transmission loss for the laminate is higher than the corresponding reduction
index for the sandwich plate in the mnidfrequency region. The sandwich plate is
more than twice as heavy as the laminate.
15.8 CONCLUSIONS
Some of the main acoustical and dynamical properties of sandwich elements can
in most cases, with a sufficient degree of accuracy, be described by means of
rather simple models. For plates with thin laminates, 3 to 6 mm, and a thick core,
25 to 75 mm, which can be assumed to be isotropic the shear and rotational
effects in the core are of major importance in particular in the frequency range
from 200 to 4000 Hz. If only shear effects are considered in the core substantial
errors with respect to predicted wave numbers and loss factors can occur.
In the very low frequency range the lateral motion of a sandwich plate is
determined by pure bending of the entire construction. The corresponding limit in
the high frequency range is given by the flexural motion of the seemingly
uncoupled labinates. Consequently the apparent bending stiffness of the entire
construction is strongly dependent on frequency and is to a certain limit
decreasing with increasing frequency.
For typical sandwich plates the total loss factor is primarily determined by the
losses of the laminates in the high and low frequency ranges. In the mid frequency
domain the shear and rotational effects in the core have a dominating effect. Thus
for these frequencies the losses in the core, to a considerably degree, influence the
total loss factor for the lateral motion of the sandwich plate:
If sandwich plates are to be parts of a large construction certain requirements
with respect to weight and strength are often formulated. Even so the material
parameters and the geometry of the plates can be varied in such a way that the
acoustical properties of the plate can be optimized in the frequency range of
interest.
For light weight crafts the noise onboard and the noise radiated into the water are
mainly determined by structure borne noise induced by the engines. An engine
foundation of sandwich can be made considerably stiffer than a corresponding
15.17
aluminium construction. This can reduce the overall noise level significantly. In
addition the frame distance of a sandwich vessel can to a large extent be
optimized to reduce the acoustical energy flow from the main noise sources as well
as the noise radiated into the water. The same procedure is generally not possible
for an aluminium construction for which plate thicknesses and frame distances are
determined by the classification rules. Further an aluminium vessel requires a
substantial and additional heat and sound insulation.
15.9 REFERENCES
[1]
U.KRISTIANSEN 1989 Proceedings of the First International
Conference, Stockholm. Experience of FRP sandwich in ship
building.
[2]
H.MARSHALL (editor) 1981 Composite Structures. Applied Science

Publishers.
[3]
R.M.CHRISTENSEN 1979 Mechanics of Composite Materials. New

York: John Wiley
[4]
J.WHITNEY 1987 StructuralAnalysis of Laminated Anisotropic

Plates. Lancaster, Basel: Technomic Publishing Co.
[5]
1987 Engineered Materials Handbook, Volume 1, Composites. Metals

Park, Ohio: ASM International.
[6]
N.BALASUBRAMANIAN (editor) 1987 Advanced Composite Materials

Indcx 1975--1984. Lancaster, Basel: Technomic Publishing
Co.
[7]
S.V.RAJAGOPAL, G.SINGH and Y.SADASAVI RAO 1986 Journal of

Sound and Vibration 110, 261-269. Nonlinear vibrations
of sandwich plates.
15.IS
[8]
S.V.RAJAGOPAL, G.SINGH and Y.SADASAVI RAO 1987

American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Journal25(1),
130-133 . Large deflection and nonlinear vibration of multilayered
sandwich plates.
[9]
V.RAMAKRISHNAN and U.R.KOVAL 1987 Journalof Sound and

Vibration 112, 433-446. A finite element model for sound
transmission through laminated composite plates.
[10]
G.KURTZE and B.WATTERS 1959 Journal of the Acoustical

Society of America 31(6), 739-748. New wall design for high
transmission loss or high damping.
[11]
F.J.FAHY 1985 Sound and Structural Vibration London: Academic

Press.
[12]
L.L.BERANEK 1971 Noise and Vibration Control. New York:

McGraw-Hill.
[13]
C.DYM and M.LANG 1974 Journal of the Acoustical Society of

America 56(5), 1523-1532. Transmission of sound through sandwich
panels.
[14]
R.JONES 1981 Noise Control Engineering,March-April 1981,

90-105. Field sound insulation of load-bearing sandwich panels for
housing.
[15]
R.MINDLIN 1951 Journalof Applied Mechanics 18, 31-38.

Influence of rotary inertia and shear on flexural motions of isotropic,
elastic plates.
[16]
M.HECKL 1981 Acustica 49, 183-191. Kbrpelschalltibertragung bei

homogenen Platten beliebiger Dicke.
15 .19
[17]
S.LJUNGGREN 1983 Journal of Sound and Vibration 90, 559-584.

Generation of waves in an elastic plate by a vertical force and by a
moment in the vertical plane.
[181
T.OHYOSHI 1985 Proceedingof the American Society of

Mechanical Engineers, Journalof Vibration Acoustics, Stress and
Reliability in Design 107, 235-240. Energy propagation velocity of
elastic waves in sandwich layer.
[19]
L.CREMER and M.HECKL 1988 Structureborne Sound. Berlin:

Springer-Verlag
[20]
1980 ISO Standards Handbook 4, Acoustics, vibration and shock.

Geneva: ISO Central Secretariat.
[21]
A.NILSSON 1974 Report 74/01. Chalmers University of

Technology, G6teborg, Sweden. Sound transmission through single
leaf panels.
[22]
G.MAIDANIK 1962 Journal of the Acoustical Society of America

34(6), 809-826. Response of ribbed panels to reverberant acoustic
fields.
[23]
A.C.NILSSON 1990 Journal of Sound and Vibration 138(1), 73-94,

Wave propagation in and sound transmission through sandwich
plates.
15.2e
LAMINATE 3
"l
E2
CORE
P 2..
LAMINATE 1
h4tltt3
Y2h~t,
y2.
YO
"
Figure 1
Geometry and material parameters
for a sandwich plate.
0'32
,T23
Laminate3
Core 2
Laminate 1
Figure 2
x
1b.-1
11:
Stress components acting on laminates and core.
15.21
20-
---
-.-
-.
Is
4,.. 777> 1
101
/ '
/
31.5
63
125
260
600
0 2o0 4000 8000 10000
FREOUENCy (Hz)
Figure 3
Predicted wavenumbers k(m-1) for
a symmetric
sandwich plate. Data given in TABLE
1.
inphase propagating waves
.......
antiphase propagating waves
.......
inphase nonpropagating waves
- - - antiphase nonpropagating waves.
The parallel thin lines are assymptotes
for the wavenumber.
4-
\
"k
\.
0N
/
./
--4
0C,, 3
0f 31hA
03
12
1iO 600 1"01"040004
00000
FREQUENCY (HE)
Figure 4
Predicted lossfactors. The
losses 62
in the core are constant. The losses
61 in both
laminates are varied.
= 1.5 %
; 6 = 2 %
=3 %
;
.= 2 %
6 %
2 %
15.22
50
I'
.j/:.A
030,,
.z
40
10*
100
200
4;0 00
1600 Melso 6300
FREOUENCY (HS)
Figure 5
Predicted sound reduction indices for three
Plates with different core thickness h
h = 25amm
.......
h = 50 mm
= 75 mm
~h
1000
-. 7"
,.6
50.4
.3
0
31.5
63
1125
250
800
W 000I00 4000
fr*4LWACY (HS)
Figure 6
Bending stiffness and equivalent E-modulus as
function of frequency
Predicted
,9
o o
measured
05.23
00
0 3
La.
1O
-2
0
0.
31.5
83
125 250
500 1000 2000 4000 8000
FREQUENCY (Hz)
Figure 7
Lossfactor for a sandwich plate

predicted
measured
1 Sandwich plate
I
CI
Steel plate +
Damping +
Levelling compound
w- 10
0
)
SteelaLevelling compound
FREQUENCY (Hz)
Figure 8
Full scale measurements of lossfactors for some
typical deck constructions.
15.24
/-
40/
/
35K
w /
9'O
W 25
..
.S
014'
100
200
400
800
1600
3150
6300
FREQUENCY (Hz)
Figure 9
o o
x x x x
-
Measured and predicted sound reduction indices.

predicted sandwich plate
measured sandwichplate
predicted laminate
measured laminate
masslaw for sandwichplate.
15.25
16th WEGEMT SCHOOL
DAY
THURSDAY
SESSION
CHAPTER
Noise and Vibration

3. TRANSMISSION (contin.)
INTRODUCTORY LESSON
by
TEACHER
COMPANY
Annie BLANCHET
CHANTIERS DE L-ATLANTIQUE
B.P. 400
FRANCE
COUNTRY
TEACHER'S BIOGRAPHY
1968
1973
1973
- Masters
of
University
theoretical
physics
in
NANTES
Up to now - Research Engineer at CHANTIERS DE L'ATLANTIQUE

Shipyard
Speciality : Acoustic and vibrations
Research and development department
References in last years
Responsible
of
acoustic
design
and
calculation,
of
vibration
aspects
of
newbuilding, specially cruise ships and navy
ships built in the shipyard.
1978
1982
Acoustic assistant
LESSON 16
16th WEGEMT SCHOOL
SESSION
CHAPTER
LESSON
Noise and Vibration

:3.
TRANSMISSION
3.2. Description of Structure-borne Sound Transmission in Ship
Structures.
:16. Concepts to reduce vibration propagation in structures.
TEACHER
COMPANY
COUNTRY
Jean-Louis GUYADER
INSA (Institut National des Sciences Appliqu6es) - LYON
Bt. 303
20, Av. Albert Einstein
69621 VILLEURBANNE CEDEX
FRANCE
ABSTRACT
The lesson deals with the propagation of vibrations from sources to structures
radiating noise. Means to reduce power flow are analysed, and examples of their
efficiency are presented.
Classical problem of insulation of a machinery from ground is described, it shows
the possibility of damping to have a negative effect.
Mobility concept is introduced to characterize excitation on structures ; it explains
variation of the driving force when structures are modified at the driving point. Effect of
shunt masses and stiffeners are described.
The effect of damping on power flow is presented on a simple problem of
longitudinal vibrations in infinite beams. The reduction of power flow with damping is
obvious but it also depends on frequency and speed of waves. Damping treatment with
viscoelastic material is described in both cases of constrained and unconstrained layer.
The impedance mismatch between coupled structures is discussed and results of
power transmission in junctions of plate and beams presented.
Finally, the new concept of active control of vibrations is introduced, and typical
experimental device and results shown.
Jean-Louis GUYADER was born in 1949, he got his degree of engineer in
mechanics in 1973, and then joined the Laboratoire Vibrations-Acoustic (L.V.A.) . His
thesis of "Docteur Ingdnieur" on sound transmission through multilayered plates was
presented in 1977 and his "These d'Etat" on theoretical prediction of vibrations of
uncompletely known materials in 1981. Presently Professor of structural acoustics at the
I.N.S.A. and head of the L.V.A., he is engaged in the prediction, measurement and
control of sound radiation from structures in light or heavy fluids and vibration
transmission in the medium frequency range.
16.1
AUTHOR: GUYADER Jean-Louis - Laboratoire Vibrations-Acoustique

Bt 303 - INSTITUT NATIONAL DES SCIENCES APPLIQUEES DE LYON
69621 VILLEURBANNE Cedex FRANCE
TITLE:
CONCEPTS TO REDUCE VIBRATIONS PROPAGATION FROM SOURCE TO

STRUCTURES RADIATING NOISE.
ABSTRACT.
The lesson deals with the propagation of vibrations from sources to structures radiating noise.
Means to reduce power flow are analysed, and examples of their efficiency are presented.
Classical problem of insulation of a machinery from ground is described, it shows the possibility
of damping to have a negative effect.
Mobility concept is introduced to characterize excitation on structures ; it explains variation of the
driving force when structures are modified at the driving point. Effect of shunt masses and
stiffeners are described.
The effect of damping on power flow is presented on a simple problem of longitudinal vibrations
in infinite beams. The reduction of power flow with damping is obvious but it also depends on
frequency and speed of waves. Damping treatment with viscoelastic material is described in both
cases of constrained and unconstrained layer.
The impedance mismatch between coupled structures is discussed and results of power
transmission in junctions of plate and beams presented.
Finally, the new concept of active control of vibrations is introduced, and typical experimental
device and results shown.
INTRODUCTION.
A very efficient way to reduce sound radiation, is to decrease the driving forces acting on the
radiating structure ; this can be done in three ways.
a) Decreasing the source strength (for exemple balancing rotating shafts)
b) Decreasing the vibrations during the propagation from sources to radiating structures
c) Decreasing the forces acting on the radiating structures by impedance mismatching.
Our interest here, is in point b and c.
The first pan of the lesson will explain how to characterize the vibrations of a mechanical element
acting on a radiating structure in order to obtain the coupling force afterjunction. The concept of
mobility will be used. Depending on respective mobilities of structure and driver, the coupling
force will vary significantly.
A second pan presents means of reduction of vibration during the propagation in mechanical
structures. The basic concept of insulation using spring mass system is first .presented, then
decrease of vibration waves with damping is discussed and means of damping treatment with
viscoelastic layers analysed. Finally changes in cross section, corners, junctions are analysed, as a
possible way to reduce power flow.
From the experimental point of view the propagation of mechanical signals through structural path
can be measured with structural intensity, however this is not a simple measurement as the
classical difficulty of phase mismatch of microphones incountered in acoustic intensity is still
present for structures, butin addition there are fundamental differences wich are due to the fact that
solids have shear effects. Thus, the vibration energy can be transported in several type of waves
(compressional, flexural, shear). Possibilities of using structural intensity are presented in
reference I I I.
A short introduction to active control principle is developed at the end of the paper.
16.2
UNCOUPLED VELOCITY AND OUTPUT MOBILITY OF DRIVERS.
COIPLIN.
FORCES :
Let us define a driver as the mechanical structure located at the end of the excitation path, coupled
to the radiating structure. It will be characterized with two measures (see figure (1)). The internal
source is first switch on and the uncoupled velocity measured VD. The internal source is then
switch off and the driver mobility MD is measured as the ratio of driver velocity to an applied
force. The two quantities MD and V0 are sufficient to determine the coupling force when driver
and structure are linked.
Vs = Ms
51
(1)
FSource swith on
source switch off
FIGURE 1. Driver charaterization.

Let us introduce the structure mobility Ms in the same way.as for MD (for simple structures it can
be calculated, for complicated one it must be measured). After coupling, the force acting on the
structure is opposite to the one acting on the driver, it is the coupling force Fc ; the velocity of
structure and driver are equal at the coupling point. The velocity of the structure is obtained with
the mobility Ms and the coupling force Fc .
The velocity of the driver is the sum of uncoupled velocity V D and velocity produced by the
coupling force : (of course linearity is assumed).
VD = VD - MD Fc
(2)
The equality of velocities Vs and VD gives the value of Fc:
F,
(3)
V0
MD+ M,
One can deduce the injected power ninj and the velocity after coupling.
itj
it inj = ! [t2
Re 2
Re (Fe. v:)
(4)
Re (M,)(5
MD+Ms) + ImrnMD + Ms)
V,= 'D.
ML
MD+Ms
16.3
(6)
V5
VD.
N,
M0-iM3
(6)
Let us look at some limit cases:

a) Source of velocity :when M~s> MD , one can see with (6) that the velocity of the
structure is equal to the velocity of the uncoupled driver which appears as a velocity source.
b) Forc
source : when MD > Ms , the coupling force remains constant and
independant of the structure. In this case the speed after coupling will be very small compared to
the uncoupled velocity of the driver.
In general the coupling force will depend on both structure and driver mobility. In simple cases the
input mobility can be calculated ; in particular this has been done in reference 12 Ifor infinite or
semi-infinite structures ; some results are listed in table 1, Figure (2) presents a comparison of
measured finite plate mobility and theoretical value for an infinite plate.
FIGURIBE 2.. Measured input mobility of a thin steel rectangular plate; with free edges. Plate
dimensions : O.5m x 0.5 mn x 0.0008m.
DECREASE OF STRUCTURE MOBILITY, SHUNT MASS. STIFFENERS.

A possible mean to reduce excitation on structures is based on mobility concepts, it consists in
modifying the vibration path just before the radiating structure, for exemple in putting a shunt
mass attached to the structure. The system is now constituted of three pants : the driver, the mass
and the structure. Let us call F,, the coupling force between driver and mass and Ec the coupling
force between mass and structure (see figure 3). The different velocities after coupling are given
by:
F,, ME),
VD
VD -
VM
(Fc, -Fc)Mm,
16.4
FIURE.3. Shunt mass between driver and structure.

Since these velocities must be equal after coupling one obtains:
F=
VD
(7)
(MD+ M,) + MD M,
It is clear from (7) that the coupling force is counsiderably reduced when compared to that without
mass, when the relation (8) is verified
MDMS
>> MD+M, <=> Mm
MM
The mobility of a mass is given by: M =
<<'MDMs
(8)
MDMs
-
.where
w)M
M is the mass value and co the angular
frequency. Relation (8) demonstrates that the blocking mass must be big enough to be efficient.
This is shown in figure (4), in the case of a plate excited directly by a unit force or through a
blocking mass located at the excitation point. This principle is generally good but it results in an
increase of the global mass of the system.
The same effect can be obtained using stiffness instead of mass, for example in making forces
acting on stiffeners.
Force is just a part of the excitations of structures, moment is sometimes dominant ; from the
theoretical point of view same tendancies can be demonstrated using moment mobilities. For
experiments, the measurement of force mobility is not easy for light weight structures (corrections
due to masses of excitation and measurement devices, must be done); the measurement of moment
mobility is not a problem solved presently.
16.5
Structure
Motion
Beam (S.I)
Longitudinal
Beam (S.1)
Bending
Beam (I)
Bending
Excitation
Input Mobility
M = 145Sv'Ef)
M
2 4
+j "Vs"P
+
* ps" r
1
2IM-
.4JE[.F1
2+(l+j psps
Beam (S.1)
Bending
Beam (1)
Bending
(?.9
*"-j
M= 1-L .3p (PEIsf/4. (0- 312
2+ 1
1-jp
Elf'/4."
C..
Plate (S.I)
Bending
'2ff1
M
3,5
Plate (1)
Bending
M = a4
1
h2,/p-.E(.v2)
VI
2)
" hzlp-.E(l~v
Table 1 : Mobility of beam and nMaes.

E :Young modulus ; p :Mass per unit volume; S : Beam cross section;
I : Bending inertia; h :Plate thickness; v : Poisson ratio; cc : Driving angular fequency
16.6
3/
960
170
56
d/
50
'
:*~
30 0
LGIJRFR.
5F
,' __ .
\'j
"'I~
100 150 200 25e 300 350 40P 450 500
Influence of a shunt mass, on the radial quadratic velocity of a shell made of steel.
(After 113 I) (radius :40 cm ; lenght : 120 cm ; thickness : 0,3 cm)
Ratio of additional mass and shell mass.
0%; -3%;
6% ; -------- 11%
INSULATION OF A MACHINERY FROM GROUND.

This is the oldest problem of structure borne vibration control. It consists in reducing the force
transmitted to the ground by the vibrations of a machinery. The machinery is considered as a rigid
body of mass M, and is suspended with a spring dash pot system of stiffness K and damping
The exciting force F is the result of unbalanced rotating shafts. The mobility of the ground X.
is
supposed to be very small compared with that of the machinery, as a result, the ground vibrations
are negligible and one can modelized the system under study with a perfectely rigid ground (see
figure 5). Values of mobilities for different types of machinery basements are given in figure (6).
The transmitted force to the ground, FT,is shown in figure (7) versus driving frequency. There
are frequency bands of different behaviour. Above the cut of frequency, the transmitted force is
smaller than the driving force, the suspension isolate the machinery from the ground. When the
frequency increases, FT decrease ; one can notice that the effect of damping is negative as it makes
the force to increase.
Below the cut of frequency the transmitted force is increased ; the effect of suspension is negative,
and presents a strong amplification of the force acting on the ground at the resonance of the springmass system. The effect of damping is interesting in this band of frequency as it gives a reduction
of FT.
To succesfully isolate a machinery from the ground it is thus necessary to use a spring sufficiently
resilient for having a resonance frequency co, of the spring mass system veryfying:
o>> "2 ~
co is the forcing frequency.
16.7
too
SIII
100
-'
h4DtrctIiD
0.0
OQ5
03
Q007
0ao5
14
O.OZ
0.01
FORCINGFREOUENCY
RATIO UNOAMPEO NATURAL FREQUENCY-.
FIGURE 7. Force transmissibility for different viscous loss factors. After ref.
16.8
12
USE OF DAMPING TO REDUCE VIBRATIONS DURING PROPAGATION.

The use of damping is a well known mean to reduce vibrations, it is the result of power dissipation
during the propagation from internal sources to structures that radiate noise. To demonstrate the
reduction of vibration propagation with damping, the case of a beam vibrating in longitudinal
motion is considered. The equation of motion is :
+ o 2 pS U(x) + E (l+jl)S d
=0
2
(9)
dx
where S is the cross section area, p the mass per unit volume, E the Young modulus, and 7l the
damping loss factor. Damping is introduced by a complex Young modulus, as classically done.
U(x) is the longitudinal motion of the beam ; the time dependance et10 t is omitted for sake of
simplicity in notations.
The solution of the equation (9), is in the case of small damping (712 << 1)
U(x)=Ael~ x el
j'x
+ Be-j'
e-'T'
(10)
c is the velocity of longitudinal waves, equal to c = NEP

This solution is the sum of two waves propagating in both directions and whose amplitudes
decrease with propagation. Let us consider the wave propagating toward increasing x:
B eCsx . e
wave amplitude
The amplitude decays exponentially with propagation, the factor that governs this phenomenon is:
C2
for given wave velocity (c) and angular frequency (w), the decrease of vibration is stronger when
damping loss factor (T1) is higher. It must also be noted that for a given material, "q and c are fixed,
the decrease is stronger at high frequency. The power passing through a given cross section nt(x),
can be obtained with the formula :
it (x) = i
Re [- E(I1+jri).dU.iO U(x),]
(11)
Calculating the power for the wave propagating towards the increasing x, one obtains
n(x)= IBI2.
. ES. e
'
(12)
The power decreases exponentially with propagation, as the wave amplitude. Damping is thus a
very interesting parameter, to control vibration propagation, however, for mechanical elements,
internal damping is generally small and can.only be efficient at high frequency and/or for large
structures. To render damping efficient one has to increase it artificially, this can be achieve un
adding viscoelastic layers to the structure.
16.9
DAMPING TREATMENT OF STRUCTURES,

Two types of damping treatment are generally used, the two layers and the sandwich technics. The
sandwich treatment is better but more complicated to use.
The two layers treatment consists in adding a viscoelastic layer to the base structure. When the
structure vibrate in flexure, the viscoelastic layer is submitted to tension and compression.
1"=rT12E
H 2(H1 + H 2 ?
E)[124+ 2H (-1
(13)
H2F]4
Ej, hl are Young's modulus and thickness of the base elastic layer, E2 , h2 , Tl2 are Young's
modulus, thickness and loss factor of the added viscoelastic layer.
The figure (8), illustrates the variation of the damping loss factor versus the ratio of thicknesses of
viscoelastic and elastic layer.
I.0
Ao
10.
to
7z
XC
IOI
lA
:ll*Iyf
::
0.
61dflpt
9K
FIGUREi8. Dependance of loss factor r1of panel with free viscoelastic layer on relative
thickness and relative modulus of viscoelastic layer after ref. 13 1.
The global damping loss factor is apparently independant of frequency, however in practical cases
T12 is frequency and temperature dependant and the global loss factor will also vary with this two
parameters.
The main difficulty in using the two layers damping treatment is the necessity of having high
modulus of elasticity of viscoelastic layer when its thickness is equal or lesser than the support
layer thickness. In general viscoelastic material have low Young's modulus and to damp steel
plates one must use thick layer of viscoelastic material.
16.10
A second possibility to increase damping of structures is to use sandwich construction with a core
of viscoelastic material. In this case damping is introduced by shear stresses in the viscoelastic
material, when elastic coating are bent. Strong damping can be obtained for core of low elasticity
modulus and high damping loss factor as polymers. The difficulty in using sandwich construction
to damped basic panels is of course of technical nature but also because the damping of the
sandwich is frequency dependant even when material properties are considered as constant with
frequency, and exhibits a sharp maximum with frequency. For a detailed information see reference
13 I, here we just give the formula of the global loss factor versus plate characteristics.
YX
1=T12
I +(2+Y)X +(l+Y)(l+1
2)
(14)
X2
Here Y is a stiffness parameter, defined by

EH3+ E 3HM
+
1
Y 12H'3 t (EtHt
E31-31
1
(15)
15
where El, E3 = moduli of elasticity of the two elastic layer, H1 , H3 = thicknesses of the two
elastic layers, H3 1 = H2 + (HI+H 3 )/2 = distance between neutral planes of elastic layers.
The variable X has been called the shear parameter and is defined as:
X= G2
(&HI
p2H 2
(EtHt
(16)
1
E 3H 3 )
where G2 = real part of complex shear modulus, p = wave number of flexural vibrations.
1.0
0'
20
o.,,%
0
jC0
00I
71
o1
*
f4I
11
0034
610.1
4,$m
0
.. ...
m 0
.'
50
FGR9.Loss factor .0 of a panel with a constrained viscoelastic layer vs. shear parameter
X, for several values of viscoelastic material loss factor "12 and stiffness parameter Y. After 13 ]
16.Il
Figure (9) shows typical variations of global loss factor TI versus the shear parameter for different
values of 112 and Y. The global loss factor presents a maximum when X vary, the value of X
giving the maximum depends on Y and T12. The damping behaviour of sandwich constructions, is
thus very complicated compared to the two layers treatment.
Others possibilities exist to increase damping of structures for example use of sand into holes in
structures, dry friction, localised absorber like spring mass system coupled to a structure
resonators, this is particularly efficient at low frequencies since the system absorbs a lot of energy
on its resonance frequency, this means also that it is only interesting in a narrow frequency band.
IMPEDANCE MISMATCH.
To explain the phenomenon let us consider an infinite beam with a longitudinal travelling wave
U(x) = A e- 0C
let us split the beam in two parts, separated by a spring of stiffeness K located in x = 0, see figure
(10). This produces an impedance mismatch and generates a reflected and a transmitted wave.
U'(x)
eJW
incident
U+(x)
BeJix
reflected
Ce-J C
transmitted
intide-tn
U(0)
Ut0)
FIGURE 10. Beam and spring interlayer.

The equilibrium of the forces acting on the spring implies.
E S -U" (0) = K (U+(0)
U(O))
ES
U-(0))
ax
-U'
ax
(0) = K (U(O)
16.12
After calculation one find:

C=A .
1
I +j
- ES
c.2
2KK
Type of junction
Transmission coefficient
Corner
2
+
(a- 5/ a 5/4f2
AL
Cross Junction
12 =1
2 (6 5/4 + a 5/4)2
13
T junction
2 (a. 5/4 + a5/4f
+ Y/+
4
Chance of section
T = G1.25 + a- 0.75 + a 0.75 + 01.25
T!+
+ 1 + a7-+
-2.
Table 2
Transmission Coefficient of flexural waves for beams and plates

same materials (normal waves).
Power transmitted
Incident power
a =$L2 (beams),
=)
S : cross section of beam,
16.I3
a = h2 (plates)
hi
h : thickness of plates.
of
To limit case appears : K =0
C=O0
C
K =oo
C= A
For a spring of very low stiffness the propagation is interrupted ; this is the impedance mismatch
effect, On the contrary for a very stiff spring the continuity of displacement and forces is achieved
and the wave goes on without modification.
One can obtain the same effect of reduction of vibrations propagation in using blocking mass,
varying the cross section of the beam or in making junctions with others structures. Several types
of junctions of infinite plates and beams have been studied in ref. 1 2 1. The main parameter
analysed is the power transmitted through the junction ; table 2 gives expressions of the
transmission coefficient for some cases of junctions. Figure (11) presents a typical result for two
infinites plates coupled at right angles. The transmission of power is maximum when the
thicknesses of both plates are equal.
WT
3,JF
thZ
A~
FIGURE..IL Transmission loss for bending waves at corners, as function of thickness ratio.
After ref. 12 1.
These results are obtained for infinite structures ;in the finite case, vibration modes appear and the
problem is more complicated ;however theoretical methods can be used to calculate energy
transmission, the most commonly used is the Statistical Energy Analysis (S.E.A) (see ref. 15 1-
18 1I), but other methods are avaliable, Energetic Influence Coefficient
19 I, 110
1, and mobility
matching I I I I . It is not the purpose of this lecture to give a detailed presentation of so

complicated methods. The tendencies observed with infinite plates remains true for finite ones, but
the values are generally modified a sumary of results can be found in ref. 110 1I,figure (12)
shows one of them, it is the ratio of energies of two plates coupled in a L shape when one plate is
excited. The energy transmission increase as the thickness ratio tends to 1, with a maximum when
thicknesses of both plates are equal. For a fixed value of thickness ratio, the energy transmission
was calculated as a function of frequency, the variation are indicated with vertical bars on figure
(12). The important point is the fact that the transmission is frequency dependant (3 - 7dB). Note
that the analysis of power transmission for semi-infinite plates shows the same general tendancy
but does not provide a quantitative description of the frequency dependance.
16.14
-20
-50
0
p
I
hR /
FIGURE 12. Energy transmission in finite plate. After ref. 19 I.

Mean energy transmission as a function of the thickness ratio. E, Excited ; R, receiving.
5-correlated excitation. Bars indicate maxima and minima depending on frequency. a=lm, bE=2
m, bR=l.5 M, "qR=--nE .
ACTIVE CONTROL.
This is a new field of investigation, and a lot of research are presently done. Here just the principle
of active control of longitudinal vibrations in an infinite beam is presented. An infinite beam is
considered, and a travelling wave goes in the direction of increasing x.
U(x) =AeJ
e-2
In order to decrease the propagation of vibrations let us put a force at x--0, and tune its amplitude
and phase ; it is possible to make the wave amplitude equal to zero but only for x > 0; for x < 0 a
reflected wave is created. The vibrations in the beam with the force are of the form:
U(x) =AeJ -x +B-e+jx
incident
x< 0
reflected
U+(x) =Ce-it"
transmitted
x> 0
at x = 0 the displacements are continuous, and the external force is equal to the difference of the
beam internal forces
U+(O)
U'(O)
16.15
at x = 0 the displacements are continuous, and the external force is equal to the difference of the
beam internal forces:
U+(O) = U'(O)
(0) - ES T
ES
ax
(0) = F
x
one obtains after calculation :
C = A +j
E
2 ES
o
C
Let us now supposed that an experimental device allows one to measure the transmitted wave
amplitude C ; it is then possible to calculate an error function L as its modulus I C .
S = JA +j
j-N
The best active control is obtained after minimization of the error function C when F is made to
vary. In our case a perfect cancellation of the transmitted wave is possible when
F=j A .2ESQ
CONTROL BLOCK DIAGRAM
BEAM CONTROL
POWER FLOW DISTRIBUTION. 484 Hz. MASS 2

90,
Fast
c uonifcspec~iricaon (nsrronbnd)
* TMS 320025 DSP Chip

- FIR. 2 cosnficien4
* 8 kHz. saniltni rast
-
apw
ox. 10 dB tuio
__________________
position (in)
n in 30
FIGURE 13. Active control of bending vibrations in a semi-infinite beam. After ref. 114 .
Thus, the principle of active control consists in putting additional sources, in order to minimize an
error function. Presently the problem is more of technical nature ; how to create sources ? How to
measure the error function ? In particular when the motion is not a single frequency vibration but
generated by random braodband excitation sand when the problem is two or three dimensional.
Active control of bending vibrations in a semi infinite beam is presented in figure (13). The control
16.16
CO-NCLUSON.
To reduce power flow from sources to structures radiating noise several concepts can be used,
active control, damping treatment, mobility mismatching ..... An introduction to these concepts
have been presented, in simple cases, and examples of application in more sophisticated structures
shown.
Use of passive means (damping, blocking masses ...... ) can improve significlantly the acoustic
behaviour of machinery, and are sufficient in a lot of cases. Active control seens presently an
ultimate stage to reduce power flow, however in the next few years considerable progress are
expected, and active control will be certainly more and more used in the future.
Concepts are often not sufficient, for example the use of a blocking mass will be succesful only it
it is big enough compared to the structure characteristics. Before adding masses, stiffeness,
damping layer etc... to a structure, one has to characterize its behaviour, in order to adapt concepts
to the particular case.
16.17
REFERENCES,
I11
121
13
14
15
161
171
18
19
1101
I1
112 1
113
114 1
Structural intensity and vibrational energy flow - Recueil des Confdrences - CETIM Editor,
1990.
CREMER - HECKL - UNGAR - Structure borne sound - 26me ddition - Springer
Verlag, 1988.
E.E. UNGAR - Damping of panels - Chap. 14 - Noise and vibration control,
L.L. BERANEK editor, 1971.
B. PETERSSON - Mobility concepstand applications - Seminaire du Laboratoire
Vibrations-Acoustique, Lyon 1990.
T. K!HLMAN - Transmission of structure borne sound in building. A theoretical and
experimental investigation. National Swedish Institute for Building Research, Report 9,
UDC 699 844, 1967.
B.M. GIBBS and C.L.C GILFORD - The use of power flow methods for the
asessment of sound transmission in building structures - JSV 49, p.2 7 7 - 2 8 6 , 1976.
B.M. GIBBS and C.L.S GILFORD - Prediction by power flow methods of shunt
and series damping in building structures - Applied Acoustics, 10, p.291-301, 1977.
D.A. BIES and S. HAMID - In situ determination of loss and coupling loss factors by
the power injection method. J.S.V, 70, p.187-204, 1980.
J.L. GUYADER - C. BOISSON and C. LESUEUR - Energy transmission in
finite coupled plates - Part. I and 2 - JSV, 80, p.81-105, 1982.
C. BOISSON - J.L. GUYADER and C. LESUEUR - Etude numdrique de la
transmission d'dnergie vibratoire entre structures assembldes, cas d'assemblage en L, T
et +, ACUSTICA, Vol. 58, p. 2 2 3- 2 33, 1985.
J.M. CUSCHIERI - Structural power-flow analysis using a mobility approach of an Lshaped plate - J.A.S.A, 87(3), 1990.
C.H.CREDE and J.E. RUZICKA - Theory of vibration isolation - Shock and
Vibration handbook - Mc Graw-Hill Book Company, 1961.
E. REBILLARD - Comportement vibroacoustique d'une coque cylindrique couplde
61astiquement Atune masse cylindrique inddformable. Maitrise es Sciences Appliqudes.
Universitd de Sherbrooke 1990.
C. FULLER - Active control of sound and vibrations. Tutorial lecture - 120th A.S.A
Meeting, 1990.
16.18
LESSON 17
16th WEGEMT SCHOOL
SESSION
CHAPTER
LESSON
:3.
:17.
TEACHER
COMPANY
:
:
COUNTRY
Noise and Vibration

TRANSMISSION
Noise Radiation into Air and into Water
Jean-Louis GUYADER
INSA (Institut National des Sciences Appliqu6es) - LYON
Bt. 303
FRANCE
ABSTRACT
The paper deals with the problem of sound radiation from vibrating sructures.
Definition of the problem is first presented in order to
introduce general concepts.
The radiation from travelling waves in an infinite plane is calculated to demonstrate the
basic tendencies of sound radiation. This
simple case allows one to understand
radiation from infinite an finite plate, and
shows the existance of a critical frequency.
A presentation of radiation from vibration modes is made and leads to radiation
impedances to characterize fluid structure interaction. The acoustic short circuit is shown
in the case of a rectangular plate, and radiation from edges and comers of plate mode are
explained.
A discussion on the fluid nature is made, and differences of vibro-acoustic
behaviour are presented in both cases of water and air loading.
The effects of curvature and orthotropy are shortly discussed, and the influences
on radiation of boundary conditions, stiffeners, input mobility, and coating layer are
shown.
In conclusion a comparison of theoretical results and experiment demonstrate the
influence of structural inhomogene'ities.
thesis of "Docteur Ing6nieur" on sound transmission through multilayered plates was
171I
AUTHOR : GUYADER Jean-Louis Laboratoire Vibrations-Acoustique

Bt 303 INSTITUT NATIONAL DES SCIENCES APPLIQUEES DE LYON
69621 VILLEURBANNE Cedex FRANCE
TITLE:
NOISE RADIATED INTO AIR AND INTO WATER.
ABSTRACT : The paper deals with the problem of sound radiation from vibrating sructures.
Definition of the problem is first presented in order to introduce general concepts. The radiation
from travelling waves in an infinite plane is calculated to demonstrate the basic tendencies of sound
radiation. This simple case allows one to understand radiation from infinite an finite plate, and
shows the existance of a critical frequency.
A presentation of radiation from vibration modes is made and leads to radiation impedances to
characterize fluid structure interaction. The acoustic short circuit is shown in the case of a
rectangular plate, and radiation from edges and comers of plate mode are explained.
A discussion on the fluid nature is made, and differences of vibro-acoustic behaviour are presented
in both cases of water and air loading.
The effects of curvature and orthotropy are shortly discussed, and the influences on radiation of
boundary conditions, stiffeners, input mobility, and coating layer are shown.
In conclusion a comparison of theoretical results and experiment demonstrate the influence of
structural inhomogene'fties.
DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM.
The noise product by a machinery is mainly radiated from its vibrating boundary surface into the
surrouding fluid ; the subject of this lesson is thus of great practical interest as it concerns the
construction of low noise machinery as well as that of boats difficult to detect (by fish or enemy).
The strutures that radiate sound have diverse geometry, material properties and surrounding fluids
(air or water), this lead to very complicated problems. If one wants to predict a detailed radiated
pressure field it has to use some big computer programm using finite element and boundary
element method. Despite high performances of computers, these technics are not simple to use in
respect to the large amount of data necessary and the difficulty to know, in complicated cases, if
results are satisfactory. They appear, in our opinion, as an ultimate theoretical stage to the design
of sound controlled structures. Let us also mention the limitation of use of these methods to
reasonable low frequencies, as they become combersome when frequency increase.
To build sound controlled machinery the engineer required at first, an estimation of the total sound
power radiated, versus frequency and in some problems the directivity pattern of sound pressure
in the far field. At this level what is important is the knowledge of basic tendancies of noise
radiation, for example what happens with changes in boundary conditions, use of stiffners,
increase of damping, etc... In general, the achievement of silent machinery is the result of several
improvements by modifications of the structure.
17.2
To establish such basic behaviour one must start with simple structures as plates and cylindrical
shells, and then discuss the ways to reduce noise radiation with stiffness, mass, coating, etc...
The noise radiated is the result of continuity of structural and acoustic normal velocity and
equilibrium of pressures on the boundary surface of the structure. When internal sources act, they
produce forces on the mechanical enveloppe which vibrates and comunicates motion to the
boundary fluid ;finally this process results in sound propagation in tile acoustic medium. A
problem of radiation can be modelled as in figure I it is a process from internal sources to
radiation, with two feet back effects :fluid loading and mechanical interaction between forces and
structures response.
mechanical interaction
fluid loading
figure 1 :Synoptic of radiation phenomenon

To understand the phenomenon one can study each part of the process independantly:
a) mechanical interaction from internal source and structure response.
b) radiation of sound from a given vibration response of structure
c) fluid loading.
The problem mainly adressed in the literature is b) it concerns the direct path instead of paint a)
and c) which represents feet back effects. Even more some people.restrict the radiation of
structures to point b), of course this can lead to bad interpretations when fluid loading or
mechanical interactions are strong. In this lesson our attention will be focused on point b an c,
point a beeing presented in the lesson on concepts to reduce power flow in structures.
Different measures of noise radiation from structures can be made. The basic one is the poe
radiated ltmd from the structure as it takes into account all the process from sources to sound
propagation. The radiation factor a is defined as the ratio of power radiated to quadratic normal
veciyof the structure boundary surface, divided by fluid specific impedance:
CY=
with
< V 2 >-f
rad
Ipc
JVJ
< ~V2 >()
2 ds
Vn is the normal velocity, S the boundary surface, p the fluid mass per unit volume and
c the speed of sound.
17.3
The radiation factor a is only characteristic of the efficiency of the vibration field to radiate noise.
It is a very important parameter as it describes the main phenomenon encountered ; a structure can
vibrate strongly and radiate little power or at the opposite small vibrations can produce a lot of
noise. In addition when the fluid is light, it produces a negligible fluid loading and do not modify
the response of the structure calculated in vacuo, the power radiated can thus, be calculated
computing independently the structure response without fluid loading and the radiation factor.
Both quantities trad and a give global estimations of radiation, but cannot describe what happens
at particular locations of the acoustic medium, and it is often necessary to complete the in
formation with directivity pattern of far field pressure.
The two basic measurements 7rad and a are difficult to achieve as an integration over a surface
must be done. In practice one must divide the boundary surface of the structure into elementary
areas, then associate to each of them a point measurement and finally cumulate. For the acoustic
power a great attention was given to the problem using intensity scanning or sweeping technics.
For quadratic velocity a theoretical simulation of a thin plate excited in flexure by a driving point is
presented in ref. I 1I. Figure 2 shows the quadratic velocity of plates when the integral over the
plate surface is calculated exactly or discretized putting points at randome or regularly.
.S.W . .....
..
.T...
. .
..
._
m X
1,
m X
mfro
I/
Regular 2.ii poln's
NoRue:
a Rcgola, 6z6
3o3 pownt
-- -.pole,.
mdilthou
Tbe
op
poor's.
si rladonI
intg
structure radiates in a reverberant room, one has to use the well known formula :
71rad =(P?2 A 11(4 pc), where (p?2 is mean square pressure in the room and A the absorption
area of the room.
17.4
Radiation from travelling waves in an infinite nMine

The simplest modelisarion of the radiation from vibrating structures is the problem of a infinite
plane surface coupled to a semi-infinite acoustic medium. The surface lies in the plane z = 0 and
the fluid is situated in the half space z > 0.
The motion of the surface is assumed to be a travelling wave of the form
W (x, y t) = A
e-j
(kxi + kyy)
eiWI
(2)
where W(x,yt) is the transverse displacement, A the amplitude of the wave, kx and ky the wave
numbers in x and y direction, and co the angular frequency.
The pressure radiated in the half space z > 0 must be of the forme:
p (x,y,z,t) = f-(x,y,z) ei"
(3)
and verify :
a) the Helmoltz equation
AP + k2
=0
z>0
(4)
where k = Wo/c and c is the speed of sound.

b) the continuity of normal velocity of fluid and boundary surface:
(0 2
p A e-i (kxx
+ kyy) =
y- (x'yO)
c) the Sommerfeld condition at infinity.

The continuity of normal velocity (5) implies a pressure F (x,y,z) of the form:
(x,yz) = f(z) e-i (kxx + kyy)
with:
df(0) =
-2.
dz
(6)
pA
(7)
The function f(z) is determined using the Helmoltz equation (4) and the pressure form (6) :
-df
+ (k2 k2
2
dz
) f(z)=-O
17
17.5
z > 0
(8)
The solution of (8) verifying the Sommerfeld, and the boundary condition at z = 0, is:
f(z)
Jw02 p A
"C-ij1k-k- z
(9)
Two cases are possible.

if k2 >k2 + k2y ; a travelling pressure wave is generated by the surface motion and propagates
toward z
.
2
2A
P=
with :
if k<2
kz =
e-J(kxx + kyy + kzz)
-k
1'k
(10)
(11)
k< + k2 an evanescent pressure wave is generated

(xwypz)
020 A
e-j(kxx + kyy) e-kzz
(12)
k-,
with :
k-,=
kx+ k0- k2
(13)
It is now possible to calculate the power radiated by a unit surface and the radiation factor in both
situations:
a)
k >
Fkix+k
Q :
(14)
k,
SkI(15)
b)k<
I -(k]+ k2)/k 2
k2+
7trad =0
o=0
When the pressure wave is evanescent no power is radiated, when it is propagating the radiation
2 .
factor is variable from I to infinity when
K + 0Y varies from zero to k (see figure 3).
The direction of propagation is related to the radiation factor, let us define the angle of radiation 0
by:
kz = k.cos 0
(16)
17.6
One can deduce from (15) and (16)

6 = Arc cos (I/a)
(17)
kx 2 . ky 2
ligure 3: Radiation lacIOcol a tavelindg wave
This angle indicates the direction of the travelling wave in the plane (x,z), figure (4) shows the
angle 0 versus the radiation factor, when a is equal to 1, 6 is equal to 0 meaning that the radiation
is normal to the plate surface, when a goes to infinity 0 goes to zero the radiation is grazing. There
is a correspondance between radiation efficiency and directivity of the pressure wave.
The important conclusion that can be drawn is that the vibration of a plane boundary surface can or
cannot generate any noise depending on the wave numbers of the vibration wave. This tendancy is
general in radiation problems and explains that a reduction of the vibration level does not
significate an equivalent reduction of noise.
A couple of wave numbers (kx,ky) will be said radiating (resp non radiating) when it radiates
power (resp when it does not).
The previous basic tendancies can be used to understand the radiation behaviour of plates.
Radiation from infinite niate, critical frenuency.
..c: us consider an infinite plate lying in plane z = 0 and suppose that the fluid does not change
significantly the motion of the plate when in vacuo (this is the light fluid assumption). The plate
bending wave has the form (2) with wave numbers related to angular frequency by the equation
-
+ k2)
where D is the bending stiffness and M the mas per unit area of the plate.
17.7
(18)
)0
/-kx.I.ky
1i9Je A a)Angleof 'tWdIon versus r adOln a1ctor

b) Angleoi rad l on i he (x..) plane
Let us introduce the speed of flexural waves cf and the critical angular frequency (oc:
Cf =
(19)
W, = C2
(20)
Using equation (18) gives:

a) to > oc that is to say c < cf (the flexural waves are supersonic):
(21)
WC
b) )o
< oN ; that is to say c > cf (the flexural waves are subsonic)
o =0
(22)
Below the critical frequency the flexural wave is subsonic (sound speed greater than flexural wave
speed ), the infinite plate does not radiate any noise. Above the critical frequency the bending wave
is supersonic and radiates a travelling pressure wave, in addition the radiation efficiency is very
strong just above co
c and the pressure wave is grazing. At high frequency a = 1 and the radiated
wave is normal to the plate surface.
17.8
Radiation factor or finile nMate vibrations.

A finite baffled plate is considered, the transverse vibration of the plane
z = 0 is thus of the form
W(
x,y,t) (xY) eJC
if(x,y) E S
0
if (xy) S
(23)
This displacement can be replaced by an infinite number of travelling
waves using the space bi
dimensional Fourier transform:
W (xY)
j j
f
A (kr, ky) ef(kxx + kyy) dk, dkY
(24)
with:
fj
A (k,, k)=
W(x,y) e-j(kxx+kyy)dxdy
(25)
A (kx,k) = is the Fourier transform of the plate displacement but appears

also as the amplitude of
a traveling wave.
Each wave radiates noise as described previsiously, and the radiated power
obtained summing contributions of all radiating couples of waves numbers from the finite plate is
:
1ttad=
2
ntJ
k2 +k < k2
pc IA (kx, ky) 2
dkxdky
(26)
Several applications of equation (26) are presented in ref. 12 I,

here the case of a baffled
rectangular piston is just discussed as example. In this case, equation
(23) is:
W (xyt)
eOiw
if (x,y) E ]-a, +a [x] -b, +b [(27)

if (xy) ] -a, +a [x] -b, +b [
Calculation of waves amplitudes with (25) gives:

A (kg, ky) = 4 sink,
ka
sinky
kb(28)
28
The radiated power is then

gad=
3
2
m
sin 2 kxa sin 2kyb
Jk,+ky<k2 kxk.
ky
dk, dky
(29)
The figure 5 shows the wave decomposition of the motion of the baffled
piston. At low frequency
(k <
for example), a lot of waves number of significant amplitudes are non

radiating and the
17.9
radiation factor is small, on the contrary at high frequency the waves number of significant
amplitudes are radiating and the piston is a good acoustic radiator.
The example illustrates the basic phenomenon governing sound radiation from vibrating surfaces
a structure can vibrate strongly and produce only small acoustic power if the displacement wave
number decomposition is mainly composed of non radiating components. This can produce
paradoxal situation since a decrease of vibrations can increase the power radiated if the lower
vibration level is the result of a strong decrease of non radiating waves amplitudes and an increase
of radiating ones.
kL.OI
a) low "requerc
2
lA1k. .. )1
.4,e
_I
*2Z2
2A
L&
-L.-I
b) 1,htl rQ.fcy
s 0iaAeclr
IQre S flatialang .rM 'On radIwtig wae cawr*n
I
' z.0) are "Y rerMW
( wave vmnwr
aIar gPtso
Finite Miate. modal analysis.

A finite, baffled, rectangular plate, simply supported on its four edges is considered. The
transverse displacement can be expanded on the normal modes:
W(x,y) =
S
n=1
, an.,
sin al.x
1
y
sin M2
(30)
m=1
anm is the modal amplitude of mode (n,m), a and b are the lenght and the width of the plate.
After calculations one can demonstrate (see 13
equation:
I), that the
anm Min[
"amM
4&.-Q11+ X)M+nm)Fnm
j Ho
Tim+
'-M
modal amplitude anm is given by the
P-+
4mI
(31)
In this expression Fnm is the generalized force of mode (n,m) and O~nm its natural angular
17.17
frequency. M is the mass per unit area and 71the structural loss factor. The coupling with the fluid
is introduced by the radiation impedance Znmnm of mode (nm), its real part is the radiation
resistance and the imaginary part the radiation reactance.
Znmnm
Rnmnm +
j Xnrnm
(32)
Note : The fluid loading introduces a coupling between the modes that render impossible the
calculation of a mode response independantly of the others. However for sake of simplicity the
modal cross coupling is neglected here, this is realistic when fluid is light but overestimate the
power radiated when fluid is heavy (see 13 1p.401).
generalized force
addedms
generalized mass
anm
generalized
stiffness
structural
radiation
damping L I
damping
figure 6 Synoptic of fluid loaded modes

The radiation reactance is characteristic of an added mass, the radiation resistance of an additional
damping for the mode. (Figure (6)), the fluid loading is completly characterized by these two
effects. Radiation of plates and shells modes are presented in several papers 14 1 - 114 1, typical
results are shown in figure (7), in the case of a plate mode.
Radiation resistances presents a maximum at the modal critical angular frequency Cim,
DA =
at this frequency the acoustic wave lenigh X is equal to the mode wave lenigh
17.11
(33)
2
2/
(i, .)2 (+rnf
(34)
For frequencies below (Onm the acoustic wave length is greater than the mode wave length
'>2t./,(af+(nuf
(X<27E/
),radiation resistances are weak, and for frequencies above Ofnm
( =a-+ (=f)),
(D1
radiation resisitances are strong and equal to the fluid specific
impedance (pc).
Radiation reactances presents a maximum at an angular frequency just below 'en,
strongly for frequencies above and below.
1.6
and decrease
1.2
1
0.8
/
\
Eieure
Radiation impedance of rectangular, simply supported plate mode (1,1)

-- Resistance, - ------- Reactance, (After 1101 ).
Fluid loading of modes depends on acoustic specific impedance (pc), since both radiation
resistance and reactance are proportional to it, fluid loading is obviously stronger for water than
air, however it is not so easy to conclude on the influence of fluid on mode response as radiation
loading depends also on frequency and plate caracteristics.The mode response given in eq (31)
shows that fluid loading will have a negligible effect on the response of a mode when
Xnmnm
<< M fl
(35)
and
Rtmnm
<<
1 cQmM
(36)
This situation is generally true when the fluid is air but can also be verified for radiation in water.
17.12
The power radiated and the radiation factor of mode (n,m) are given by the following relations:
n=
la.J
Rr.,,.
(37)
Cnm - Rnmnn
(38)
The radiation factor of the mode is equal to its radiation resistance, thus the mode is efficient to
radiate sound when Rnmnm is strong, but it is very important to notice that this condition does not
imply a strong power radiated since the mode amplitude depends on the radiation resistance. In
particular, when the mode is excited at resonance, its amplitude is obtained annuling the real part
of the denominator in (31) :
anm
(9
m(39)
M ab
+ Trad)
j(TI(r FP
4
with:
-h
(40)
Rnmnm
On,.(
M OM
Instead of the radiation resistance we have introduced "inhmd the radiation loss factor. i 2 nm is the
fluid loaded eigen angular frequency, different of .onfm when the added mass is non negligible.
The power radiated by mode (n,m) excited at resonance is given by:
%
ra d
nrm
jJ ,d 2
. JFnj
M (ab) 2
nra
O(4
lrd _
I=1
(T)+ 1.)
( 4 1)__
Figure (8) presents the variation of power radiated versus the ratio of radiation and structural loss
factors, a maximum appears when the ratio is equal to one meaning that when a plate mode
radiates sound at resonance there is a modal radiation factor gnmwich gives a maximum of power
radiated:
-nmox = MTI
.(42)
pC
f'nm
If the modal radiation factor is greater than O'nma the power radiated decrease even if the radiation
efficiency increases. This paradoxal situation generally appears for radiation into water (due to the
strong value of pc, o'Cn' is generally very small in water). For radiation in air, mode radiation
factor are generally lower than Cmnma ' and an increase of radiation efficiency is equivalent to an
increase of power radiated.
In conclusion :
For radiation in light fluids : strong radiation factor < strong radiated power
For radiation in heavy fluids : strong radiation factor strong radiated power.
17.13
The radiation factor of a mode is very weak below its critical frequency, this is the result of an
acoustic short circuit in the near field. To understand this phenomenon let us approximate the
vibrations of the plate by monopoles in phase and antiphase see figure (9). A plate mode is thus
equivalent to an array of monopoles (see ref. 115 I)
1.0
0.81
061
o.4
0.0
-30
-20
-90
20
30
Figure
Ratio of the modal radiated power [rd mto the maximum modal radiated power nm'
versus the ratio in dB of modal radiation loss factor inM to the internal damping loss factor 1
(After [3]).
Below the mode critical frequency Ct)Cnm, the acoustic wave length is greater than the mode wave
length, the effects of monopoles are destructive in the same way as forces of opposite directions
acting on a multisupported beam, give a very small displacement when several forces act in each
bay see figure (10-a). On the contrary if the acoustic wave length is equal to the mode wave length
the forces are constructive and produce a strong displacement figure (10-b). This situation
corresponds to what happens at the mode critical frequency.
The destructive effects of monopoles produces a short circuit in the near field of the plate as shown
in figure (11), it is the result of alternate motion of fluid particules from pushing to pulling
monopoles. The short circuit is possible inside the plate but it subsists a non cancelled pan near
plate boundary, this results in edge radiating modes comer radiating modes see figure (12).
A mode radiates from the edges when its indices verify :
2c
2c
nc-a
and
. >b
or
2c
2c>-a
and
17.14
2c
b
m <--
(43)
A mode radiates from the comers when its indices verify

n<- 2c a
and
C)
a)
Ci)
k2)
- k2) 312
k < k. andWm
<k<n-lD
b
a
- k2)
+
k
ni (n-
c)
(44)
n
k < k.,andDR
a <Ck<m--b
k(L?5~ +k
b)
2c
m <-2 b
k2)
k
(k2 - k
d)
e)
k <km.andk <
kmn
m=
ID.L andk<
<l"b
a
[1--1)n.sin
8 k2
a'k
-Il)msinbk
sin (k(a2+ b2)l
k (a2 + b2)
f)
k <kmandk >
C,=k{((na)2
(Ymn =k
/2 )
1/2
I andk>DIa
b
4
,-k2)
nit (k2,n- k2) 3n
2
+4,,,
2
k2)j
k2)_
mit (kn-
((j)
Table 1. Radiation factor of simply supported rectangular, baffled plate modes. (After
kmn= ,(n_)2+ (iv) 2 , a, b length and width of the plate.
17.15
5 I)
]
J
When the driving angular frequency varies from 0 to infinity, each mode start radiating from the
comers then switch to radiation from edges and finally radiates from all the plate area.
The short circuit effet is very sensitive on high order modes as they are equivalent to an array of
several monopoles, but is not significant for low order modes particularly mode (1,1) which is
equivalent to a single monopole.
Approximate values of plate mode radiation factors have been calculated in ref.
summarized in table 1.
figure 9 equivalent monopoles array, to plate vibration mode
a)
b)
figure 10: Forces acting on multi supported beam.
a) -Situation equivalent to radiation below modal critical Irequency

b)- Situation equivalent to radiation at modal critical frequency
17.16
I5I
they are
mode shape
CANCELLED
NON CANCELLED
equivalenl mofopoles
Igure I I
ACOuSk shori civcuit
Finite nlate. multi mode radiation.

When a plate is excited and radiates noise all modes are involved in the phenomenon. However
modes excited at resonance have a higher response than other ones, and in first aproximation,
calculations of power radiated can be made using only resonant modes (modes whose resonance is
close to driving frequency). To determine the radiation efficiency of the plate, it is sufficient to
know radiation factors resonant modes . The radiation factor of a mode is strong when the driving
frequency is greater or equal than the critical frequency of the mode.
0 > e
V
2
m~ff
2
a2
(45)
If one introduces wave numbers instead of angular frequency, (45) gives:
k > ,
2n2:+M2= 22
b
a2
(46)
As the modes considered are resonant, their natural frequencies are close to the driving frequency.
If in addition the added modal mass is negligible, the in vacuo natural frequency can be used:
(l
nm=
Jg
t
Y1a
7 b2
17 .17
(47)
117
'U0IUIl-iY3 II uutpniL.j;) -q
noijy -aird Ijr~nfumliD fp3is
toijui3!x;) ilsflOiV -r
r jo ioinrij UOIIPPi pu1yjsr)
ilim
aJld
0'
*(EI) axngy nas sairjdjoajoioj UOpiKui1JO osraiiui Li t!U!sijlsw put 'A3uoflb3iJ JEDI2LI rnqi AMozq
QjqI2K[2ou UOU s! uoanqwmuO3 sgpowu luruosaU0UO12iDY DISfOD
pnOuJo
iouix'UO!Wi!ioj3imp
I~W4
JOJ
an-n Alua 5! 'uonrnpna uo ii~jpa ojqr2ijS2u U QAU4 oDuuuosoJ nt p~itox UOU sop0w leqi uoiidwttssu
orsLnq oqi uonrtppe uy *oIjd oy jo uopi~t1!3Y 2tp uc spu~dap sosuadsax *pow 23U!S 'sonjUA utQw
sn?sinxldu silns2zi oSrn4i osinoa)jo -Z olqui u! Inzunwwns amr Xotp 'sopnnjldwu, 2tuns 411M puodsax
sopow iurnbosax mqi Surwunssn
9 1 -jiut Qpt!W flom 1013flj uopiiR1uj oind jo suopuI~lDopZD
*)jt'M Aluc st2 ~injmd aituij 101 'oloz Nq oi punoj SiM
owid oixuu jo .onnj uonprnpi oqi A:uonbaxj jfl31)tfl rnp oopq flA2AM0H -airid o!uiu! Ui 'soAI1m
2uxpuoq 2U1[pAAE1I waaj uonnipni uo sis~juun SnO!Aajd Qqi u! iumsoid aflm saioutpuoi osrn.jj
Joia0uj uonunptx riULUS
B QAE4 sopow lutU0sai zDu!s )jvom Si oirjd 341 JO JoiDDJ uo!31puJulp
oqiOm > m j! Xnnuoa 041 UQ
(sv0
z3 = 3o~ o
0(o Aauonbax; njun~utmpu oiauD

md 3mi
mujinsuoaOP
nmin2uu SIIIAUP u~qMA Suo11s St 10iaUJ u0puB1uJ Dlujd 342 iuqi

1.p2uO[ QAIIM ilisnoat
QA0~!
Q17)
St
u!
Aouonbauj
(go 2uisfl
y'7j/y > W/q u34M%UOiulpujjnt A 'ny > u/p u~qm uopujjpaunD x
MIMi
TRIJI
m)Q
oupMlv
pw
uo
~3*
twr
o=27[2c _Wg +21ac--hh

ab cokno o,
ab
a
o0< co,
t).AO
with2:
Log [L+jC
- 2_2
+2a]
if
(X < 0.5
if
(x > 0.5
(X
O.
=
Table 2 : Radiation factor of plate (After ref. I 5 and 1211).

a, b plate length and width, cok critical frequency, c speed of sound
co excitation frequency.
A simple graphic mean can be used to show if the radiation factor of structures is strong or not. It
consists in plotting in the phase plane (c,k), the dispersion curves of structure and acoustic
medium. Figure (14) shows the previous plate case. The critical frequency corresponds to the
intersection of curves, (equality of frequency and waves numbers for acoustics medium and plate
modes), and separates the frequencies axis in two parts : below wcathe plate dispersion curve is
lower than the acoustic one (k < V
2
2
2n2r
2 + m27E
a2 + M 2
2]_,
this significate low radiation factor. Above
co the opposite situation is observed (k >

n2- 2 + m2-2 )meaning stong radiation factor (eY-1)
a2
b2
menn
The previous presentation is interesting to understand the radiation efficiency of structures, for
example an orthotropic plate has different bending stiffnesses in x and y directions, its modes are
not lying on a single curve but spread between two limiting curves. In figure (15) one can see that
there is a frequency range where plate and acoustic curves intesect, for an orthotropic plate there is
not a critical frequency but a critical frequency band between cocl and Wk2 . The more the bending
stiffenesses in x and y directions are different the more the critical frequency band is large.
17.19
The orthotropy of the plate can be introduced by Fibers reinforced material but also by stiffeners or
corrugation. The orthotropy generally increases the radiation factor but decreases the plate
vibrations, the antagonism of the tendendics render difficult to predict what happens to the radiated
power which can increase or decrease but in general. not very much.
Eicurc.14.
Dispersion curves for an isotropic plate and an acoustic medium.
Radiation from cylinders.

The radiation from cylinders is different from that of places because of curvature, however this is
0
only important at frequencies below and close to the ring frequency W
R
OR
p(l-V2 )
(49)
R radius of cylinder, E Young modulus, p mass per unit volume; v Poisson coefficient.
Above coR the shell motion is governed by flexural motion and the radiation of shells is equivalent
to that of plates. Below the ring frequency, the membrane stiffeness controls the motion and
results in a decrease of the mean vibration level compared to that of a plate of same thickness and
area. Generally this does not result in an equivalent decrease of power as the radiation efficiency of
the shell is stronger than the plate one, around ring frequency.
The complexity of the analysis of shell vibrations render impossible to detail here the formulation
of the problem. However it is possible to demonstrate the increase of radiation efficiency of shells
compared to plates, toward the ring frequency, using the previous graphic mean. The dispersion
curves of acylindrical shell and an acoustic medium are presented in figure (16) ; the curvature is
responsible of a second intersection around the ring frequency, meaning strong radiation factor for
shells contrary to plate in this frequency band. A typical radiation factor of shell is shown in figure
(17), it presents two maxima toward ring and critical frequencies.
17.20
U',
Figure1.5. Dispersion curves of an orthotropic plate and an acoustic medium. From 1171.
modes
Figure 16. Dispersion curves of a cylindrical shell and an acoustic medium. From 1171.
17.21
-z
'00 600O
'200
2000 2400
'60
Figurt.17.
2600 3200 3600
'00-
Freouet'ny 1Hz)
Radiation factor of a steel shell in air. (After 131).
Material steel, Radius 0.8 m, length 1.2 m, thickness 0.003 m, structural loss factor 10-2.
Effect of Boundary Conditions. (see reference 1181).
The figure (18) shows the radiation factor of a plate in air for the following boundary conditions:
simple supports,clamped supports, free suppports and guided supports. Simple and clamped
supports have approximately same radiation efficiency (the clamped plate is a little mode efficient
to radiate), the free and guided plates have a radiation factor considerably lesser than the two
previous boundary conditions meaning that the translation stiffeness on the edge of a plate controls
the radiation factor. This tendancy is only true below the critical frequency and is the result of
strong acoustic short circuit (figure (19)).
I''
)i
ID,
'00
eurt
.'
C?
Ith
T,
'000000
JUCI~
0006LUMCFF
Radiation factor of a rectangular plate with different boundary conditions, in air.

= 0.445 m, b = 0.543 m, h = 0.001 (After [18]).
Material steel, a
17.22
al
roe OunodIy COniOilionS
b) simply supponed boundary conddions.
Eigurti1.
Acoustic short circuit for modes of a) free plate and b) simply supported plate.
Influence of Stiffeners.
Figure (20) shows the radiated power of ring stiffened and non stiffened cylinders. No real
tendancy can be find, stiffeners can increase or decrease the radiated power depending on
frequency, however the variation is not very strong in average. Toward the ring frequency both
shells radiate in the same way this is explained by the fact that ring stiffeners are ineffective in
modifying the behaviour of shell breathing modes that control the radiation around ring frequency.
When averaged on frequency the radiation factor of ring stiffened shells is greater than that of non
stiffened shells. (This is only true below critical frequency).Let us note the contradictory nature of
stiffeners action that diminishes velocity while increasing radiation factor and finally resulting in
small changes in radiated power.
90
70
C
S60
50
PI
30
0
Eiguc
200
400
600
8am
000
'200
1400
100
1800
.2000
Frequency (HN)
2.
Radiated power comparison in air between the basic shell and the shell stiffened by
three ring located at IA4, L42, 31-4 -4
basic shell
stiffened shell. Driving point
2L
excitation at -
17.23
Decrease of Innut Mobility.

A possible mean to reduce radiated power is to decrease the input mobility of the structure; this is
achieve in putting a mass at the driving point (see reference 1181) or when the excitation is localized
on a stiffener (see reference 1191). Figure (21) illustrate the redution of noise due to a mass put at
the driving point of a cylinder radiating in air. Let us mention that the radiation factor remains
unchanged with and without mass and thus the decrease of shell quadratic velocity is equal to that
of radiated power.
70
60
Intl
je\"
50
100
- o rWI
M
1 ,1 .
N '. " ,
150 200 250 300 350

rr'eq,..nc.
--
Ht
-
400 450 500
2K9
........ .......
... BKg
MEignim.2
Influence of a mass located at the driving point, on the power radiated from a
cylinder in air. (After 1231.
Radiation in Heavy Fluid.

When the fluid is heavy the radiation efficiency and the radiated power can vary in opposite ways.
More precisely, a high radiation factor is equivalent to a strong fluid loading that blocks the motion
of the structure resulting in small radiated power. This is the basic difference from light fluid
situation where radiated power and radiation factor vary in the same way. Figures (22) and (23)
shows the difference of behaviour of shells radiating in water and air. The critical frequency is
characteristic of maximum radiated power and radiation factor in air, in water a maximum is still
observed on radiation factor but not on radiated power.
A second influence of heavy fluids is the increase of the structure apparent mass, by fluid loading,
that results in resonant frequencies lower than in vacuo.
17.24
i.
....
. ..
if
at
0
(agnnny (.'at
and
*0.
tOO
100
mO
Radiatedpoead, a ahead
in watern
in the ragd, isp. the cynical(,eqwt.,
Radiatedpower,of a segllin air in the range up to the
gnamest
......
c~
0.'
af
Ro a i
. a .i,i na al c a t,
hO .4
i t,
1.
oan
0 O In,
10
00
Radiation liera orfdashell in waterin the rangeup to the Cratita

I requrncy
Eizur 22.
Radiation of shell in air.
Figure 23. Radiation of a shell in water.
A particular mean of reduction of noise radiated is possible when (he fluid is heavy, it consits in a
coating layer of viscoelastic material which isolates the shell from the fluid (see ref. 1211- 122 1I).
Figure (24) shows the decrease of power radiated obtained with a coating of soft material at
angular frequency above WOA
W)A
=j
-(50)
Z is the stiffeness of the coating, Mf is the fluid added mass. This technic of noise reduction does
not apply in ligh fluids as the added mass is very small and COA is thus situated at very high
frequency for reasonable coating stiffness..
17.25
F"
1 ,
"I
-i
,a
Fl r4t~dp*
S
Fin.
-t g ,A ..*.i4
-.
) **t
.. .. ..
...
,,.
....... n
mdlb~.o
flg*
4 Radiation of a shell inwater with and without coating layer (After 22
Radiatio n from vibrating structures is a very complicated problem, as paradoxal situation can be
encountered : a decrease of vibration level can result in an increase of radiated noise. This is
explainded by the existance of radiating and non radiating wave numbers, when the vibrating
motion isdecomposed in plane wave (spatial Fourier transform).
Two basic quantities are used to describe radiation :the power radiated and the radiation factor, the
first one describes the global phenomenon, the second one the efficiency of the vibration to
(increase of radiation factor
varyfluids
in thepower
same and
Wayradiation
In light
fluidsradiated),
the two quantities
produce
produces noise.
increase
of power
but in heavy
factor vary often in
opposite directions (increase of radiation factor results in a decrease of radiated power). The
radiation factor of plates presents a maximum at critical frequency, isequal to one above itand is
very small below as result of an acoustic short circuit. The curvature introduces a second
maximum of radiation factor toward the ring frequency.
fTe basic phenomenon have been presented on se
otructures like plates and cylinderS. For
real industrial structures there tendancies remain valid, but ifa detailed prediction of noise radiated
programm. It is however, often not
computer
mustin
use
F.E.M and B.E.M
wanted toone
is
necessary
include
the modelisation
all structural
details, and modal calculations on plates and
arecompares
often sufficient.
cylinders
Figure (25)
a calculation and a measurement of the power radiated from a cylindrical
peaks appears in the experiment, this is the result of structural
canunderstand
see that unpredicted
shell, oneTo
defectts.
this let us remenber that well below the critical and ring frequency the
radiation efficiency isvery small due to the cancellation effect of monopoles of same strength and
phase opposition. When a structural defect ispresent the array of equivalent monopoles is
perturbated, and cancellation is not so perfect producing increase of radiation factor, and finally
sunpredicted peaks of power.
17.26
n [
Figure
I"
4
m
Power radiated in air from a cylindrical shell, mechanically excited, below critical
and ring frequency.
theoretical prediction.
experimental results.
This effect can be demonstrated putting an attached mass on the shell to modelize a defect,
additional peaks of power appear, see figure (26).
To reduce noise radiated by structures, passive control can be used, but beeping in mind
that
reducing vibration is not in general equivalent in reducing noise. More recently active control has
started and some interesting results obtained (see [26] for exemple) this will be probably a second
way to reduce noise radiated by structures in the future.
Let us notice to end this paper, that only few experimental results are avaliable in literature,
and
good esperiments are needed to validate theoretical prediction, and mechanism of sound radiation.
so
90
70
40
30
20
10
Ejgnrt26
50
100
150
202
250 300
350 400 450 500
Influence of an attached mass on the power radiated from a shell in air. Mechanical
excitation (After 123 1).
without mass ------- with a mass of 2 kg (3% of the shell mass).
17.27
REFERENCES.
I II
P. MILLOT - J.L. GUYADER - C. BOISSON - C. LESUEUR - Critre de maillage pour

la mesure d'dnergie vibratoire de plaques - Acustica , Vol 55 p. 10 1 -112, 1984.
12 1 F.J. FAHY - Sound and structural vibrations - Academic Press, 1985.
13 1 B. LAULAGNET and J.L. GUYADER - Modal analysis of shell's radiation in light and
heavy fluids. Journal of Sound and Vibration 131(3), p. 3 9 7 -4 15, 1989.
141 C.E. WALLACE - Radiation resistance of a rectangular panel - J. Acoustic Soc. Am.51,
p. 9 4 6 - 9 52 , 1972.
15
G. MAIDANIK - Response of ribbed panels to reverberant acoustic fields - J. Acoust.
Soc. Am. 34 p.809-826, 1962.
16 1 - A.S. NIKIFOROV - Radiation of sound from a plate finite dimensions with arbitrary
boundary conditions - J. Sov. Physics Acoust. 10, p.178-182, 1964.
acoustic radiation of elastically supported
171 N.S. LOMAS - S.I. HAYEK - Vibrations 1and
rectangular plates - J. Sound Vib., 52, p. - 2 5 , 1977.
M.C. GOMPERTS - Radiation from rigid, baffled rectangular plates with general
18
boundary conditions - Acustica 30, p. 3 2 0- 3 2 7, 1974.
191 M.C. GOMPERTS - Sound radiation from baffled, thin, rectangular plates. Acustica 37,
p.93-102, 1977.
1101 B.E. SANDMAN - Motion of a three layered elastic - viscoelastic plate under fluid loadingJASA, 57(5) p.1097-1107, 1975.
I1 B.E. SANDMAN - Fluid loading influence coefficients for a finite cylindrical shell Journal of the Society of America 60(6), p.1256-126 4 , 1976.
112 1 P.R. STEPANISHEN - Radiated power and radiation loading of cylindrical surfaces with
nonuniform velocity distributions - Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 63(2),
p. 3 2 8 - 3 3 8 , 1978.
1131 P.R. STEPANISHEN - Modal coupling in the vibration-of fluid loaded cylindrical shells Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 71(4), p.818-823, 1982.
1141 B. LAULAGNET - Rayonnement acoustique des coques cylindriques, finies raidies
revEtues d'un matdriau de masquage - These de Doctorat d'Acoustique - INSA LYON,
1989.
115 1 L. CREMER - M. HECKL - E.E. UNGAR - Structure borne sound - Springer Verlag,
1973.
1161 C. LESUEUR - J.L. GUYADER - Rayonnement acoustique des plaques et des coques
cylindriques - Rayonnement acoustique des structures. C. LESUEUR et Al. 1988.
117 1 J.L. GUYADER - Analyse modale du comportement vibroacoustique des structures.
M6caniques et rdduction du bruit g6ndrd. Revue d'Acoustique, 79 p.26-37, 1986.
118I A. BERRY - J.L. GUYADER - J. NICOLAS - A general formulation for the sound
radiation from rectangular baffled plates with arbitrary conditions - J.A.S.A 88(6),
p.2792-2802, 1990.
1191 B. SANDMAN - Fluid loaded vibration of an elastic plate carrying a concentrated mass J.A.S.A, p. 1 5 0 3 - 15 10 , 1977.
1201 B. LAULAGNET - J.L. GUYADER - Sound radiation by finite cylindrical ring stiffened
shells - Journal of Sound and Vibration 13(2), p. 1 7 3 - 19 1, 1990.
1211 M.J. CROCKER - A.J. PRICE - Sound transmission using statistical energy analysis Journal of Sound and Vibration, 9(3) p. 4 6 9 - 4 8 6 , 1969.
17.28
1221 B. LAULAGNET - J.L. GUYADER - Sound radiation from finite cylindrical shell covered
with a compliant layer - Journal of Vibrations and Acoustics, ASME Transaction,
Vol. 113, pp. 267-272, 1991.
1231 E. REBILLARD - Rayonnement de coques avec masses embarqudes - Th6se de Maitrise,
Universitd de Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada, 1990.
1241 J.A. MACADAM - The measurement of sound radiation from room surfaces in light
weight buildings, Applied Acoustics, 9 p.103-119, 1976.
125I B. LAULAGNET, J.L. GUYADER - Rayonnement acoustique de coques cylindriques
finies, munies de raidisseurs circonf6rentiels et d'un mat6riau de masquage - Rapport de
contrat DRET n08734242004707501 ,1989.
1261 L. SONG, G.H. KOOPMANN and J.B. FAMNLINE - Active control of the
acoustic
radiation of a vibrating structure using a superposition formulation - JASA 89(6), 1991.
17.29
West
European
Graduate
Education
Marine
Technology
LEE T4
S.2P2
CENTRO PER GLI STUDI DI TECNICA NAVALE

ITALIAN SHIP RESEARCH CENTER
IsTrrTUO POUCATr EDRA
01 INGEGNERIA NAVALE
SIXTEENTH GRADUATE SCHOOL

"NOISE, VIBRATION AND SHOCK
ON BOARD SHIPS"
UNIVERSITY OF GENOA - ITALY

23rd + 28th MARCH 1992
ORGANISED BY CETENA and

UNIVERSITY OF GENOA
VOLUME II
AEuropean Community
comr-E Project
INDEX
-
VOLUME I -
SESSION: Noise and Vibration

CHAPTER : 1. INTRODUCTORY LECTURES
LESSON : 1. Basic Concepts of Sound and Vibration
LESSON
2. Human Response to Sound and Vibration
LESSON : 3. Introduction to Ship Acoustics
LESSON : 4. Standards, Requirements, Recommendations on Noise and Vibration
on Board Ships
LESSON
5. Representative Figures of Noise in Ships
CHAPTER :2. MAIN NOISE AND VIBRATION SOURCES
LESSON: 6. Diesel Engines, Rotating Machinery, Gears, Auxiliary Machinery
LESSON : 7. Heating, Ventilation, Air-conditioning Systems (HVAC)
LESSON : 8. Ship Flow Noise
LESSON : 9. Exhaust Systems
LESSON :10. Propellers; Bow Thrusters; Water Jets
CHAPTER : 3. TRANSMISSION
LESSON :11. Resilient Mounting
LESSON :12. Resiliently Mounted Engines
LESSON :13. Propeller/Hull Interaction
3.2 Description of Structure - borne Sound Transmission in Ship Structures
LESSON :14. Empirical, Statistical, Theoretical Approaches
LESSON :15. New Materials
LESSON :16. Concepts to Reduce Vibration Propagation in Structures
3.3 Noise Radiation: into Air and into Water
LESSON : 17. Noise Radiation into Air and into Water
-
pag. 1.1
pag. 2.1
pag. 3.1
pag. 4.1
pag. 5.1
pag.
pag.
pag.
pag.
pag.
6.1
7.1
8.1
9.1
10.1
pag. 11.1
pag. 12.1
pag. 13.1
pag. 14.1
pag. 15.1
pag. 16.1
pag. 17.1
VOLUME II -
CHAPTER : 4. WORKING SPACES AND ACCOMMODATIONS

LESSON :18. Airborne Sound Transmission in Rooms
LESSON :19. Noise Reducing Measures in Engine Rooms
LESSON : 20. Noise Reducing Measures in Accommodations
pag. 18.1
pag. 19.1
pag. 20.1
CHAPTER: 5. NOISE AND VIBRATION CONTROL IN PRACTICE

LESSON : 21. Instrumentation, Measurement Techniques
LESSON : 22. Conflicting Requirements in Ship Design
pag. 21.1
pag. 22.1
CHAPTER : 6. DESIGN
LESSON : 23. Design Policy
LESSON : 24 A. Applications: Noise and Vibration
Control Onboard Fast Passenger Vessels
LESSON: 24 B.Applications: Conversion of a Large
Cruise Vessel from Steam to Diesel
pag. 23.1
pag. 24.1
pag. 24.19
SESSION : Shock
7. SHOCK
LESSON : 25. Introduction to and General Overview of Shock Phenomena
LESSON : 26. Modelling Techniques and Associated Signal Processing
COURSE CLOUSURE : 27. Shock Design Analysis of Shipboard Equipment - An Overview
CHAPTER
pag. 25.1
pug. 26.1
pag. 27.1
CHAPTER: 4
WORKING SPACES AND ACCOMMODATIONS
LESSON 18
16th WEGEMT SCHOOL
SESSION
CHAPTER
LESSON
: 4.
:18.
Noise and Vibration

WORKING SPACES AND ACCOMODATIONS
Airborne sound transmission in rooms.
Jean-Louis GUYADER
INSA (Institut National des Sciences Appliqudes) - LYON
Bt. 303
FRANCE
TEACHER
COMPANY
COUNTRY
ABSTRACT
The paper deals with the airborne sound transmission through panels. General
concepts are first introduced to show the influence of panel and room characteristics on
the sound transmitted. The basic modelisation of an infinite plate separating infinite
acoustic media is used to demonstrate the mass law, critical frequency and breathing
resonance of double panel. A comparison with experimental data shows that modal
analysis is necessary to really predict sound transmission. Results of sophisticated
modelisation are presented, and influence of source location, panel dimensions, etc...
demonstrated. Finally flanking sound transmission is shortly discussed.
In conclusion, the main phenomena are sumarized and the new possibility of
reducing transmission with active control briefly presented.
thesis of "Docteur Ingdnieur" on sound transmission through multilayered plates was
I8.1
AUIIIOR : GUYADER Jean-Louis

Laboratoire Vibrations-Acoustique - Bt. 303
INSTITUT NATIONAL DES SCIENCES APPLIQUEES
69621 VILLEURBANNE CEDEX - FRANCE
TITLE:
AIRBORNE SOUND TRANSMISSION IN ROOMS.
ABSTRACT : Th; paper deals with the airborne sound transmission through panels. General
concepts ame first introduced to show the influence of panel and room characteristics on the sound
transmitted. The basic modelisation of an infinite plate separating infinite acoustic media is used to
demonstrate the mass law, critical frequency and breathing resonance of double panel. A
comparison with experimental data shows that modal analysis is necessary to really predict sound
transmission. Results of sophisticated modelisation are presented, and influence of source
location, panel dimensions, etc... demonstrated. Finally flanking sound transmission is shortly
discussed.
In conclusion, the main phenomena are sumarized and the new possibility of reducing
transmission with active control briefly presented.
DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM.
Airborne sound transmission in rooms is a basic problem in building acoustics. The transmission
path is formed of a recieving room, a source room and a mechanical structure separating them. The
sound transmission from source to receiving room is generally performed through the plate
adjacent to both rooms, this is the direct transmission. However flanking transmission is also
possible, especially for light weight separating structures, the theoretical prediction of sound
insulation is then very difficult. The Figure 1 shows different transmission path.
JF
Fi:ure (1)
Sound transmission in rooms
Direct transmission - -- : Flanking transmission
18.2
Let us now define transmission coefficient Tas the ration of transmitted to incident power:
Flinc
<p2>
(8)
This quantity depends only on the wall characteristics and fluids specific impedance, it is not
influenced by room dimensions as reverberant sound fields are assumed in both rooms. 't is
independant of the direction of transmission. However as reverberant sound fields are only
idealized modelisation of real life situation 't is not really independant of rooms, particularly at low
frequency.
The mean square pressure in the receiving room is deduced from relation (3), with an injected
power in room II equal to the transmitted power through the panel.
p2-S
(9)
With relation (1) and (7) one can see that :

TL= 10 log IAt
(10)
With relation (1) and (9) one obtains:

Db= TL + 10 log Al
(11)
S
This equality indicates that the insulation between rooms depend not only of the separating panel
but also on the absorption of the receiving room, this shows that the same panel will produce a
better insulation between room I and 11 than between room II and I if All > A1 .
A second type of insulation problem can be encountered in practize, it is the insulation from
outside to a room. This problem is different from the previous one as the incident pressure is not a
diffuse field but in general a plane wave with a given angle of incidence 0 (see figure (2)).
Fig.u.r - Direct transmission problems

a) From outside to room - b) From room to room.
18.3
In general, the frequency range of interest goes from the octave band centered at 100 Hz to that
centered at 4000 Hz and the assumption of diffuse fields in rooms is generally valid. At low
frequencies the problem is different as modal behaviour of rooms dominates, the phenomenon
become very complicated to simulate, and one can say that classical tendancies on sound
transmission do not apply at very low frequency.
The simplest measurement to characterize the transmission is the difference between the pressure
level in the receiving room and the source room Dp.
Dp = LP
.4eceiving
However, this measurement depends on the direction of transmission, namely, if the source room
is changed in receiving room, the pressure level difference is not the same as in the first
experiment. To avoid this difficulty one has to measure the transmission loss of the separating wall
defined as the ratio in dB of incident to transmitted power.
TL= 10 log -- flhiddcnL
(2)
Fltansmited
What is the relation between TL and Db is an important question. Let us first remember that the
relation existing between the injected power 'lin
j in a reverberant room, and the mean square
pressure <P2 > is given by (3) ; (see ref. [1] for example):
<p2>
4pc
= A- -"l-ini
(3)
p is the fluid mass per unit volume (1,293 for air), c is the speed of sound (340 m/s in air), A is
the absorption area of the room, it is related to the reverberation time T with Sabine relation (4):
T = 0,16 K, V is the volume of theroom
(4)
Ar
A second relation is necessary, it gives the intensity (line) of a reverberant sound field, incident on
a wall of the room:
=
lie
<p2>
Iinc =4 pc
(5)
Let us consider two rooms separated by a wall. Room I is excited and sound is transmitted
through the wall to the room II. The intensity incident on the separating wall is obtained with (5),
2
introducing the pressure mean square into the sources room P .
linc - P]
4 pc
(6)
The incident power on the wall is directly deduced:
'linc
<p2>
-
4 I where S in the wall area
18.4
(7)
Let us now define transmission coefficient T as the ration of transmitted to incident
rlgnn
Flin c
.vert-
4pc II,,
S
<p2>(8)
This quantity depends only on the wall characteristics and fluids specific impedance, it is not
influenced by room dimensions as reverberant sound fields are assumed in both rooms. t is
independant of the direction of transmission. However as reverberant sound fields are only
idealized modelisaton of real life situation t is not really independant of rooms, particularly at low
frequency.
The mean square pressure in the receiving room is deduced from relation (3), with an injected
power in room II equal to the transmitted power through the panel.
11
An
1(9)
With relation (1) and (7) one can see that:

TL-= 10log I/T
(10)
With relation (1) and (9) one obtains:

(A1)
Db=TL+ 10 log -i
S
This equality indicates that the insulation between rooms depend not only of the separating panel
but also on the absorption of the receiving room, this shows that the same panel will produce a
better insulation between room I and H1than between room I1and I if All > A,.
A second type of insulation problem tan be encountered in practize, it is the insulation from
outside to a room. This problem is different from the previous one as the incident pressure is not a
diffuse field but in general a plane wave with a given angle of incidence 0 (see figure (2)).
8)
6)
Figure (2)
Direct transmission problems
a) From outside to room - b) From room to room.
18.5
To characterize the insulation from outside to a room one introduces the difference of the pressure
level of the incident plane wave L(O) and the reverberant pressure inside receiving room -11.
(12)
D(O) = L(6)- 1-1
This definition is irrealistic as in general, L(O) cannot be measured because of reflected waves
from the pannel. To avoid this difficulty one can remove the panel to eliminate reflection or use the
fact that close to the panel, and for total reflection, the pressure is the double of the incident
pressure.
The panel transmission loss TL(0) is now defined by the relation
(0)
TL(6) = 10 log rltansmitte
nirant d ,(3
(13)
Of course TL(8) depends on the panel characteristics as we shell demonstrate later but also on the
angle 0.
In the same way as previously done for transmission between room, one can find the following
relation:
D(6)=TL(0)+10log
Aft _6
S cosO
(14)
A diffuse field is a combination of plane waves of all possible angles 0, thus, it will be possible to
calculate the diffuse field transmission loss (IL), from the plane wave transmission loss TL(8),
integrating over angles 0.
MEASUREMENT
The classical measurement of panels transmission loss is made in laboratory, that is two
reverberant rooms separated by the panel. The pressure levels into source and receiving rooms are
determined using the rotating microphone and one can calculate the insulation Db of the panel (a
third octave analysis is generally made). This measurement is not sufficient to obtain the
transmission loss of the wall under study as the absorption area of the receiving room is also
necessary, it is calculated with relation (4) after measurement of the reverberation time. A more
direct method to measure the transmission loss of panels is based on intensity measurement in the
receiving room, if one introduces the mean intensity radiated by the plate in the receiving
room:
 = I-Lnnsmi S cd
(15)
The use of equation (8) allows one to obtain the transmission loss of the panel from the pressure
level in the source room and the intensity level radiated in the receiving room.
R
Lpl - 10 log-:5-- 6
J8.6
(16)
The reference for pressure and intensity level are respectively

p2=4 10"10 Pa2 ; W1=0-12W/m2
This type of measurement does not need the knowledge of the reverberation time of the receiving
room. However a difficulty can appear in strongly reverberant room to measure intensity, because
of highly reacting pressure field. To avoid this difficulty one has to use receiving room with strong
enough absorption.
BASIC MODELISATION. THE INFINITE PLATE
Let us consider two semi infinite acoustic media (I and 2), separated by an infinite plate lying in
the plane z = 0. The problem we are dealing with, is the calculation of the pressure wave
transmitted in medium 2 when an incident pressure wave in medium 1 excites the plate.
,..
N
b..
&b
Z'I,
Fi:ure (3)
Incident wave number
:Wave vector -kx, ky, kzc: Components of the wave vector

The incident pressure wave is defined from two angles 0 and 9p, as indicated in figure (3)
P i nc (X,y,z) = e-jkx sine sincp - jky sine coscp - jkz cost
with k =-C
(17)
: driving frequency , c : sound speed in fluids.
The plate generates a reflected wave Pcf and a transmitted wave Pt,, (see figure 4):
Prei(x,Y,Z) = B e-jkx sine sinwp -jky sine cosp - jkz cosO
(18)
Ptran(x,yz) = A e-'Jkx sine sinw -jky sine coswp -jkz cost
(19)
with A (resp B) : amplitude of the transmitted (resp reflected) wave.
18.7
Fiue
:4Incident, reflected and transmitted wave
The total pressure in medium I is thus the sum of incident and reflected wave pressures.
The plate motion is of the form :
W(x,y) = C e'J k'x sinO sinqp - jky sin0 cosvp
(20)
The acoustic wave numbers in x (resp y) directions must be the same for acoustic and plate waves,
in order to verify the continuity of acoustic and plate velocity at each point on plane z =0.
The equality of plate and acoustic velocities in medium I and 2 gives
-jk cos0 (I B) = Q22 pc
(21)
-jk cos0 A =f12 pc
(22)
To solve the problem one has also to write the equation of motion of the plate.
!2,W(x,y) +
M
4
4W
F4W
.W4
a
+2
+4a__
x2 y2 _a"y
ax 4
x,,)PY4y0
2xY,)(3
2( ,)(3
Introducing pressure and plate waves into (23) gives:

(I + B - A) = Z(k sin0 sinqp , k sinO cosqp).C
(24)
where Z is the plate oblique wave impedance ; and is equal to :

Z(k sin0 sin~po, k sinO cosp)
n 2 M + DkO sin40
J8.8
_.-Qf2 M I - fL22 sin40/
25
The critical frequency f4-has been introduced = (-c= C2
ITT).
(26)
The solution of (20), (21) and (24), gives after calculation:

2
C n2 M I
)+ 2jjpc
j4
(27)
co -se)
B =I -jfQPC.C
cos(
(28)
A =j . pc
(29)
(C
cos0
The acoustic pressure field and plate vibrations are immediatly obtained with the general form (17)
- (20) and the amplitudes (27) - (29).
One can now calculate the transmission loss of the infinite plate ; it is the ratio of the incident to the
transmitted acoustic power expressed in dB.
The transmitted (ltrad) and incident intensities (line) of the plate have the following expressions:
Ita(I,
(p) L Re (P2 (x,y,0) (jfW(x,y))*}
(30)
line((, (P) -L
Re Pinc(xY,0) LL-Thnc (xyO))}
2ipa
(31)
Let us remark that velocities to take into account in calculation of acoustic power, are equal to the
plate velocity for the transmitted wave by continuity of mechanical and acoustical normal
velocities, but not for the incident wave ; the continuity of velocities remain true but for the whole
pressure field in medium 1, that is for the sum of incident and reflected waves.
The * denotes a complex conjugate, and Re( ) the real part.
The transmission coefficient 't(Op) is defined by:
tr(08sP) = (O.w
Pe)
1
(32))
U1a inc
(32)
After calculation one can obtain the transmission loss of the inifinite plate
TL(O,(p) = 10 log (1/,(O,lp))
TL(8,9p)
10 log
(Q
sin 4 ) + 0 ( o p)
2 f
M (1,0 Q
PC
. cos
I8.9
(33)
The expression above shows that the transmission loss is independant of (p. This
the isotropy of the plate, and will be not true for non isotropic plates. However, is the result of
taking advantage
of this property, the notation will be simplified in TL(6).
In several practical cases of ligthweight plates, frequencies under study are well
below the critical
frequency O c and one can neglect.
2 2
fl /Q-sin44 0 << 1
(34)
The transmission loss in then:
TL(6)
0~
02
I.'
lo(
"
+n12(MfQsj
+
0TO
'02
(35)
iiI!i
Co.
10:
200
10
0 . -ORM.
0 . O0E0
3
rRtOIJENY
0 . ,004
IN HERTZ
W.I
0
0 Oru i
'REOENCY
IN
~0
nERrZ
( : Transmission loss versus frequency for the mass law.

a) Variation of angle of incidence (plate mass per unit area 10 kg)
b) Variation of plate mass per unit area (angle of incidence 0 = 0)
In expression (35) only the mass of the panel appears, this is the mass law for sound
transmission
through panels. The figure (5.a) shows typical curves. Some tendencies appears
;
for
a
given plate
the transmission loss increases with frequency (6dB per octave), for a given
frequency
TL
increase with the mass per unit area of the plate (6 dB per Mass doubling). The
angle of incidence
0 also make TL to vary, at normal incidence (0 = 0) the transmission loss is maximum,
at grazing
incidence (0 = n/2) it is equal to 0.
Figure (5.b) presents the transmission loss versus frequency, of panels of different
mass per unit
area, at normal incidence.
When the condition (33) is not verified the complete expression (32) must
be considered
physically both plate characteristics are now -taken into account the mass of
the
plate and its
stiffeness. A typical result is given in Figure (6). The basic phenomenon which
appears with the
elasticity of the plate, is a strong decrease of the transmission loss toward
the coincidence
frequency 0 'coin : (this phenomenon was demonstrated by Cremer [22]).
18.10
=coi
= c2;-]/sin20
= D/sin2
(36)
10
'Co
rI.
IN
ERT
10
'330
'Oro,
rc,r0,rWc
Figure.. (
0 '05"
IN HERTZ
Transmission loss of a infinite plate made of aluminium, and of

4 mm thickness, at varius angle of incidence
When = 0f coin, the power transmission through the plate is total, this situation is the result of the
annulation of the plate oblique wave impedance. Physically the celerity of free flexural plate wave,
and the projection in the plane z = 0, of the celerity of acoustic wave are equal, it is the cofncidence
effect (see figure (7)).
Below the coincidence frequency the transmission loss is governed by the mass of the panel as
discussed previously. Above Ocoin ;the transmission loss increases quickly with frequency (18
dB/oct), the stiffness of the panel is now governing the phenomenon.
The coincidence frequency depends on the plate, the acoustic speed of sound and angle of
coincidence 0.When 8 = ,ct2, the coincidence frequency is minimum and equal to the critical
frequency D(c .When 0 --- > 0, -coin "--> cc meaning for normal incidence, the mass law is valid at
all frequencies.
C,
I)
,
I
FiPure (7)
Coincidence effec , CF
CsinG
CF: Bending wave velocity
C: Sound speed
18.11
"\
Let us introduce damping in the plate by mean of complex Young modulus E:

E = E(l +jT)
(37)
The calculation of the transmission loss of the visco6lastic plate is quite similar as the elhstic plate,
it gives finally:
TL(G)=10 logf2(
Q
M2m
-(8
fl
1T
The influence of damping on transmission loss is only sensitive toward the coincidence frequency,
where it takes the following value
TL(G) = 10 log 1 + M2p Cosocoin2
(39)
2pc
A few consequences can be drawn from (39):
- For normal incident the coincidence frequency is infinite, and the plate-damping is
ineffective in modifying TL.
- The sound transmission at ftcoin which was total for elastic plate is limited by plate
damping.
- For practical cases the expression (39) reduces to (40) with a good approximation:
Th(G) = 20 log (M 2pSI coj
+ 20 logol
(40)
One can observe an increase of 6 dB with damping doubling. This shows that sound transmission
through plates is governed by plate damping toward coincidence frequency.
DIFFUSE FIELD EXCITATION
The transmission loss at particular angle of incidence is realistic for outside to room transmission,
but cannot be used for transmission between rooms ; the diffuse field excitation is certainly more
appropriate in this case. Let us remember first that the acoustic-field in rooms can be satisfactory
modelled, superposing plane waves propagating in all directions. When all directions are equiprobable, all waves have same intensity and are decorrelated, the field is perfectly diffuse. Of
course, the assumption of diffuse field is not valid in all situations, but is acceptable for frequency
above the cut off frequency of the room Qcoff (see ref. [2]).
0
'coff =
2n
V4mrjV
(41)
(1
With V volume of the room.Sound transmission for diffuse field excitation can be calculated from
the transmission at oblique incidence, in averaging over angles
f(2nf
nl/2
01
t(0) cose sinO dG d9

1
18.12
(42)
The plate transmission coefficient for diffuse field excitation is thus
f0 M1-~-
20PC
n/2 I '
M22
(C co
(pc/ coseo
cosO sin2 dO
(43)
The calculation of the integral must generally be done numerically except for the mass law
approximation; one obtain in this case :
TL=10log
TL~~lo
n 2 (M/2pc?
LI+
Y_)
(44)
70
40
20
20
rqEoENC' IN HECRTZ
Eigu~rLeh(8)
Diffuse field sound transmission through an infinite steel plate of 4

mm thick~plate loss factor - a) 510-2
510-1
,b)
The Figure (8) presents a typical result obtained after numerical integration of (42).
The diffuse field excitation introduces a mean of the coincidence effects appearing for each angle
of incidene, it results a decrease of the transmission loss toward the critical frequency (which is
also the lowest cofncidence frequency), and above it an increase of TL of 9 dB/octave. Below the
critical frequency the transmission loss is mass-governed, and equal to the value of the mass law
for diffuse field (44), an increase of 6 dB/octave is observed.
Tle damping of the plate increases the transmission loss at frequencies toward and above 0i c, thus
contrary to oblique wave excitation the effect of damping is noticeable in a wide frequency range
for diffuse field.
J8.13
TRANSMISSION TIIROI(GII DOUBLE PANELS

Use of double panel is in a lot of practical situation, a very interesting mean to increase
transmission loss, but it can also in particular cases have a negative effect. When using double
walls one has to be carefull because transmission curves present several frequency bands of weak
transmission loss ;the coincidence frequency as single panel, but also the breathing resonance an
stationary wave frequencies in the air gap.
The detailed analysis of sound transmission through double panels, is not here for sake of brevity,
and just the final expression is reported (for detailed calculations see [3], [4]).
ect
: Double plate transmission path
The double panel defined in Figure (9), has the following transmission loss expression
TL (6) =10 log
Is)
(45)
with
pc cotan (k cose e) + j. pc
cosO
cos8
(46)
ZII=Z2+f PC cotan (kcosOe)+jf. PC

cos0
cose
(47)
1
Z12 = (2pc
cos6 sin(k cos6 e)
(48)
ZII = Z1 + n
Z1 and Z2 are the oblique wave impedance of the two panels. For the isotropic infinite plate we are
dealing with, Z1 and Z2 are given by expression (25) used for single panel analysis.
18.14
150
-40
10
10
io
10
'
'
'
'root.c'C
'*A
il,
IN hrRTZ
Figure (10) : Transmission loss through a double steel panel

at oblique incidence (0= 450)
Plate 1 :10 mm, Plate 2 : 20 mm, air gap: 10 cm
A typical result is shown in Figure (10), itmakes several singularities to appear:
- Stationary wave freuencies :a stationary wave appear in the acoustic medium separating
the two plates for the following set of frequencies n
n
fst =n c e"
cosO C
(49)
A long calculation shows that the double plate transmission at these frequencies, is that of an
equivalent single plate of oblique wave impedance equal to the sum of those of the two plates.
- Coincidence frequencies of the two plates are present in the transmission loss of the
double wall. At coincidence frequency of the first plate (resp. second plate), the double
wall transmission is equal to that of the second plate (resp. first plate), for double plate the
coincidence phenomenon is not in general responsible of a total transmission as it was
observed for single wall. This is however possible if the two plates have identical
coincidence frequency.
Breathing frequency : iris a low frequency phenomenon, that can be modelledin first
approximation with the two mass system of figure (11).
M, and M 2 are the mass per unit area of each wall and the stiffness is that of the internal
fluid.
p c2
K =
cos0 e(50)
-
18.15
rleci~td Pres~ute
incident ffl-s
[.
Figure (11) : Simple modelisation of the breating mode phenomenon

The breathing resonance frequency is given by the resonance frequency of the spring-mass
system:
=
cas
-- 2
" MI M2
(51)
This phenomenon is typical of double wall transmission. Around this frequency a double wall is
less efficient than a single wall of same mass, however double wall generally increase
considerably the transmission loss at other frequencies. In many practical situation the excitation is
of broad band type and the transmission loss is an average over frequency ; generally the double
wall is clearly better but the opposite is possible when excitation frequency band is mainly around
the breathing resonance frequency.
*When people is dealing with a diffuse field excitation an average over the angle of incidence 0
must be done as for single plates. The same mean effect is observed. In particular the breathing
resonance phenomenon is still responsible of a decrease of the transmission loss at the frequency.
n 0 , (this expression was derived by London [23])
nc
2_
Mj+M 2
MI M2
(52)
and above it a strong increase of transmission loss with frequency is observed. As a consequence
for frequency above fl0, the TL of the double panel is better when the cavity increases, as this
make 0O smaller (see Figure (12)).
To reduce the negative effect of the breathing resonance one can fill the air gap with porous
material in order to introduce damping and limit the resonance amplification (see Figure (13)).
18.16
1I
* b2ord. or&.t,
AM1
"0
.. . ..
v
30
20
Figure (12)
Transmission loss or a double wall with varying cavity depth

A---A d=0.35;0--6 d=O.20; x---x d=0.10;A
Ad=0.02
(After ref. [20])
COMPARISON WITH EXPERIMENT

One can find in reference [5], several experimental results of sound transmission through panels.
Here an experimental result is compared with theoretical prediction using infinite single plate in
Figure (13), as one can see global tendencies are similar for predictions and measures, however
differencies can be noticed. The same conclusion can be drawn from Figure (13) in the case of
double panel, but with greatest discrepency between experiment and theoretical prediction. In fact
the predicition of sound transmission through a real plate separating tworooms requires very
sophisticated theoretical method using modes of vibration of the finite plates. Several papers have
adressed this point. A first type of study uses finite plates but infinite acoustic media ([6] - [8]),
this modelisation is of course only realistic for source and receiving room sufficiently large to
ensure diffuse field. A second type of papers are interested in a cavity backed panel ([9] - [11]),
the effect of cavity modes are only modelled in the receiving room. The more complete
modelisation of direct sound transmission is presented in references [12] and [13], it takes into
account finite plate and rooms and will serve in the next section to demonstrate the effects of
source location, plate area, etc...
TRANSMISSION THROUGH FINITE SINGLE PLATES. COUPLED TO FINITE
ROOMS
This is the real situation, however the mathematical description of this problem is very
complicated and here only basic concepts of mode excitation and results will be presented for more
details see references [ 12] - [13]. The comparison with experiment is now satisfaction, see Figure
(14).
18.17
soi theory
50
4D
30
tot
120
to
Comparison of measured and predicted with infinite plate,

Figure (13)
transmission loss. Concrete wall of 8 cm thickness.
IQ I
rIroor~c
t4C)'
II
Transmission loss of single plates. After ref. [13).

Fivure (14)
Theoretical simulation
18.18
When dealing with finite structures, vibration modes appear and sound transmission from source
to receiving room through the plate is governed by mode coupling. Narrow band analysis shows
big variations due to resonances, however octave band analysis makes average and smooths TL
curves. Let us consider the transmission path from a mode of the source room to a mode of the
plate and finally a mode of the receiving room. This path transmits a lot of power when the
following conditions are verified.
- The source room mode is excited : this is true when its natural frequency is close to the
driving frequency and when the acoustic sources are distributed in order to excite the mode
shape (for example apoint excitation located on a node does not excite the mode).
Anyway, the sound transmission will depend on the source location (see Figure (15)).
The plate mode is excited : two conditions must be realized ; the plate mode natural
frequency is close to the driving frequency and the shapes of the acoustic and plate modes
coincidence geometrically. The two conditions can be simultaneously realized only for
frequencies above plate critical frequency. At low frequencies mode shapes control the
sound transmission and modifications of plate area or lenght and width ratio introduce
strong variations of transmission loss (see Figure (15)).
-
- The receiving room mode in excited : this is true when natural frequency is close to
driving frequency and acoustic mode shape coincidence with plate one. A low frequencies
modification of room dimensions will make transmission loss to vary.
'S
wa
25
of IU
Innumnece
POsiSlc
aa
"middlewallZ .
an
250
wme
T. So
...imidell
m
u
ftl
c pottiinao.: -.
Z 5
il A raer.
" -- Mie-mddlle
wvlme.
Or,qmacy IN.)
Ian.ueonee the wal
aila a&on ILL Will area:-
. 10tm..-.
I1an'.:
5t.
Fimire (15)Ii Sound transmission through a thick concrete wall. After ref. [13].
18.19
TRANSMISSION TIIROUIGII FINITE DOUBIlE PI,ATIES ('OIJI',ED TO FINITE
ROOM
The sophisticated modelisation of reference [12] allows a good prevision of sound transmission
through double plates even when the air gap is filled of absorbing material and mechanical
conections exist between plates. Figure (16) presents the influence of mechanical conection
between plates. In general structural bridges are the main defect, when using double panel
construction , they block the breathing phenomenon and make the double panel to transmit sound
as a single wall.
50 d3
40 d--
I63
(16)
iI
I30
"I
:ieure
Transmission loss of double plates with and without mechanical
links (After r6f. [12])
0- ---- 0 : with 28 mechanical links; *
without links
SANDWICH AND MULTILAYERED PLATES

This type of plate is more and more used in industry as it offers light plates of strong flexural
rigidity (honeycomb core), a strong loss factor (viscoelastic core). Several papers presents
theoretical and experimental results [7], [8], [14] - [17], showing that this type of plates have the
behaviour of a single plate.
Two tendancies are also put in advance - For honeycomb sandwich core, the critical frequency is
low as it depends on the ratio of mass per unit area and bending stiffeness of the plate. In general
this is not interesting because the transmission loss is weak, right in the medium frequency range.
- For viscoelastic sandwich core, the damping produces
an increase of the transmission loss, but only of significant amount above plate critical frequency.
18.20
ORTIIOTROPIC PLATES
If one considers an orthotropic plate, the main influence of the orthotropy is a widening of the
critical frequency zone and a generally less marked dip of the attenuation curves. The tendency is
shown in the experimental results in Figure (17), where measured transmission loss of isotropic
and orthotropic plates are plotted.
41
SExp~cri-mental insulating prope:rty of plates.

composite (thickness: 0.007).
Firttre (17)
-. Steel(thickness: 0.004 nn): ....... ,

fbe glass
: Sound transmission or ortholropic and isotropic plates.
(After r~f. [8]).

FLANKING
TRANSMISSION
This is a very important problem, as for lightweight flanking walls, the sound is often, not mainly
transmitted directly but by flanking walls. Some empirical rules are sometimes used to estimate
the transmission loss ; more recently methods of prediction have been used successfully. The first
modelisation was done with S.E.A. (see reference [18], for exemple, a second one was presented
in reference [19] using energetic influence coefficients. In Figure (19), a comparison of measured
and calculated transmission loss is presented for transmission through a T junction plate. It shows
that the difference between the insulation measured and that calculated does not exceed 4 dB in the
125-4000 Hz range. The quality of this prediction seems to be satisfactory, when account is taken
of the uncertainty in the wall loss factor measurement, especially at high frequencies, as the
reverberation time becomes "very short".
The ratio of the energy transmitted directly to the total energy transmitted to the receiving room is
also present. At low frequencies, between 125 Hz to 400 Hz, it can be seen that direct
transmission is predominant (90 to 100%). At 500 Hz, flanking transmissions increase
considerably ; this is explained by the critical frequency of the plaster walls in this range. At high
frequencies, direct transmission becomes predominant again ; it increases from 80 to 90%.
J8.21
mooe
tendancies,~~ht
nl a
beweiOMSi
insulantions
Soundf~
ca
inasoitinwihexeimns
usedon
beC
simplen
the~
ent
osbl
~~ ~
resonance of
the
tasisonls
ices
ustbe
thetwopanls
Newposiiltis f
al
sas
iuto
reuti-eeal5odbtthnes
doubl
rnmsinls
whc=ie
dfncienceeffet
ntrodces
stiffess
rtebnig
itmashoe
The
transmis~~sionlsoftipaesibaialgoendb
frqec.
0foo
seaaigpltbtaso
ttrnf.h
adteciia
oueadobepat4ytm
h
psildet
rahn
n
plaesytmFrnthprciaponofveehncllnkbtw
voiedto
ot
he
estoy
Inpriua
18.22
eetywt
rise
av
icrasngtrnsissonlos
obepaesstmpeet
control.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
pateeffct
oube
nraeoftasiso
fatv
oswe
os
h
dB
50
30-
20
10
ISO
80
630
315
Hz
Figure (19).: Effect on the transmission loss of a double window (4/12/4 mm)
of the Helmoltz mode of the air gap (After ref. [12]).
with the Helmoltz mode;------- without the Helmoltz mode.
A
I
.- q
"
Figure (20)h.
'1 "
Influence of airtighness on the transmission loss of a double

window. After ref. [5]
I without leaks 2 with leaks.
18.23
REFERENCES
[H]
R. JOSSE, "Notions d'acoustique". Editions Eyrolles 1977.
[2]
L. CREMER and 1-1.MULLER, "Principles and application of room acoustics". Applied

Science Publishers. 1982.
13]
J.L. GUYADER and C. LESUEUR, "Comportement acoustique des plaques minces.

Rayonnement acoustique des structures". C. LESUEUR. Eyrolles 1988.
[4]
J.L. GUYADER and C. LESUEUR, "Transparence et rayonnement acoustique des

plaques minces. Cours d'acoustique". Edition du C.N.R.S. 1988.
[5]
REEF, Vol. 2, 1981. Centre Scientifique et Technique du B'timent. 1981.
[6]
E.C. SEWELL, "Transmission of reverberant sound through a single leaf partition

sourrounded by an infinite rigid baffle". J.S.V. 12(1). 1970.
[7]
J.L. GUYADER and C. LESUEUR, "Acoustic transmission through orthotropic

multilayered plates. Part. 2: Transmission loss". J.S.V. 58(1). 1978.
[8]
J.L. GUYADER and C. LESUEUR, "Transmission of reverberant sound through

orthotropic viscoelastic multilayered plates". J.S.V. 70(3). 1980.
[9]
R.W. GUY and M.C. BHA"ITACHARYA, "The transmission of sound through a cavity
backed finite panel". J.S.V. 27(2). 1973.
1101
R.W. GUY, "The steady state transmission of sound at normal and oblique incidence
through a thin panl backed a rectangular room a modal analysis". Acustica 43(5). 1979.
[11
S. NARAYANAN and R.L. SHANDBAG, "Sound transmission through elastically

supported sandwich panels into a rectangular enclosure". J.S.V. 77(2). 1981.
L. GAGLIARDINI, "Simulation num6rique de la transmission acoustique par les parois
simples et multiples". Thse de Doctorat d'Acoustique. Lyon 1991.
[12]
[13]
L. GAGLIARDINI, J. ROLAND and I.L. GUYADER, "The use of functionnal basis to

calculate transmission between rooms". J.S.V. 145(3). 1991.
[14]
A.V. MEIER, "Transmission loss of homogeneous and sandwich plates in the coincidence
range". Acustica 22. 1970.
[15]
C.L. DYM and M.A. LANG, "Transmission of sound through sandwich panels".
JASA 56. 1974.
[16]
M.A. LANG and C.L. DYM, "Optimal acoustic design of sandwich panels".
JASA 57. 1975.
[17]
118]
C.L. DYM and M.A. LANG, "Transmission loss of damped asymetric sandwich panels
with orthotropic cores". J.S.V. 88(3). 1983.
the assessment
B.M. GIBBS and C.L.S. GILFORD, "The use of power flow methods for
1976.
167-286.
of sound transmission in building structures". J.S.V. 49,
18.24
119]
J.L. GUYADER, C. BOISSON, C. LESUEUR, P. MILLOT, "Sound transmission by

coupled structures. Application to flanking transmission in builidings".
[20]
A. BREKKE, "Transmission loss of single, double and triple partitions".

Applied Acoustics 14. 1981.
[21]
P. BOUVET and J. ROLAND, "Double paroi active. Contr6le actif acoustique et

vibratoire". Colloque de la S.F.A. 1990.
[22]
L. CREMER, "Theofie der schalldnimmung diinner w~inde bei schrigen ein fall".
Akustische Zeitschrift (3). 1942.
[23]
A. LONDON, "Transmission of reverberant sound through double walls".

JASA 22(2). 1950.
18.25
LESSON 19
16th WEGEMT SCHOOL
SESSION
CHAPTER
LESSON
TEACHER
COMPANY
COUNTRY
Noise and vibration

: 4. WORKING SPACES AND ACCOMMODATIONS
: 19.Noise reducing measures in engine rooms
PO Box 155
2600 AD Delft
THE NETHERLANDS
ABSTRACT
In this chapter noise reducing measures are discussed that may
be applied in engine rooms and other machinery spaces to
reduce the noise levels in these rooms.
The lesson starts with a general discussion on a "sound"
arrangement of the engine room compartments. After that,
specific measures will be described in the transmission path
between sound source and receiver, comprising sound absorptive
treatment and the effects of shielding and enclosures. Moreover acoustical measures at workshops and control rooms are
discussed.
AUTHOR'S BIOGRAPHY
19.1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Considerations in engine room layout
19.3 Sound distribution in (partially) enclosed spaces
19.4 Effects of absorptive treatment
19.5 Screens and enclosures
19.6 Engine control room
19.7 Workshops
19.8 Personal hearing protection
19.9 Engine room ventilating system
References
Figures
19.2
19.1 INTRODUCTION
From the acoustic point of view a design would start with a
selection of the most quiet machinery that would fulfil the
ship's technical specifications. In practice the machinery is
chosen on basis of economy: price, costs, fuel consumption,
maintenance, etc. and, except for military applications, the
noise production is hardly taken into account or is unknown to
the owner or the yard.
So, although adequate noise control at the noise sources
itself is most important, it is more or less out of the scope
of this course and should be specifically addressed to manufacturers
of the machinery.
In this chapter the discussion will be restricted to the
acoustic measures that can be taken in the transfer of sound
from the noise sources to the personnel in the various machinery spaces.
It is emphasized upon that acoustical measures that should be
taken at the sound sources or in the sound transmission paths
in order to reduce the transfer of sound to the accommodation
or open deck areas are not mentioned here.
Reduction of the sound transfer from the source to the receiver may be performed by:
1. Partly shielding of the sound source. Especially at diesel
engines specific parts of the engine (valve covers, turbo
chargers) may radiate clearly more (high frequency) sound than
other engine parts. Examples of such sound reducing measures
are:
- partial enclosure around turbocharger;
- air intake silencer for turbo charger;
- sound absorbent shielding cover over valve covers.
2. Enclosure of the sound sources, e.g. by the installation in
a separate, fully closed room. Especially for diesel generator
sets, running also in harbour conditions, this gives the
possibility to have a relatively low sound level in the other
parts of the engine room during repair or maintenance in
harbour.
3. The application of sound absorbing material against steel
bulkheads, hull or to deckheads.
4. Enclosure of the receiver by the use of telephone boxes, by
shielding effects of switchboards or by the installation of
fully separated control rooms.
19.2 CONSIDERATIONS IN ENGINE ROOM LAYOUT
In general the propulsion machinery will determine to a large
extent the layout of the engine room compartments, but in the
arrangement of auxiliaries (diesel generator sets, pumps,
etc.) some freedom may be present and the positions of
workshops and stores may be interchanged or rearranged.
With respect to noise control there is a logical ranking in
19.3
locating the various rooms, determined by the noise requirements. This is shown on hand following limits, derived from
the IMO Code (/19.1/), which are in good agreement with most
national regulations:
- Machinery spaces
(not continuously manned) : 110 dB(A)
- Machinery spaces (continuously manned): 90 dB(A)
- Non-specified work spaces: 90 dB(A)
- Workshops:
85 dB(A)
- Engine room control rooms
(ECR): 75 dB (A)
So in the arrangement of the engine room one may make a subdivision into a "noisy" part, containing the main engines,
reduction gears, auxiliary engines, separators, compressors,
hydraulic pumps, etc. and a "quiet" part containing workshops,
ECR, corridors, lifts, etc.
Moreover one may keep in mind the conditions where personel is
present in the "noisy" part of the engine room for a longer
time period; for instance for maintenance work or repairs. And
how the total noise exposure for the various working conditions (sailing, unloading or loading in harbour, at anchor) can
be limited.
Forementioned considerations in the design stage may lead for
instance to decisions for separate engine rooms for main
engines and auxiliary diesel engines.
Figure 19.1 shows as an example the effect of installation of
the diesel generator sets in separate auxiliary engine rooms.
Typical sound level values in engine rooms in the vicinity of
propulsion machinery are 105-115 dB(A) (see also Lesson 5),
giving rise to following general remarks:
- The requirenments for unmanned engine rooms can be met in
general with slow speed diesel engines and turbines. In specific situations parts of the engine(s) may be decisive for
(locally) too high sound levels. In these circumstances application of countermeasures at these sources or partial sources
(e.g. turbo charger, valve covers) is most appropriate.
In between two medium speed or high speed diesel engines sound

levels of 110-115 dB(A) occur.. Practical means to reduce the
noise levels sufficiently, without attacking the noise source
itself,
are not always present (see also 19.4). It is therefore of great importance that manufacturers are forced by the
shipbuilders and owners to produce correct figures on the
noise production of their machinery and to put effort in noise
reduction measures.
Continuously manned machinery spaces may only contain "silent" machinery as vane pumps, alternators, etc. or the machinery has to be installed in enclosures.
-
Engine room workshops are directly adjacent to the engine

room. To restrict the transfer of airborne sound these
workshops must be airtight separated from the engine room.
Moreover the transfer of structure-borne sound may require
additional noise control measures.
-
19.4
- In machinery control rooms, adjacent to the engine room,

always extensive acoustic countermeasures must be taken with
respect to airborne and structure-borne sound.
19.3 SOUND DISTRIBUTION IN (PARTIALLY) ENCLOSED SPACES

Under free field conditions, e.g. in open air, the sound
pressure levels around a sound source are attenuated with
distance because the sound energy is distributed over a larger
surface area.
L,=L,+101gg
(19.1)
with:
L
= sound pressure level in dB re 20 IlPa
L* = sound power level in dB re 1012 W
S
= surface area in m 2 over which LP is determined.
So for a point source, radiating in all directions over a
spherical surface or a part of a spherical surface (with
S=c.r 2) a doubling of the distance (r) will lead to a reduction
of 10 lg 22 = 6 dB. For a source with large dimensions relative
to the distance, such as a source of considerable length (and
cylindric symmetry), the reduction with distance is 10
lg(rl/r 2 ) .
In an enclosed space however the sound level at a distance
from the sound source is affected by reflections of the sound
from the room boundaries. If the boundary surfaces are reflective and there are many scattering surfaces then a diffuse
sound field results, and, away from the. sound source the sound
pressure reaches a level that is (theoretically) independent
of distance. The sound level distribution may then be described by:
LP=Lw+101gr(-!+
(19.2)
~SA
with the second term between brackets describing the amount of
sound absorption (A = total amount of sound absorption in
Sabine) present in the room:
A=" n
----
(19.3)
J-1 1 -a
with:
a = sound absorption coefficient (0 - 1)
S1= surface area of boundary part
i = (1.. .n) number of boundary part
In more or less reverberant rooms at a short distance from the
source, the factor 1/S will dominate; at larger distance the
factor 4/A determines the sound distribution (see Figure
19.2). At a certain distance from the source, at. the so-called
reverberation radius, 1/S equals 4/A. For complex machinery
19.5
spaces a true diffuse field is seldom found and the noise

levels continue to fall of f with distance at a typical rate of
4 - 5 dB(A) per doubling of distance.
For the amount of absorption present in engine rooms various
approximations are found in literature:
.1 In /19.2/, based on reverberation time measurements in
acoustically untreated process modules with volumes between
180 - 2700 in', mean absorption coefficients for the room
boundaries of 0.15 - 0.25 are mentioned.
.2 By the CIMAC Working Group on Noise in /19.3/ following
proposal is given:
a. very reverberant room: A = 0.5 V'67
b. normal industrial room: A = 1.0 V"6
c. room with partial sound absorptive treatment: A =1.5
V. 67
with V = volume of the room in in'.
.3 In /19.4/ it is proposed to use A = SL f.32/69
2
with SL,
surface area of all room boundaries in m'
f =centre
frequency of octave bands in Hz.
This implies a mean sound absorption coefficient gradually
increasing from 0.05 at 63 Hz up to 0.2 at 4000 Hz
.4 From TPD measurements in various technical ship compartments (stores, generator rooms, pump rooms, engine rooms) mean
sound absorbing coefficients have been found for the room
boundaries of 0.1 at 63 Hz increasing to 0.23 at 4000 Hz.
Recalculation of the factor c in A = C V*67 (see /19.3/) gives
c=0.75 at 63 Hz up to c=1.55 at 4000 Hz.
The various approximations are in good agreement with each
other and are, in their simple form, sufficiently accurate to
assess the amount of sound absorption in an engine room.
For partially enclosed spaces or where the distribution of
sound absorption is not uniform, the above given models may be
not accurate enough. In these cases it may be necessary to
look at individual reflections from boundaries using techniques as ray tracing techniques in which the sound pressure at
the receiver position is modelled as the sum of both the
direct contributions and discrete reflections from the surf aces of the containing space.
19.4 EFFECTS OF ABSORPTIVE TREATMENT
As given in equation (19.2) the sound pressure level at a
larger distance from the source depends on the amount of sound
absorption present in the engine room. The reduction of this
sound level in a room with total sound absorption Al, and of
A2 after addition of an extra amount of sound absorbing material
is: DL = 10 lg A2/A1 dB, only affecting the sound level
in the reverberant field.
3
and
Assume an engine room with dimenisions 10 xt 20 xt 5 = 1000 mn
ac of the boundaries is 0.15. So the total amount of sound
19.6
2 . If sound absorbing
absorption is Some 105 Mn
material with a
(rather high) effective absorption coefficient of 0.7 in the
mid-frequency range is installed to the whole deckhead (200 Mn2 )
this results into an increase of the total sound absorption
with 200 x (0.7 - 0.15) = 110 in2 . Then the total amount of
sound absorption will be some 215 Mn2 , which may lead to a
reduction of the sound level in the reverberant field with 10
1g 215h105 = 3.1 dB in theory. However, in practice only a
part of the total sound absorbing area will show an optimum
performance.
Sound absorbing material that is installed rather close to the
sound source and "in view" of the sound source is in principle
more effective than material applied at larger distances. This
can be taken into account by looking at the magnitude of the
spatial angle under which the material is seen by the sound
source (see Figure 19.3).
a= f1 f
(19.4)
Most regulations demand for sound level measurements in the

engine room to be taken at positions at 1 m distance from the
machinery. These positions are not a priori in the reverberant
field of the noise producing (part of the) machinery which
means that absorptive treatment of the engine room may not
affect the levels at these measurement positions. Equation
(19.2) may be used to make an assessment for that.
The main gain of sound absorption can be obtained when the
sound absorption is combined with shielding effects from other
machinery, from switch boards, tween decks, etc., as sketched
in Figure 19.4.
In general on board ships materials are needed for thermal or
fire insulation and for sound absorption. Often both functions
can be combined by the use of fibre glass or mineral wool,
covered with perforated metal plate or by the use of specific
foam plastics.
To prevent particles of mineral or fibre glass falling down or
to prevent oil damp intruding the material, this may be enclosed by a thin plastic foil.
Unlike with termal insulation the performance of sound absorptive treatment is not clearly affected if small parts of a
surface area are left uncovered, e.g. around deck beams or
stiffeners.
19.5 SCREENS AND ENCLOSURES
The sound transmission from a sound source to the receiver may
be reduced by shielding the sound source partially, using a
screen, or completely by the use of an enclosure.
In Table 19.1 a survey has been given of possible arrangements
that can be applied as function of the wanted reduction.
19.7
Table 19.1
Acoustical effect of sound screens and enclosures.
wanted reduction:
5 dB(A)
possible countermeasures:
-
local screen
- partly cladding or partly enclosure of

the machinery
5 - 10 dB(A)
screen in combination with sound absorption
8 - 12 dB(A)
enclosure around machinery without sound

absorption
10 - 17 dB(A)
single wall enclosure with innerside partly) sound absorptive
17 - 25 dB(A)
single wall enclosure, fully absorptive

treated
25 - 30 dB(A)
double wall enclosure, fully absorptive

treated
19.5.1 Screens
In the application of screens following practical considerations should be taken into account:
For screens a reduction of the sound level at the receiver's
ear position only occurs "in the shadow" of the screen. So it
is favourable to put the screen as close as possible to the
sound source (or to the receiver). Bulkheads and switchboards
may function as a screen, but also engines or large machinery,
if not in operation, may act as a screen between a sound
source and the receiver. Figure 19.5 e.g. shows the sound
level distribution as measured on Tanktop in an engine room
with slow speed diesel engine,* which, in harbour, clearly
shields a part of the engine room from the auxiliary diesel
engines.
The effect of a screen for a receiver position at a large distance from the source strongly depends on the presence of
reflective or absorptive surfaces between screen and receiver.
In general the insertion loss of a screen is at larger distances not much larger than 5 dB(A).
The type of material that is applied for the construction of
screens is not critical. Steel plate (.5 - 1 mm), aluminium (2
- 3 mm), plexi-glass (4 - 6 mm) or lead-vinyl curtains (appr.
5 kg/m 2 ) may be used. The sound absorbing material may be fibre
glass or mineral wool, in most applications covered with
perforated plate, or special plastic foams, depending on fire
protection regulations, etc.
19.5.2 Enclosures
Enclosures comprise many forms, as shown in Figure 19.6.
Many manufacturers can deliver complete "taylor made" enclosures. A purchase order for such an enclosure should include a
wanted (guaranteed) insertion loss. This insertion loss is the
19.8
difference in sound level in the surroundings of the machinery

before application of the enclosure and after installation of
the enclosure. Brochures often give only information on the
acoustical performance of the wall material and that is for
most applications no problem. Decisive for the total insertion
loss is the presence of slits, gaps and openings for air
supply, piping and shaft penetrations and related structureborne sound excitation (see later) . In most cases the enclosure must be (partly) removable and so the ease of removal and
reinstallation of the enclosure parts is of prime interest.
Complicated structures will not be reinstalled by the personel.
The effect of openings in the enclosure on the attainable
insertion loss is shown in Table 19.11. Starting point is a
completely closed enclosure, lined at the innerside with sound
absorbing material. The effect is determined by the ratio of
opening area to total area of the enclosure.
Table 19.11
Restriction of attainable insertion loss of an enclosure by
openings (gruidance values).
ratio of area of openings over
total enclosure surface:
maximum attainable
insertion loss (dB(A)):
1/1000
30
1/100
1/50
1/10
1/5
1/2
20
17
10
7
3
Another major problem is the control of the air temperature in

the enclosure. The natural cooling is mostly replaced by
forced ventilation of the enclosure. Especially in closefitting enclosures the air must be ducted to all relevant
positions. Air intake and outlet should be carried out via
silenced ducts, controlling also the fan noise.
In order to obtain a sufficiently high insertion loss of the
enclosure the transmission of structure-borne sound from the
engine seating or engine feet to the enclosure should be
avoided by the application of a resilient mounting system for
the enclosure. Also the structure-borne sound excitation of
the enclosure by penetrating piping, cables and exhaust should
be adequately controlled.
A practical example of a complete design of a resilient mounting system in combination with an enclosure is given in
/19.5/. Constructional details for enclosures also are given
in /19.6/ (see Figure 19.7).
Enclosures generally are meant to reduce the airborne sound in
the vicinity of the machinery, e.g. in the room in which the
19.9
machinery has been installed. For adjacent rooms in general

structure-borne sound, transmitted via the ship's structure,
will determine the sound level and acoustical measures primarily will be taken to r'educe the structure-borne sound e.g. by
the application, of floating floors, linings, etc. These measures may be adapted to improve also the airborne sound insulation, if necessary.
However, in case double resilient mounting systems are used to
fulfil very stringent (underwater) noise requirements, the
excitation of the ship's structure by impinging airborne sound
may limit the gain of the resilient mounting system. In that
situation the application of an enclosure may be necessary for
a balanced solution.
19.6 ENGINE CONTROL ROOM
The ECR generally is located at a Tweendeck close to the main
propulsion machinery with the access doors and windows directed to the main engines.
For most ships the total sound level that is allowed for in
the ECR is 75 dB(A).
The main contributions to the sound level in the ECR are:
structure-borne sound from the (propulsion) machinery:
In steel compartments on Tweendecks above rigidly installed
medium speed diesel engines e.g. the sound levels are 85-95
dB(A), caused by structure-borne sound. So in these unfavourable situations a very large reduction in structure-borne sound
is needed.
-
airborne sound from the machinery:

In diesel engine rooms the sound level in front of the ECR
might be some 105 dB(A), with main contributions in the midand high frequency range. Assuming a maximum allowable contribution in the ECR of 70 dfl(A) the sound level difference must
be over 35 dB in the mid- and high frequency range.
This implies that all ECR boundaries (bulkheads and/or floor)
that are in direct contact with the engine room should be
"double walled" or cladded with specific sound insulating
materials.
-
airborne sound from equipment in the ECR:

Special attention must be given to the noise of ventilation
and/or air conditioning systems. Also the contributions in
noise of all other instruments and (small) auxiliaries in the
ECR together should stay well below the airborne sound limits.
-
In general the first concern is structure-borne sound. On

basis of noise prediction calculations it should be clear
which sound levels may be expected and what acoustical measures have to be taken to reduce the structure-borne sound
sufficiently. Generally these measures can be adapted in such
a way that also the airborne sound transfer is reduced.
For relatively small engine control rooms a cost-effective
measure may be to install the complete ECR resiliently on
19.10
rubber mountings to reduce the transmission of structure-borne

sound. Improvement of the airborne Bound insulation may be
obtained by the application of a floating floor and by the
addition of a 80 - 100 nun thick layer of mineral wool of high
density to the bulkheads and ceiling, covered with perforated
metal plate (see Figure 19.8).
For large control rooms, which are incorporated in the steel
structure, depending on the acoustical requirements the following package may be adequate. The main goal of the measures is
to decouple the control cabin from the ship's structure to
reduce the transfer of structure-borne sound.
Therefore the control cabin may be installed as an innerbox
inside the original steel structure by building it up upon a
floating floor. The natural frequency of the floating floor
system should be equal to or lower than approximately 40 Hz.
Coincidence of that frequency with frequencies at which strong
excitation of the ship structure occurs should be avoided.
From data on the dynamic -stiffness of the fibre glass or
mineral wool to be used, the thickness of the resilient layer
and the weight per surface area of the toplayer, the natural
frequency of the floor system can be adjusted (see also Lesson
20.4). The connections between the edges of the floating floor
and the steel bulkheads or penetrations of the foundations of
the switchboard panels should be watertight,.using cell rubber
with closed cells.
All ,inner walls should be installed upon the floating floor.
Connections between the linings and the steel bulkheads should
be avoided. To achieve sufficient airborne sound insulation
between engine room and ECR the mass per surface area of the
bulkhead material should be at least 15 kg/M2. In the cavity
between the steel bulkheads and the linings a layer of sound
absorbing material must be applied.
The 'ceiling framework should be mounted resiliently. Use can
be made of rubber mountings or hangers. The ceiling framework
may also serve to keep the inner walls, installed on top of
the floating floor, in position at the topside. To increase
the amount of sound absorption in the ECR, the ceiling may be
sound absorbent. However, it should be taken into account that
the airborne sound insulation of the ceiling should not be
smaller than that of the inner walls, such to prevent noise,
radiated by the steel deckhead, entering unhindered the ECR.
Therefore on top of the (perforated) sound absorbent ceiling
an extra layer of mineral wool of high density or a closed
metal plate may be applied. Manufacturers of sound absorbent
ceilings should provide data on the sound absorbing properties
and on the airborne sound insulation qualities of their products.
The switchboard panels and control desks should be decoupled
from the steel deck using rubber mountings or rubber strips
(see Figure 19.9). Sound leakage via slits or gaps in between
switchboard and foundation can be avoided by the use of flexible materials.
19.11
In choosing a ventilation or airconditioninQ system following

noise aspects should be taken into account.
If the room ventilation air is supplied via a branch of the
engine room ventilation provisions should be made to limit the
noise levels at the air outlet openings by the use of silencers or lined ducts.
- Sound leakage from the engine room via duct openings or
through lightweight duct walls should be prevented. The ducts
should be lined at the innerside with sound absorbing material. In the duct at least one rectangular bend should be lined
at a duct inner diameter smaller than 0.2 m.
If a separate AC-unit is installed in the ECR the manufacturer should guarantee a sufficiently low sound level.
For all engine control rooms moreover following details are
important:
entrance doors should be heavy and closing airtight in the
door frame. Entrance via a noise sluice turns out to be very
comfortable and effective in practice.
- All windows should be double glazed with window panes of
different thickness (e.g. 8 and 12 mm). The distance between
the panes should be at least 40 mm. For large window areas or
in case of stringent noise requirements one of the window
panes must be installed in the lining at the innerside of the
ECH to reduce the radiation of structure-borne sound through
the window (see Figure 19.10).
19.7 WORKSHOPS
Engine room workshops adjoin in general the main engine room
and are mostly situated at a Tweendeck. Noise limits for
workshops are 85-90 dB(A). As for the ECR structure-borne
sound and airborne sound from the propulsion machinery determine the sound level in the workshops.
Under normal conditions (sound levels in front of or underneath the workshop lower than 105 dB(A)) the steel bulkheads
will provide sufficient airborne sound insulation against the
engine room noise. The weak points are, as for engine control
rooms, the entrance doors and pipe or cable penetrations. The
doors should be provided with soft sealing strips and automatic door closers. All pipe and cable conduits should be closed
of f airtight. Attention must be paid to ventilation noise and
to air return or supply openings in between workshop and
engine room.
Problems may arise with the structure-borne sound contribution
of the propulsion machinery. In steel compartments at a Tweendeck in the aft ship above the propeller(s) or above rigidly
installed (medium speed) diesel engines the sound level as
caused by structure-borne sound may be some 90-95 dB(A) . The
sound level is normally determined by the 500-2000 Hz octave
bands (see also Lesson 5) . To reduce the sound radiation in
that frequency range, acoustical measures may be taken as
described for the ECR:
e.g. mineral wool of high density attached to bulkheads and
ceiling to reduce the radiated sound at high frequencies and
19.12
to increase the amount of sound absorption in the workshop.

- the sound radiation of the steel deck may be reduced with
some 5 dB by the application of constrained layer damping (see
Lesson 20).
Forementioned acoustical measures have also a positive effect
on the airborne sound insulation. An example of such an arrangement is given in Figure 19.11, (/19.7) with a note that the
mineral wool cladding of hull and bulkheads should be preferably covered with perforated plate.
19.8 PERSONAL HEARING PROTECTION
In most noise legislation the use of personal hearing protection is required in any situation with sound levels over 85 or
90 dB(A). To indicate the regions of high noise levels warning
signs must be affixed at all entrance doors of these rooms.
Moreover at these locations ear plugs or headsets must be
present for the crew.
19.9 ENGINE ROOM VENTILATING SYSTEMS
Engine room ventilating systems may also contribute considerably to the noise levels in engine room compartments, especially in generator or electric motor rooms and in auxiliary
machinery rooms.
For a description of adequate acoustical countermeasures is
referred to Lesson 7.
REFERENCES
/19.1/ IMO, "Code
on noiseMaritime
levels on
board ships",
Resolution
A.468(XII),
International
Organization
1981.
/19.2/ UEG, "Noise and Vibration control offshore: Volume 2
Guidance on design", UEG Publication UR25 Volume 2, London
1984.
/19.3/ CIMAC Working Group "Noise", "Statistical investigation
into diesel engine noise",
/19.4/ V. Schroeder, K. Krempner, "Zur Berechnung der Schallpegel in Maschinenraumen", Seewirtschaft 9 1/1977.
/19.5/ G. Mancuso, F. Sacchi, "Main propulsion diesel generator sets with acoustic enclosure and double resilient mounting
for low noise application", Proceedings ISSA '86, The Hague
1986.
/19.6/ VDI 2711, "Schallschutz durch Kapselung", Verein Deutscher Ingenieure, Dusseldorf 1978.
/19.7/ P.A. Berg, 0. Brafelt, C. Folkeson, "Noise and vibration on board", Joint Industrial Safety Council, Stockholm (ISBN
91-7522-123-3).
19.13
in operatio
Sstopped
auxiliary engines in main engine room
in operation
i stopped
in operation
auxiliary engines in two separate rooms
stopped
in operation
E8
stopped
3L70
auxiliary engines in two separate rooms
auxiliary engines in main engine room
Indication of expected sound levels-A in an engine room depending on sailing conditions

and position of auxiliary diesel engines.
19.14
Free
fie!d
Reverberant
field
-6 d B per doubling of distance
<
C.)
-I
Near
field
"For
field
Log
distance
Figure 19.2
Sound field fall-off in an enclosed space, showing the effect of room absorption.
space angle n2
Figure 19.3
Space angle under which. the sound absorbing material is in
view (see (19.4))
19.15
Figure 19.4
Sound absorption applied to the deckhead reduces the sound transmitted through the
opening above the sound shield.
9ta 97Tgo
4
92
g 2 [!
7L
*-AX'__
s'
__
'
4 .. ! F&T7ii
.7
...
892
Go
rr
71
87
go
Figure 19.5
Sound level distribution in an engine room on deck 1 (floor) in harbour (auxiliary diesel
engines 1 and 2 in operation).
19.16
177
-- I-I
1917
Figure 19.6
Some examples of enclosure configurations.
19.17
Enclosure for smaller auxiliary engines
fresh air to crankcase

exhaust
.cooling
Figure 19.7
Sketch of an enclosure showing among other things the ventilating system of the diesel engine.
J9.18
water
II
IIE
I
1. glass- of mineral wool of high density

2. thin glass- or plastic sheet (appr. 0.02 mm thick)
3. perforated metal plate (degree of perforation appr. 30 %)
4. double window
5. floating floor
6. air ducts, lined at the innerside with sound absorbing material
Figure 19.8
Schematic survey of acoustical measures applicable in engine control rooms or workshops.
19.19
bWI tC"nDoard
rubber Strip to
improve airborne
sound insulation
rubber
I
ounting
'"
/or ribre 41ass
!//,/////////7,,77 /,77
h,
switchboard
rubber strip (soft. depending on

.eight Of switchboard)
ship's foundation of switchboard
--
Ringpufrer
Figure 19.9
Resilient mounting system for switchboards or desks together with edge connection of
floating floor.
19.20
I
S
firc7oof glass
insunoise pune
,,
I: "
lating pone or
4m
i,.
gla
14,111it
80-100
rubber sealin
m'spacing
'
strip
1mineral wool
board with tex.
Figure
19.10 of double glazed
Construction
tile surface
window, derived from /19.7/.
steel bulkho-
mineral wo
lining
eos
lbaffyesr
mpi
se
1.anLesnonueye0
2sealed
soun
SluiceI
/19.7/..The
miea
double.
mnrl
door
wol cldigo-blhasad-ulsol
be prferaly
coeredwith
erfo
deck coating
atedrmenta
plae.Foth
uisco-elastic
lae
Figure 19.11
Sketch of acoustical measures in a workshop, derived from,
/19.7/. The mineral wool cladding of bulkheads and hull should
be preferably covered with perforated metal plate. For the
effect of application of constrained layer damping see chapter
19.7 and Lesson 20.
19.21
LESSON 20
16th WEGEMT SCHOOL
SESSION
CHAPTER
LESSON
Noise and vibration

: 4. WORKING SPACES AND ACCOMMODATIONS
: 20.Noise reducing measures in accommodations
TEACHER
COMPANY

PO Box 155
2600 AD Delft
COUNTRY
THE NETHERLANDS
ABSTRACT
A large variety of sound sources and sound paths may determine
the sound levels in accommodation spaces. Next to the propulsion machinery, auxiliaries may be (locally) of importance.
Moreover the presence of people on board may have acoustic
design consequences.
In this Lesson a number of acoustic countermeasures is discussed with respect to working principle, field of application
and performance. The implementation is illustrated by practical details.
AUTHOR'S BIOGRAPHY
20.I
TABLE OF CONTENTS
20.1 Introduction: origin of sound and sound paths
20.2 Additional sound absorption
20.3 Levelling layers
20.4 Floating floors (floating accommodation)
.1 Introduction
.2 Working principle
.3 Resiliently mounted (floating) floor
.4 Constructional details
.5 Purpose and acoustical gain
20.5 Highly damped floors
.1 Introduction
.2 Composition of damped floors
.3 Acoustical gain
20.6 "Over-all" performance of the cabin arrangement
20.7 Airborne sound insulation
20.8 Impact sound insulation
20.9 Impact sound transmission between adjacent spaces
20.10 Active noise cancellation
REFERENCES
LIST OF SYMBOLS
APPENDIX A20.1
APPENDIX A20.2
20.2
20.1 INTRODUCTION:
ORIGIN OF SOUND AND SOUND PATHS
Noise in accommodation spaces is caused by a large variety of

noise sources inside and outside that accommodation and is
transmitted to and through the accommodation via many and
various sound paths. In general following subdivision can be
made:
1. noise from (propulsion) machinery, situated outside the
accommodation. For all accommodation spaces the transfer of
structure-borne sound is important; for accommodation spaces
.directly adjacent to machinery spaces (engine room, exhaust
casing, AC-plants) also the transfer of airbgrne sound may be
of importance.
2. noise from machinery/equipment inside the accommodation
(AC- and ventilation systems, all kind of equipment (from
navigation equipment to tv sets or refrigerators in passenger
cabins)) . Sound transmission takes place via structure-borne
and airborne sound.
3. noise related to the presence of (other) people in the
accommodation. Speech, noise from radio or television, noise
from public rooms, etc. is mainly transmitted as airborne
sound. walking, dancing, the use of toilets and bathrooms,
etc. mainly causes structure-borne (impact) sound.
In general item 1 is decisive for the main acoustical countermeasures that are taken at the sound sources and in the accommodation in order to fulfil the noise requirements for crew
accommodations. For cruise ships and ferries of course item 3
also determines strongly the comfort on board.
Noise countermeasures that are applied in the sound transmission paths from the various machinery to the accommodation can
be subdivided roughly in two groups; the countermeasures that
are applied at or near to the sound sources, and acoustical
countermeasures taken at the accommodation. This paper deals
with the last mentioned group.
In this chapter a number of countermeasures will be discussed
with respect to following aspects:
- the working principle;
- which sound path is being attacked;
- what result may be expected and
in which way should the measure practically be carried out.
20.3
20.2 ADDITIONAL SOUND ABSORPTION

For a more or less reverberant room it can be shown that the
space averaged sound pressure level (LP) and the amount of
sound absorption in that room (A) are mutually related according:
LP + 10 ig (A/1 M 2) = constant
So with doubling of the amount of sound absorption the averaged sound pressure level is decreased with 3 dB. The effect of
absorptive treatment of a cabin is shown in following example
for a small crew cabin with dimensions: 2 x 2.5 x 2.1 (length
* width * heigth) m3 with two berths, for the 500 Hz octave
band.
The amount of absorption as present in a normally furnished
cabin can be assessed to be:
A.bl. = Ar..t + A0 *i 1 lg
[M 2 ]
+ b*Ab.nh
with:
Ar. t
C(I
A.Ll~ng
= {2*(l+w)h + l*w} a, = rest absorption

= approx. 0.2 (empirical)
=
(1* w)
ac..i1g
(X*.;LL
= approx. 0.1 for normal ceiling
Akh
= 1.2 m2
= number of berths
(empirical)
For the above mentioned cabin the calculated amount of sound

absorption is 8 m 2 . If the ceiling is replaced by a specific
sound absorbing material (with alpha = 0.85) then the amount
of absorption is increased to 12 M 2 , which results in a decrease of the sound pressure level with 1.8 dB in that frequency
band. In the lower frequency range the relative increase in
sound absorption may be less.
The conclusion is that for normal (small). sleeping cabins
additional sound absorptive treatment only can give a relatively small reduction of the sound pressure levels.
However for larger rooms,, that may be more reverberant, e.g.
messrooms, lounges, offices, etc. increase of the sound absorption may be more effective. Moreover the acoustic
atmosphere is improved and application of a sound absorbing
ceiling and carpets in messrooms and lounges improves the
speech comfort.
20.3 LEVELLING LAYERS
In shipbuilding practice levelling layers are applied to
smoothen the deck surface in an accommodation space. For cost
and weight reasons these levelling layers are kept as thin as
possible. Therefore in general the acoustic effect can be
neglected. From scale model tests on extremely thick layers
(60 mm on full scale) it turned out that, although the vibration levels of the steel deck were reduced with more than 10
dB, the total sound pressure levels in the cabin were reduced
only marginally in case latex-cement layers were used. For a
20.4
60 nun thick asphaltic layer the improvement was over a part of

the frequency range up to 4 dB. The rather disappointing
results are caused by the following factors:
- due to the increased thickness of the floor the radiation
efficiency is increased (see Lesson 17);
- the contributions in sound radiated by the cabin walls and
ceiling are not changed and may get decisive for the total
sound level.
20.4 FLOATING FLOORS (FLOATING.ACCOMMODATION)
20.4.1 Introduction:
A floating floor consists of a resilient underlayer of glass
fibre or mineral wool and a toplayer which serves as the floor
upon which the whole cabin is constructed. In the application
one should keep in mind that the general purpose of the floating floor is to decouple the whole accommodation space from
the steel structure. Therefore it is of essential importance
that all cabin walls are installed upon the floating floor,
free from the steel structure (see Figure 20.1). If a floating
floor is applied, but with the walls rigidly coupled to the
steel structure, then the acoustical gain of the floor construction may become very small, because of the contributions
in sound from walls and ceiling.
The resilient underlaver should act as a spring with a low
dynamic stiffness. This stiffness is determined by the stiffness of the material itself and by the stiffness of the air
that is entrapped in the underlayer. Normally the thickness of
the resilient layer is 25 - 50 mm. A specific requirement for
the resilient material is that it must withstand vibrations
over a long time period without breaking or setting.
The toplaver must be strong. It carries the static load of the
whole cabin structure together with all furniture, etc. Moreover, especially in the aft of the ship, strong dynamic forces
may occur (e.g. at crash stops or during manoeuvring). Various
types of material can be used for the toplayers: steel plate,
reinforced plastics, latex cement (combined with asphalt),
calcium silicate panels, and so on. Manufacturers often offer
various compositions.
20.4.2 WorkinQ principle:
In the low frequency range the mass of the toplayer combined
with the dynamic stiffness of the underlayer can be regarded
as a single degree mass-spring system (see Appendix A20.1).
The lowest vertical natural frequency governs mainly the
acoustical properties in the low frequency range. Because the
positive influence, specific for this type of flooring system,
starts at approximately two times the natural frequency this
frequency should be chosen to be as low as possible. This is
illustrated in Figure 20.2, which shows the differences in
velocity level between the steel deck and the toplayer for
floating floors with natural frequencies over the range from
20 - 110 Hz.
In practice, however, there are limitations with respect to
heigth and weight of the floor. But in order to obtain a
20.5
positive influence of the floor system already in the lower

frequency range the natural frequency should be preferably in
the range of 20
50 Hz.
In Table 20.1 some possible combinations of thickness of the

underlayer and weight of the toplayer, resulting in a natural
frequency just below 40 Hz, are given. An increase of the
thickness of the resilient underlayer allows for a decrease of
the weight of the toplayer and, in reverse, if the heigth of
the floor is restricted then the weight of the toplayer should
be increased in order to achieve the same natural frequency
for the floor system. If a lightweight toplayer. (< 40 kg/M 2) is
applied on a thick layer of glass fibre problems may arise
with a too large deflection under static load at the edges of
the floor. For that reason the numbers in the first column
have been put between brackets.
Table 20.1
Combinations of thickness of underlayer and weight of toplayer
of a floating floor with resonance frequency just below 40 Hz.
For the resilient layer three alternatives are given: glass
fibre and rockwool of two different densities.
mass per unit area of toplayer (kg/m2)
(40) 50 60 70 80
---------------------------------------------------------thickness (mm) of glass fibre (70 kg/M 3) (50) 40 35 30 25
thickness (mm) of rockwool (100 kg/m3 )
(70) 55 45 40 35
thickness (mm) of rockwool (150 kg/m3 ) (100) 80 65 55 50
It should be avoided that the natural frequency of the floating floor coincides with the propeller blade rate frequency
or harmonics of it. Moreover coincidence with strong excitation frequencies of dieselengines should be avoided.
For frequencies far above the natural frequency the acoustic
properties may be described with.the.equations derived from
/20.1/ and given in Appendix A20.1.
20.4.3 Resiliently mounted (floating) floor:
As an alternative solution for the resilient underlayer a
floor may be built up upon a frame work of (wooden) joists
that are mounted resiliently on rubber strips or discrete
rubber mountings. This solution may be chosen in case there is
no levelled deck in that part of the accommodation, as often
occurs in yachts, small workboats and fishery vessels.
An example is given in Figure 20.3.
20.4.4 Constructional details:
- edge connections of the floating toplayer:
Rigid connections between the toplayer of the floating floor
and the steel structure largely destroy the gain of the floating floor.To prevent these rigid connections the edge sealing
of the floor must be resilient (and watertight). Soft rubber
with closed cells (thickness approximately 10 mm) can be
applied in combination with a water-proof elastic sealing
compound or flexible plastic (100 Shore) which sticks to the
steel as well as to the toplayer material of the floating
floor (see Fig. 20.4) . Some legislation demands an incombusti-
20.6
ble material to be used also at the edges of the floor, e.g.

mineral wool. From the acoustical point of view there are no
objections, but the material is not watertight and may cause
the penetration of water, condensed against the steel hull,
via the edge connection under the toplayer of the floating
floor. There are no practical means to get the water out of
mineral wool or fibre glass. Gutterways along the hull may
serve for the discharge of condensed water.
Also all floor penetrations by pipes or pillars have to be
sealed with flexible, watertight, material.
The need for a flexible soft flexible connection is illustrated in Figure 20.5 (/20.2/).
installation of cabin walls on top of the floating floor:
All cabin bulkheads and linings have to be installed on top of
the floating floor. Connections between the linings and the
steel structure should be avoided. In general the bulkheads
are installed in U-profiles, screwed into the toplayer. For
optimum results the distance b'etween the lining and the steel
bulkhead should be at least 150 nun. In the cavity sound absorption should be present, e.g. a 50 mm thick layer of glass
fibre or mineral wool. Generally the thermal insulation material may serve for that purpose.
installation of the ceiling:

In modern accommodation systems often the ceiling structure is
mounted into angle bars or profiles fixed to the cabin walls,
free from the deckhead. For large spans additional ceiling
frame work can be positioned by means of a limited number of
rubber mountings, fastened to stiffened parts of the deckhead
(e.g. at deckstiffeners, see Figure 20.6). Some lightweight
metal ceilings demand for a complete mesh of ceiling hangers
to the deckhead.
-
- window boxes:
The window boxes have to form a part of the lining and should
be decoupled from the steel structure by means of soft cell
rubber with closed cells (Figure 20.7). To reduce the sound
radiation by the windows or portholes it may be under certain
conditions advisable to apply an extra window pane which is
installed in the (free standing) lining. The application of a
double-glazed window, installed in the hull, fixed to the
steel structure, only makes sense in case airborne sound from
outside the ship has to be reduced.
sanitary units and pipe connections:

In most cases no stringent noise requirements are set for the
sanitary unit of a cabin. Still it may be profitable to install the sanitary unit resiliently or, together with the
cabin, upon a floating floor, because the walls of the sanitary unit may form a part of the cabin walls and radiate sound
into the cabin. Moreover by installation upon the floating
floor complicated flexible connections between the structure
of the sanitary unit and the cabin are avoided.
-
To reduce the number of pipe penetrations through the floating

floor it is advisable to joint all pipes for one or two sanitary units together in a construction as sketched in Figure
20.7
20.8: the pipes are rigidly connected to the steel deck and in
between the sanitary unit and the piping system flexible hoses
are applied.
20.4.5 Purpose and acoustical gain:
In general floating floors are applied for following aspects:
reduction of the sound radiated by the floor;
increase of the airborne sound insulation of the steel deck;
- decrease of the transfer of structure-borne sound to the
cabin walls by installation on top of the floating floor.
In this paragraph only the effect on airborne and structureborne sound as caused by machinery outside (beneath) the
accommodation spaces will be discussed.
The acoustic gain that can be obtained by the application of a
floating floor system is by nature, due to the resonance
frequency of the mass-spring system, rather poor in the low
frequency range. For higher frequencies the gain increases
gradually. Because of this frequency dependency and the fact
that also the noise spectrum in the "untreated" cabin is
frequency dependent, the effect of a floating floor on the
resulting sound level in an accommodation space can only be
described in coherence with data on the sound spectrum in that
space. Based on empirical data obtained on board various types
of ships it is however possible to indicate for various situations the obtainable acoustic gain for structure-borne sound.
Table 20.11 gives a survey of reductions in dB(A) for a "normal" floating floor, i.e a floating floor with a natural
frequency of approximately 40 Hz, with the whole cabin structure built up upon the floor.
Windows or portholes are in fact untreated parts of the steel
structure and radiate therefore also (mainly high frequency)
noise into the cabin. Under certain conditions, especially in
accommodation spaces above rigidly mounted gearboxes and highor medium-speed diesel engines a further improvement with up
to 2 dB(A) can be obtained by closing off the portholes by
means of an extra window pane in the lining, free from the
steel structure (see Figure 20.7)..
The airborne sound insulation of a flooring system is also
improved by the application of a floating floor. With starting-point a diesel engine room noise spectrum the sound level
in a space directly above the engine room, separated by a
steel deck, is decreased with approximately 10 to 15 dB (A).
Some measured sound pressure level differences, measured
between engine rooms and accommodation spaces, separated by
one deck from the engine room, are given in Figure 20.9.
A survey of all parameters that are of importance for the
description of the acoustical properties of floating floors,
such as insertion losses with respect to structure-borne
sound, radiation factors, level differences between floating
floor and cabin walls, positioned upon the floor, etc. have
been given in. /20.3/ and /20.4/.
20.8
Table 20.11
Rough estimate of the reduction of the sound level-A in a
cabin as can be obtained by the application of a floating
floor with the cabin boundaries built upon the floating floor.
The reduction (in dB(A)) is given as a function of type of
ship or sound source and as a function of the position in the
ship related to decknuxnbers; Tanktop = deck 1).
For all applications it is assumed that the accommodation is
built in the aftship above the propulsion machinery and that
the sound level is caused by structure-borne sound from that
propulsion machinery.
deck number: 3
application:
-
reduction in dB(A):
tankers, cargo ships with:

slow speed diesel engine
- medium speed diesel engine
10
9
10
7
9
6
8
5
7
passenger ships, ferries,

hopper dredgers, equiped with
medium speed diesel engines:
10
10
.7
7
10 10
7
10
- coastal cargo ships

-
for all types of ships in case the sound

level is determined by propeller noise
at casings, at connection points of
diesel exhaust pipes:
- slow speed diesel engine
- medium speed diesel engine
-.
7
10
20.5 HIGHLY DAMPED FLOORS

20.5.1 introduction:
Damping is related to energy diss*ipation in the structure. A
very lightly damped structural part vibrates over a long time
period after excitation (e.g. a church bell). By damping the
energy is distracted from the vibrating system and converted
into heat. For airborne sound this takes place when a sound
wave penetrates a porous (sound absorbing) material.
For structure-borne sound waves in a certain part of the
structure, the energy is distracted in various ways:
- the structure radiates sound (energy);
- a part of the energy flows to adjacent structural parts;
- a part is dissipated by the internal damping of the structural part itself;
- a part of the energy is dissipated at the edges, e.g. due to
friction.
Increase of the damping of a structure has the following
effects:
20.9
for impact excitation the sound decay time of the structure

is shortened;
for structure-borne sound transmission there is an extra
reduction of the vibrations with distance;
vibrations at resonance are reduced.
In practice the internal damping of structural parts is increased by:

constructing the structural parts itself out of highly
damped materials;
- making use of friction between elements of the structure;
- combining lightly damped structural parts with additional
highly damped materials, e.g. the application of so-called
damping layers.
Damping material can be applied as a single layer attached to
one side of a structure or can be sandwiched in between two
plates (see Figure 20.10). Single layer damping requires materials with high Young's modulus and high internal damping. In
general the thickness ratio of damping layer to (steel) plate
is from 1:1 up to 3:1. In sandwiched structures the damping
intermediate layer is shear loaded and should be soft in that
direction. The covering plate must have a high bending stiffness.
A measure for the internal damping is the loss factor (d) ,
which can be derived from the sound decay time (T60 ) of the
structure according to:
d = 2.2 / f*T60
in which f is the centre-frequency of the frequency band in
which the sound decay time has been measured.
For lightly damped plates like steel structures as applied in
ships the loss factor is in the low frequency range approximately 0.01 - 0.02, decreasing to approximately 0.003 in the
high frequency range. If a levelling layer is applied to a
deck or if thermal insulation is attached to a steel bulkhead
or a deck then the loss factor may be slightly higher (0.02 0.04) in the low frequency range.
For the structures as applied in shipbuilding the loss factor
may be increased by the use of extra damping layers to approximately 0.1 at low frequencies and up to 0.02 at high
frequencies (see Figure 20.11).
The insertion loss (improvement) that is obtainable is determined by the ratio
of the loss factor after application (d.)
and the loss factor before application (db,) according to:
IL
10 lg (d./d.t,).
From the foregoing

additional damping
ased substantially
So one should know
it should be clear that application of

only has sense if the loss factor is increin comparison to the original situation.
that loss factor on forehand.
other complicating factors are that it must be for sure that
20.10
the structural part that will be treated is largely responsible for the radiated sound. Moreover in choosing materials one
should bear in mind that by the addition of a damping layer to
a structure the radiation properties of that structure may be
increased more than the vibrations are reduced. Consequently
no improvement is gained and even worsening of the situation
is risked.
A review on ("sandwich") constrained layer damping (composite
loss factor, flexural stiffness and composite radiation efficiency) together with results of model and full-scale experiments on shiplike structures is given in /20.5/.
20.5.2 composition of damped floors:
Like in general damping applications a damped floor may consist of:
- a single layer of damping material, directly
applied to the
upper- or lowerside of the steel deck;
- constrained layer damping in which to the
upper- or lowerside of the deck a thin layer of visco-elastic material is
applied, covered with a metal plate or mortar layer.
So, unlike floating floors where the toplayer is dynamically
"free" from the steel deck, in a damped floor all component
parts are strongly coupled. Because steel deck and damping
layer are glued together, the cabin walls, positioned upon the
floor, are strongly connected to the deck. So there may be a
.relatively strong sound transfer of structure-borne sound from
the steel deck to the cabin walls, which may radiate this
sound into the cabin. The sound transfer can be reduced to a
certain degree by the insertion of a resilient layer in or
under the U-profile of the cabin walls..
20.5.3 acoustical gain:
The total effect of the application of a damped floor, as
derived from full scale tests in laboratory and on board
ships, is given in Figure 20.12. The effect is some 2 dB
increasing to 6 dB over the main frequency range. Manufacturers sometimes claim much larger improvements (10 - 20 dB),
but then the values have been based on measurements with for
shipbuilding practice unrealistic starting conditions (e.g. a
resiliently mounted loose steel plate, which may show a loss
factor of 0.001).
The airborne sound insulation of the steel deck with damping
layer is increased due to the extra mass of the visco-elastic
material and backing plate and due to extra internal damping.
In Figure 20.13 the airborne sound insulation has been given
of a steel deck with a 8 mm thick lightweight levelling
layer,.
the same configuration together with a constrained layer
damping (weight increase 25 kg/rn2 ) and the same steel deck
provided with a floating floor (weight increase 50 kg/in 2 ,
natural frequency approximately 70 Hz).
20.11
20.6 "OVER-ALL" PERFORMANCE OF THE CABIN ARRANGEMENT

In prediction methods the sound path from sound source to
accommodation is usually broken down into different parts. One
part describes the sound transfer from the source through the
ship's structure to the deck at the position of the accommodation spaces under investigation. Another part describes the
transmission of structure-borne sound from the steel deck to
all cabin boundaries and the radiation of sound into that
cabin.
In the latter the contributions of all cabin boundaries to the
resulting sound pressure level may be described in the following way:
L.i=L,(deck) -8L,1i+1OlgSi-10lgA,,1 n+l01go -28
(4.1)
with:
Lp,i
L.(deck)
= contibution in sound radiated by boundary i

= velocity level of steel deck in dB re lnm/s
8I,,
= difference in velocity level between steel deck
and boundary i, depending on type of material and

mounting
Si
A..l .
10 lg aF
= surface area of boundary i [m2]

= total amount of sound absorption in the cabin
[m2 ]
= radiation factor of boundary i, depending on material and composition [dB]
More specific information on the radiation of structure-borne

sound into accommodation spaces is given in Lessons 17 and 18.
On basis of (4.1)
boundaries to the
From the relative
derived to obtain
one may calculate the contributions of all

total sound pressure level in the cabin.
contributions additional measures can be
an optimum balanced result.
From airborne and structure-borne measurements on board the

relation between the velocity level of the steel deck upon
which the cabin is installed and the resulting sound pressure
level in that cabin can be defined as
(LP-Lj) = I(cabin)
- LI,(deck)
This quantity can be used as a practical value in sound prediction schemes describing the efficiency (the "over-all"
performance) of all local acoustical measures. Moreover it
enables comparison between measurements in laboratory and on
board ships for cabins installed upon a steel deck (without or
with a thin levelling layer) and for cabins installed upon a
floating floor, since the impact of the installation of a
floating floor on the velocity levels of a steel deck is
rather well-known (see /A20.1.3/).
In Figure 20.14 data on (LP-L.) are given, obtained in laboratory and on board ships for various cabin configurations,
for which comprehensive investigations were carried out
(/20.6/).
20.12
20.7 AIRBORNE SOUND INSULATION
Foregoing paragraphs mainly dealt with the transmission of

structure-borne sound and airborne sound from sources outside
the accommodation spaces into the accommodation. Between
adjacent accommodation spaces the airborne sound insulation
properties are also important. General information on airborne
sound insulation is given in Lesson 18.
In the IMO regulations and in the national legislation for
ships and offshore installations (see Lesson 4) requirements
are given for the airborne sound insulation between adjacent
,accommodation spaces. And of course shipowners of cruise ships
and passenger ferries demand for stringent airborne sound
insulation.
For crew accommodation (with maximum allowable sound level of
60 dB(A)) the requirements are generally
in between cabins: R.'= 30 dB;
in between messroom and cabin: R,,= 45 dB.
(H,. = weighted airborne sound insulation index according to ISO
717, /20.7/).
For offshore installations Norwegian rules prescibe a sound
insulation of R. at least 40 dB, with an allowable sound level
in the cabins of 45 dE (A).
To what extent noise in an adjacent cabin may be audible
depends on:
the strength of the emitted sound in the source room;

the sound insulation properties of the separation construction;
the background noise level in the receiver cabin.
-
From studies on the intelligibility of speech in the presence

of noise (/20.8/) it is possible to estimate the sound insulation that is needed between adjacent cabins in order to avoid,
for a given background level, that speech is audible.
Table 20.111 shows that if the numerical sum of background
sound level (in dB(A) and of insulation (R.,) is approximately
90 dB speech at a normal voice level can hardly be heard in
the adjacent room. For voices at a raised level the sum should
be some 10 dB higher.
In most regulations it is stated that the sound insulation of
the separation bulkheads should be determined by laboratory
measurements. This involves that on board lower insulation
values may be found because of flanking sound transmission via
the other bulkheads, the floor and the ceiling. This is accepted in the regulations, but it is stated also that care should
be taken in the erection of the materials and in the construction of accommodation spaces to ensure that the attenuation
values are not significantly impaired. weak points in bulkhead
systems are the interconnection of the bulkhead panels, connections in the cabin corners between separation bulkhead and
corridor bulkhead or lining and connections between the separation bulkhead and the ceiling. The complete system should
20.13
incorporate properly designed details in order to obtain an

optimum performance. This may be easily performed for instance
if complete, separate, ready-built cabin units are applied as*
in Figure 20.15.
Table 20.111
Influence of background noise level and airborne sound insulation on the audibility of speech at normal level in adjacent
cabin.
R., in dB required at a background level of:
40 dB(A)
50 dB(A)
60 dB(A)
speech in adjacent cabin

is audible, but can hardly
be understood
45
35
25

sometimes audible, can not
be understood
s0
40
30

inaudible
55
45
35
The contribution in flanking airborne sound, e.g. via the

ceiling structure, can be assessed according to a calculation
scheme as given in Appendix A20.2, derived from /20.9/.
Lightweight metal ceilings or perforated ceilings may show a
poor airborne sound insulation. in the case R. between the
cabins has to be equal to or more than 40 dB, additional'
measures should be applied to increase the airborne sound
insulation, e.g. by the addition of an extra layer of (high
density) mineral wool on top of the ceiling. Unperforated
ceilings consisting of bulkhead materials with a weight of
approximately 10 kg/rn 2 normally show sufficient airborne sound
insulation. The ceilings have to be intersected at the separation bulkheads.
The airborne sound insulation between cabin and corridor is
determined mainly by the air outlet opening in the cabin
entrance door or by the door itself. For normal corridor
bulkheads, including the cabin entrance door, R, hardly exceeds
20 dB. An R, of 25 of over 25 dB can only be reached with
rather heavy double walled doors, soft rubber'strips applied
in the door frame and with the air outlet opening performed as
an internally lined duct.
The airborne sound insulation between cabins above each other,
separated by a steel deck and a ceiling, normally will be
sufficiently high. For stringent requirements acoustic "shortcircuits" between the steel deck and the ceiling should be
avoided. Under extremely high noise conditions (disco, dancing) additional measures to the flooring system might be
20.14
needed, if cabins are located underneath the "floor", but

generally these situations can be avoided by an appropriate
arrangement of the various accommodation spaces relative to
each other.
20.8 IMPACT SOUND INSULATION
In ISO 717 reference levels are given for the airborne sound
insulation (Rk = 52 dB) and for the normalized impact sound
level (LIT = 60) that should be fulfilled between dwellings.
The levels have been chosen in such a way that when fulfilling
these values there is a balance between the annoyance by
airborne sound and the annoyance by impact noise. Now we could
use as an hypothesis that the annoyance by airborne sound
will equal that by impact sound also in case R, and LIlT both
have the same numerical deviation from the reference value. So
in case k, should be higher than 40 dB, LI should be preferably lower than 72 dB. In Table 20.IV and in Figure 20.16 some
measurement results are given on deck and flooring systems.
Table 20.IV
Survey of normalized impact sound levels of various floorings
measured in spaces underneath the floor construction.
1. steel deck with levelling layer
2. as 1., with 70 mm high density
mineral wool against bottomside
3. as 2., with ceiling applied
4. as 1., with floating floor (f. approx.
97 dB
40 Hz)
87
<70
57
The effect of a plastic floor covering on the impact.sound

level is, strongly dependent on thickness and softness, some 3
15 dB. The reduction of the impact sound level by a carpet
may be in between 15 - 30 dB.
With the application of floating floors impact sound as caused
by walking on other decks than the deck upon which the receiver cabin is positioned is sufficiently reduced.
To prevent annoyance in the cabins caused by walking noise in
the corridors on the same deck level it is recommended to
install in the corridors a floor covering with a soft (carpet)
toplayer.
20.9 IMPACT SOUND TRANSMISSION BETWEEN ADJACENT SPACES
in applying a floating floor, upon which all cabins are built
up, the toplayer of the floating floor may transmit airborne
and structure-borne sound from one cabin to another. The
transmission of airborne sound will depend on the floor properties with respect to the response to sound inpinging on the
floor, the transmission via the floor toplayer and the radiation into the adjacent cabin.
The decrease of impact sound along the toplayer depends on the
loss factor of the toplayer of the floor according to:
20-15
13.7i'
with:
D = level decrease
= loss factor
=
[dB/m]
wave length of the bending wave in the toplayer [m]
In Figure 20.17, derived from /20.10/, some measured decreases

of velocity levels along the toplayer of floating floors are
given.
20.10 ACTIVE NOISE CANCELLATION
In general, active noise cancellation will not replace the
"classical" acoustic countermeasures, such as floating floors,
resilient mountings, silencers, absorptive treatment, etc. It
should be regarded as complementary to these measures in the
low frequency range.
Under specific conditions active noise cancellation may be
used to reduce the sound level at a certain position in a room
(in curing annoyance by noise of very low frequencies), but
for the present the applications in this field will be very
limited, due to the cost and the fact that only a small spatial area can be covered (see below).
On board a sea-going fishing ship experiments have been car-.
ried out to reduce the noise level in a sleeping cabin by
means of active noise cancellation (/20.11/). Using an adaptive anti-noise system for the reduction of periodic noise,
harmonic frequencies as caused by the propulsion engine could
be reduced with some 5 to 15 dB (see Figure 20.18).
The spatial area of the room over which the sound is reduced
(so where the anti-noise is in anti-phase with the original
noise) is related to the wave length of the sound. The experiments showed that with a single channel device (one control
microphone and one loudspeaker) above 60 Hz this area becomes
even smaller than the surface area of the pillow of a bed.
Moving away from the control microphone leads to an increase
of the sound level at certain frequencies.
20.16
REFERENCES
/20.1/ A.C. Nilsson, "Some acoustical properties of floatingfloor constructions", J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 61, 1979, p. 15331539.
/20.2/ J. Buiten, J.W. Verheij, "Acoustical effects of mechanical short-circuits between a floating floor and a steel
deck",Netherlands Ship Research Centre TNO, report no. 199S,
Delft 1974.
/20.3/ s. Weyna, "Determination of acoustic properties of
ship's sound reducing floors", Proceedings ISSA '86, 7-9 Oct.
1986. Published by Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht, The
Netherlands.
/20.4/ M.J.A.M. de Regt, "Experiments on sound reducing floors
including visco-elastic-damping on board a Rhine cruise vessel", Proceedings ISSA '86, 7-9 Oct. 1986. Published by Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
/20.5/ J. Odegaard Jensen and H.Holm, "Noise reduction in the
accommodation of ships by means of 'constrained layer' damping", Proceedings Internoise 79, Warsaw 1979.
/20.6/ M.J.A.M. de Regt, "Transfer of structure-borne sound to
ships' cabins", Noise Control Engineering, Sept./Oct. 1981.
/20.7/ ISO 717, "Acoustics - Rating of sound insulation in
buildings and of building elements Part 1: Airborne sound insulation in buildings and of interior
building elements
Part 2: Impact sound insulation", International Organization
for Standardization (ISO), 1982.
/20.8/ R. Cook and N. Fleming, "Some aspects of noise reduction in merchant ships", Tranactions of the Institute of Marine
Engineers, 75 (1963).
/20.9/ V. Banuls-Terol, "Composed airborne sound isolation of
partitions under suspended ceilings", The 6th International
Congress on Acoustics, Tokyo 1968.
/20.10/ A. Eisenberg, "Untersuchungen uber die Schalldammung
zwischen benachbarten Raumen mit durchlaufendem schwimmendem
Estrich (Investigations on the sound insulation between adjacent rooms with continuous floating floor)", Warme-KalteSchall 2/1966.
/20.11/ M.W.R.M. van Overbeek e.a., "Actieve geluiddemping in
een accommodatieruimte van een visserijvaartuig (Active noise
control in an accommodation space on board a fishing vessel)",
CMO project 89 B.5.18, Stichting Coordinatie Maritiem Onerzoek, Rotterdam 1990.
20.17
/sound
cavity
depth
*:
absorbing material
ceiling material
ixing method
window boxes. .
thermal.
.
insulation
boundary
c construction
.
.
bulkhea
:d
-- fixing method.
...............
floor.......
system-
Figure 20.1
Indication of factors influencing the acoustic effect of
a complete accommodation system, built upon a floating floor.
20.18
dB
i/i-octave bands
40
30
20
dLv
_____
--10
3t.5
63
125
M
250
-1
500
tk
2k
toplayer: natural freq.:
75 mm rockwool
(140 kg//m3 ) +
50 mm fibreglass
(56 kg/m3)
70 kg/M 2
22 Hz
25 mm fibre glass
70 kg/M 2
40 Hz
4k
40 kg/M 2
60 Hz
18 kg/M 2
110 Hz
kg/m3 )
50 mm rockwool
(150
frequency [Hz]
underlayer:
(56
kg/m3 )
30 mm rockwool
(140 kg/m3 )
Figure 20.2
Differences in velocity level between the steel deck and the
toplayer of the floating floor as function of the dynamic
stiffness of the resilient underlayer and the weight of the
toplayer.
20.19
IF'B
20.20
cell rubber
with closed ceikf
t~
plywood-t
steel plat
or miea
oo~
10mm
3
-.-
steel bulk-,
head50f./
'yfe,.
sti
ela
'-rofil
asphlte'a'"
cell r~ber
gls
felto
I
Detaisti
sealkha
orlnnguo
colr20.21
ffoaigfleo
hefor
U-prcnecin
inrl
oncino
70
/
/
60A
//
50
50
//
7/c_
slothlo0
20 --
<30
"
"
""
.,
31 .$
63
125
250
'7-
500
10DO
2000
4,000
BODO
120
. I'!!
;.
i,!
lfrequency jHz)
Figure 20.5
Effect of "short circuits" of the floating floor, due to a

level difference berigid edge connection, on the velocity
tween steel deck and floating floor (/20.2/)
20.22
rra x.1,S.D
C,
E.
Inn
ic
'C
/I
1.
2.
3.
4.
metal strip
cylindrical rubber mounting
welding pin
height adjustment
Figure 20.6
Some examples of resilient ceiling hangers.
20.23
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
porthole
plastic window box
U-profile
flexible cell rubber
extra window pane in lining
Figure 20.7
Flexible connections of portholes at the hull. In the porthole
an extra window pane is installed in the (free standing)
lining.
28.24
U.U)o
uLUJ
Figure 20.8
Pipe connections at. sanitary unit through floating floor.
20.25
dB
i/i-octave bands
60
40
P
/f
30
31.5
o-
63
125
-
31
32
33
34
250
500
Ik
2k
4k
frequency [Hz]
without floating floor

with floating floor
with foating floor
with floating floor
Figure 20.9
Differences in sound pressure level between engine rooms and
accommodation spaces above the engine rooms, measured by means
of a airborne sound source in the engine room.
20.26
SINGLE LAYER DAMPING
CONSTRAINED LAYER DAMPING
- thickness ratio
damping material (2)
over structural material (1)
- ratio of Young's moduli of

damping material (2) and
structural material (1)
- Young's moduli of the

layers (1), (2) and (3)
thickness of the structural
material (1), the damping

material (2) and the backing
plate (3)
- shear modulus of the damping

layer (2)
- temperature
- temperature
- frequency
- frequency
Figure 20.10
Factors influencing the composite damping of additionally
damped structures (single layer and constrained layer damping).
dB t.o.v. i
0
i gcio
, ,
, ,
CL
iigd
0.
..........
-20
-30 1
31.5
125 250 500

63
- - frequentie
1O00
.O
2000 4000 8000 Hz
with levelling layer (laboratory)

..............
with constrained layer damping (laboratory)

with levelling layer (on board)
Figure 20.11
Examples of loss factors of ship structure parts.
20.27
IL 0
dB
i/1-octave bands
20
oL,
31.5
63
-e-
25
250
500
frequency
1k
2k
4k
[Hz]
from /20.5/, measured on board, comparison between:

12 mm latex cement and
.7 mm visco-elastic material + 15 mm latex cement.
from DnV investigations, measured in mock-up, bulkheads
of cabin resiliently mounted, comparison between:
20 mm levelling layer and
1.5 mm visco-elastic material + 20 mm levelling layer.
-from TPD investigations, measured in laboratory, cabin
bulkheads resiliently mounted, comparison between:
10 mm levelling layer and
1.5 mm visco-elastic material, covered with 3 mm thick
steel plate, attached to the bottomside of the deck,
together with 10 mm levelling layer at topside of deck.
Figure 20.12
Decrease of the sound pressure levels in a cabin as caused by
the application of extra (constrained-layer) damping
20.28
dB
i/3-octave bands
70
r
60
//
50
15
31.5
---
--
53
25
250
500
1k
2k
~4k
frequency [Hz]
51 steel deck + lightweight levelling layer

...52 as 1. with constrained layer damping
53 as 1. with floating floor
Figure 20.13
Airborne sound insulation of a 6.mm thick steel deck, with and
without additional damping (see also Figure 20.12) and with a
floating floor (50 nun rockwool + 2x3 mm steel plate glued
together with visco-elastic material, f0 approx. 70 Hz).
20.29
L in dB re 20 1 LPa
L v in dB re 50 nm/s
1 1'i I I I I
10
I.
installed on bare steel deck
0/-on top of floating floor

P
with porthole
V
-10"-
- lightweight
ceiling
-20
wit h out
porthole
.........
"
heavy ceiling - J
'''
-30''
63
125 250 500 1k

----- frequency
2k
Hz
Figure 20.14
Engineering estimate of (Lp-L,) for various cabin configurations (/20.6/).
20.36
Figure 20.15
Example of prefabricated cabin module inclusive sanitary unit

(Kvaerner Masa Yards).
100
2E
70
6.0
40
70
j< 30
+0
20.3
dB
TL3M i/i-octave bands
I0
63
125
250
E~q-
500
1k
2k
4k
frequency [Hz]
61 concrete taplayer
62 asphaltic toplayer
Figure 20.17
Decrease (in dB) of the velocity level of a toplayer of a
floating floor over a distance of 3 m during impact sound
excitation, derived from /20.10/.
dB re_
20uPa
witou
2OeP
__
200
t14.
/without
anti-noise
with anti-noise
I0I
application
range of
firing freq.
,e-cylinder
100
050
Figure 20.18
150
200 Hi
freq
Effect of the application of active noise cancellation on the

sound pressure levels in a berthing area on board a fishery
cutter (/20.11/).
20.32
LIST OF SYMBOLS
index i=l steel deck
i=2 toplayer of floating floor
applies to d, E, f. and Q.
c
d
E
f
f9
f0
IL
L.
Lp
L,
L2
m
s
8
T
Q
speed of sound in air (appr. 340) [m/s]

thickness of steel deck or toplayer [m]
Young's modulus [N/rm 2]
frequency [Hz]
coincidence frequency [Hz]
lowest natural frequency of mass-spring system [Hz]
insertion loss [dB]
acceleration level [dB re 1 pm/s2 ]
sound pressure level [dB re 20 pPa]
length of steel deck or floating floor [m]
width of steel deck or floating floor [m]
surface weight (kg/M2]
dynamic stiffnes of resilient layer per m 2 [N/m 3 ]

loss factor of steel deck or toplayer of floating floor
loss factor of resilient underlayer
density of material of steel deck or toplayer [kg/M 3]
radiation efficiency
20.33
Appendix A20.1
CALCULATION PROCEDURE FOR FLOATING FLOORS
1. Low frequency aspects of floating floors:
The low-frequency aspects that are relevant for the working
principle of a floating floor can be illustrated on hand of a
mechanical system consisting of two masses, coupled by a
spring (see Figure A20.1.1).
Mass mi represents the mass of the steel deck without floating
floor and m 2 the mass of the toplayer of the floating floor.
The properties of the resilient layer are represented by the
complex springconstant s'=s(l+jlr), in which the real part (s)
is a measure for the stiffness and Is is a measure for the
internal damping. For this system expressions have been derived for the insertion loss (IL) and the level difference (AL)
with respect to the accelerations of steel deck and toplayer.
ALB = 10 log
10
log
(A20.1.1)
+1n
2
_L- + !2 + Tj
IL(a)
[dB]
2 nj2
I+
f2
+
m
[B
[
(A20. 1. 2)
AL shows to what extent the acceleration level of the toplayer

of the floating floor is lower than that of the steel deck,
with the floating floor installed upon that steel deck. IL
shows to what extent the acceleration level of the toplayer is
lower than that of the bare steel deck before the floating
floor was installed. So the IL is a measure for the gain.
Figure A20.1.2 shows the AL and IL that have been calculated
according to expressions (A20.1.1) and (A20.1.2). In the
calculations the loss factor of the resilient layer has been
fixed at 0.25. Moreover it is assumed that m, = M 2 , so the
toplayer has the same surface weigth as the steel deck.
The natural frequency is given by
f0 1
-m
[Hz]
(A20.1.3)
in which s is the dynamic stiffness of I M2 of the resilient

layer, including entrapped air, and M 2 is the mass per surface
area of the toplayer.
20.34
2. Calculation procedure for the level difference between

steel deck and toplaver of the floating floor (AL.):
2.1 low frequency range (f <= 3fo) :
For the low frequency range the equations (A20.1.l) and
(A20.1.3) can be used to calculate AL..
2.2 high frequency range (f>>f 0 ) :
For the calculation of the level difference between the steel
deck and the toplayer of the floating floor (AL.) in the high
frequency range, expressions can be used as given by Nilsson
in /20.1/:
2.2.1 for highly internally damped toplayers:
AL,
= 40 log
-L
f',=
+ 20 log
C1d
1, 8 (t
[dB]
[Hz]
(A20.1.4)
(A20.1.5)
El
2.2.2 for lightly damped toplayers depending on the coincidence frequencies of steel deck and toplayer:
2.2.2.1 coincidence frequency of steel deck lower than that of
toplayer (f.1 < fg2)
AL, = 25 log f - 20 log f. - i0
3 2
log I C f2a-2 f / (
27r8
L2 )
2
[df]
LIL 2 1
(A20.1.6)
2.2.2.2 coincidence frequency of steel deck equal to that
of
toplayer (f,
1 = f9 2 ) :
AL. = 30 log f - 40 log fo
0 logLL
[dB]
(A20.1.7)
2.2.2.3 coincidence frequency of steel deck higher than that
of toplayer
(f.q
>
f, 2 )
AL 8 =25 log f -20
log f
- 10 log
I'
g3
f12 (L 1 + L
gj
1
2
(7E8
-1
f;
)2
L1 L 2
(A20.1.8)
20.35
3. Calculation of the reduction of the sound radiated by the

deck due to installation of the floating floor (ILp).
The reduction of the sound radiated by the deck due to installing the floating floor (IL.) with L. of the steel deck kept
constant, is calculated according to:
ILp (Ladeck constant) = AL, + 10 lg a (steel deck)
- 10 lg a (toplayer)
(A20.1.9)
For the radiation ratios (10 lg a) use can be made of equations as given by Maidanik in /A20.1.2/.
In the Figures A20.1.3 up to A20.1.6, derived from /A20.1.3/,
some calculation results are compared with measured data. It
turns out that the calculation scheme is very useful in
searching for a floor with optimum results. Improvement of the
procedure with a more accurate model for the 125.. .500 Hz
octave bands is strongly desired.
REFERENCES
/A20.1.1/ A.C. Nilsson, "Some acoustical properties of floating-floor constructions", J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 61, 1979, p.
1533-1539.
/A20.1.2/ G. Maidanik, "Response of ribbed panels to reverberant acoustic fields", J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 34, 1962, p. 809826.
/A20.1.3/ M.J.A.M. de Regt, "Comparison between measured and
calculated acoustical properties of floating floors for use on
board ships", Proceedings Internoise 81, Amsterdam 1981.
20.36
a,
2IL(a) ()deflOlog
m2
2 elf
302 ell
2
aI elf
def
F0
Fo
Fo
2ef
10 log
Figure A20.1.1
System of two masses coupled by a spring
t60
ALIL in dB
mfl~m2
50
Il =0.25
4040
30
20
10
I I 't
I2 I t
--
IL
0.25 0.5
It I I I
I '
I.
1 2
42
16
32
64
-
f2
Figure A20.1.2
Calculated DL and IL for the system given in Figure A20.1.1
20.37
I I
-I -
V,_
y/
.:
.
I-
At
Fig.2:
Calculated AL, ompared
w ith t he measured values for a

floating floor consisting of a
35 nu chick toplayer of reinfor-
Fig.3: Calculated AL. compared

with the'measured values for a
floating floor con'sisting of a
toplayer of 5 . thick steel plat
ced plastic mortar and a 23 .a

thick resilient layer of glassfibre is" . 4.9"106 111.'). 10Oata
,
Data on Loplayer:E.O.85-lIO10
0. 1706 kg/.',
m"z60 kg/.'.
f
813 liz.
and a 49 .m thick resilient layer.of rockaool (s" - 5.5'106 N/.,)

',
on toplayer: E=19.5"1IoION/m
,
,
p 7800 kg/mn'
."-40 kg/.'
f c2 - 2534 Hz.
20
.risas
im.
Mi1.1
1120I
IC
10
It
Fig. : Callculate d
AL d measured
decreaseIn sound r
adintion
of t
floot r
con.s(deisk)constant)for the
35eeti
ck with toplayer
ror of
reinforced plastic
m
aopiayere
ortar.
Figures A20.1.3 up to A20.1.6
20.38
u0
so Wo
1.
iI
Fig.35:
Calcuatne a.d
dc m asrred
decreae
hhe
In
s ourd radiation oa
the floor cLp(L(desk)tonstant)
the steel deck sith steelpaane
Appendix A20.2
Reduction of the airborne sound insulation between
two spaces
as
caused by flanking sound transmission via suspended

ceilings (/20.9/, (abridged)).
THE 6TH INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS ON ACOUSTICS
E -4 -5
TOKYO, JAPAN. AUGUST 21-28, 19a
Composed Air-Born Sound Isolation of Partitions under

Suspended Ceilings.
Vicente Ba~uls-Terol
Acoustics Department of the " Centre de Inveetigaciones
Fisicas Leonardo Torres Quevedo -, Madrid.
When a partition of transmission loss F. separates two
spaces with
a suspended ceiling connon to both of them, as indicated
in the adjoined
figure, the actually measured transmission loss of this
partition, R,
is seen to be always smaller than Fv This is due to the
peculiar flan.
king transmission via suspended ceilings from emitter
to receiver rooms.
If we suppose that it is only worth while considering

the propagation of sound in one sense :
emitter-receiver vise partition
11A 1
L
and suspended ceilings, we will
PC
.
derive aAR so that
Ai
5W
R- R -AR
Ln
Lrw L-
Considering the plenum

above the suspended ceiling as
SA
A two rooms configu-ation of
connon surface S which transmission loss is null, the following set of equations can be
written
U
~-Le
- Lr + 101IgBS/A
Re - Le - L, + 10 1E
L11 -L
Rc . L2
Rw -
+ 10 Ig
S1/1
/
- Lra+ 10 1g S 2 /A
L a - L r,,+
L10 Ig S,,/A
(2)
If we bear in mind that the sound prescure level in the

receiver
room, Lr, is built up by the contributions of the sound
pressure levels
L1r and L . originating from the transmissions viae ceilings
and wall
(partition), 17e can write
Lr
Lre + 10 lg
Operating with the system of equations ( 1

finally obtain
tR.
10 lg
1 +
10 ---
OT
A, A? S,k
S
20.39
S1 S2
), ( 2 ) and C 3 ) we
CHAPTER: 5
NOISE AND VIBRATION CONTROL IN PRACTICE
16th WEGEMT SCHOOL
DAY
FRIDAY
SESSION
CHAPTER
Noise and Vibration

5. NOISE AND VIBRATION CONTROL IN PRACTICE
INTRODUCTORY LESSON
by
TEACHER
COMPANY
Annie BLANCHET
CHANTIERS DE L'ATLANTIQUE
B.P. 400
FRANCE
COUNTRY
TEACHER'S BIOGRAPHY
1968 - 1973
- Masters of
University
theoretical
physics
in
NANTES
1973 - Up to now - Research Engineer at CHANTIERS DE L'ATLANTIQUE

Shipyard
Speciality : Acoustic and vibrations
Research and development department
References in last years
Responsible
of
acoustic
design
and
calculation,
of
vibration
aspects
of
newbuilding, specially cruise ships and navy
ships built in the shipyard.
1978
1982
Acoustic assistant
16th WEGEMT SCHOOL

SESSION
CHAPTER
Noise and Vibration

5. NOISE AND VIBRATION CONTROL IN PRACTICE
21. Instrumentation, measurement techniques
TEACHER
COMPANY
Henk.F.Steenhoek
Ship Acoustics Departement
P.O. BOX 155
2600 AD DELFT
The Netherlands
COUNTRY
The NETHERLANDS
ABSTRACT
This chapter describes the framework of instrumentation and the most important
transducers for noise measurements: the microphone and the accelerometer. Also the
feature subjects reciprocity method, coherence techniques, the two accelerometer
method and the substitution source are elucidated. Ample references have been given
as a guidance for further study.
Mr. H.F.Steenhoek (born 1931), after his education at the Royal Netherlands Naval
Academy, joined the Royal Netherlands Navy as Engineering Officer in various ranks until
1964 when he changed to TPD Ship Acoustics as civilian. Since then he specialized in
research and consultancy work in ship noise control and has been responsible for a
great number of successful navy projects. Main activities are the naval ship underwater
noise reduction, resiliently mounted propulsion plants and the integration of research and
consultancy with the specific ship design expertise. He is (co-)author of about 25
publications in various journals and (has) contributed to many national and international
organizations, courses and projects.
21.1
21.1 INTRODUCTION
Shipowners and builders have to deal with noise measurements in approval tests at
machinery testbeds or after completion of the ship during the various trials. More
general: measurements and instrumentation play a key role in research and consultancy
as a tool to register the important physical phenomena and to handle and present the
results in an efficient way. Moreover standardization and requirements are strongly
related to the capabilities of the actual measurement techniques. This lesson presents a
concise description of the basic concepts of the measurement techniques. Moreover
some more specific subjects, which are of special interest for ship noise control, will be
elucidated. Two major reasons make the accurate measurement of noise and sound
more difficult than for many other physical parameters. First is that sound varies instantly
with time and second that the dynamic range can be very large. This requires sophisticated qualities of instruments, see references /1/, /2/ and /3/.
National (e.g. DIN, AFNOR, BSI, ANSI, ASA) and international (e.g. ISO, IEC) organizations have produced an extensive number of standards, among other things concerning
measurement methods and the various components used for acoustic measurements,
see ref. /3/, page 252, etc. Particularly the standards from the ISO and the IEC are
widely accepted and applied. It is advised to refer to the appropriate standards when
preparing measurements or when judging measurement results. A further discussion of
those standards is beyond the scope of this lesson, however.
The available timeframe forces to a concise presentation of the subject; for further study
and information the reader is advised to consider the various entries in the reference list
at the end of the paper.
21.2 BASIC CONCEPT OF MEASUREMENTS
21.2.1 Each measurement chain, as used in general for the measurements in the field of
ship noise control, can be divided in three basic functional parts, namely
-
the transducer
the signal conditioning and analysis
the data handling, storage and display
A schematic presentation is given in fig. 21.1. The extensive variety of instruments

now-a-days commercially available includes instruments where the three main functions
are integrated in one, usually portable, instrument. Other instruments provide only part
of one function in an extensive and sophisticated way commonly used in laboratory
practice.
There is an almost infinite range of capabilities from very simple with a low grade of
accuracy and not fulfilling even the most reasonable standard up to the top range of
laboratory type instruments. Various instruments can be linked together to suit a special
task; it goes to far here to present a description of all possibilities. In the following
paragraphs a concise description is given of the three major parts.
21.2.2 The transducer is the element that converts the mechanical or physical phenomena at its location into an optical, mechanical, or most commonly into an electrical signal
that is proportional to a parameter of the input phenomenona and which can be
measured or displayed. The input phenomenon can be motion (either displacement,
velocity or acceleration), force, (sound) pressure etc. The electrical signal might be
voltage, current or charge; optical and mechanical outputs are not discussed here.
21.*2
Important characteristics of a transducer are linearity, sensitivity and dynamic range over
the frequency band of useful operation; sensitivity to be described here as the output
generated per unit input. Moreover it is essential that only the intended phenomenon is
sensed and converted into an electric signal. This means that for example for a vibration
pick-up an input vibration in the transverse direction should generate a low output signal
compared to that for the same input in the nominal sensitivity direction. Also pressure
transducers, such as microphones and hydrophones, should preferably show a
minimum sensitivity for vibrations.
Amongst the measurement transducers most frequently applied in noise and vibration
studies on board ships are:
microphones, converting acoustic dynamic pressure into an electrical signal
hydrophones, similar to microphones but for underwater noise measurements
-_ vibration pick-ups such as displacement sensors, velocity meters and accelerometers, which convert vibration in voltage or charge
-- force transducers, capable of producing electric signals (again voltage or charge)
proportional to the force transmitted via the element
--
Combinations of more elements are possible e.g. in impedance heads. (with force
transducer and accelerometer) or in triaxial accelerometers. The microphone and the
accelerometer are elucidated in combination with airborne sound (see 21.3.1) resp.
structure-borne sound (see 21.3.2) measurements.
The various types of electrodynamic sources, such as loudspeakers, underwater sound
sources and structure-borne sound exciters are not discussed here since they are mostly
applied in research work only. (Also strain-gages are not described since not intensively
applied in noise control measurements.) Most sensor transducers produce very weak
signals and have a high impedance character; the input part of the electronic system,
therefore, must carefully match with those properties.
21.2.3 The signal conditioning and analysis is the core of the measurement system.
The signal conditioning serves to validate the transducer signals for the analyzing or
recording. It has two main functions:
to amplify the weak transducer signals to a value suitable for further handling
and less sensible to interference (e.g. from other signals, mains inter ference or
electronic noise) mostly combined with conversions to a suitably low
impedance level.
-- to limit the frequency range and/or to adjust. the frequency shape of the signal by
adequate filtering.
--
The above actions are mostly accomplished in an analogue electronic circuit. Digital
filtering usually is applied in combination with the digital signal analysis.
Sometimes this part of the measurement system is also used to adjust the total response
in order to obtain simple and elegant sensitivity corrections in the output data.
The analysis function serves to process the electronic signals in such a way that data,
useful for further elaboration and judgement, is obtained. Considering the character of
the signals, this may cover from a conversion into one rms value with a curved filtering
(e.g. as for dBA)averaged over a certain time period up to detailed filtering in contiguous,
narrow frequency bands or single frequency components, including phase relations, as a
function of time to be used for further (digital) manipulation or calculation processes.
Basically the analysis distinguishes the filtering actions and the detection or other
21.3
modification of the signal, mostly including conversion into rms values. The system can
be either analogue with discrete filter sections and rms circuits etc. or digital where, after
an analog/digital conversion a Fast Fourier Transformation (FF1) is executed which can
be followed by various types of calculations. Those calculations can reach from simple
rms over standard frequency bands inclusive of shaping (into e.g. dBA) to the more
complicated operations with multichannel systems applying coherence techniques,
acoustic intensity and power flow methods, modal analysis, etc., see ref. 14/, /5/ and /6/.
The capabilities of digital signal analysis and manipulation nowadays experiences very
fast improvements and extensions.
The expression "Real Time Analyzer" is frequently used for various types of instruments
in this field. Originally it should mean that the analyzed result is available within a very
short timespan (miliseconds) after the phenomenon occurred and that the information is
available "gap-free", meaning that there are no interruptions of non-analyzed parts of the
signal, such equivalent to most analogue instruments.
In practice, however, the term "real time "is used rather loosely where "high-speed
spectrum analyzers" is a better flag to cover the cargo, see ref. /M/.
A further description exceeds the scope of the course; the reader is referred to the
extensive literature on those subjects; for further introduction is referred to /4/ and M7;
the standard reference is /5/.
21.2.4 The data handling, storage and display is the final stage in the measurements.
The storage of the analogue signals involves all types of permanent storage most commonly as tape recording inclusive of all recent progress such as with DAT and optical
disc. Modern systems are able to record and to reproduce the original signals almost
undistorted and with full dynamic range and frequency covering. The data handling may
show an overlap with the analysis where various manipulations of the data could be
integrated with this phase, such as averaging, statistical calculations, maximum and
minimum values, various types of auto- and cross-spectra, etc., before the storage and/or
the display is effected.
Results are mostly stored in digital form on magnetic disks, either hard-disk or floppy,
with the use of a computer. The display is on a computer screen or on hard copies from
any type of print-out. The possibilities are almost unlimited compared with some twenty
years ago and a multitude of different systems is available. The reader is advised to
become acquainted with the specific systems applied in his area.
21.3 SOME TOPICS
This chapter describes some topics which are expected to be of special interest when
judging the quality of a measurement result.
21.3.1 For airborne sound measurements special microphones have been developped
which meet a series of requirements such as with respect to
sensitivity and frequency response
dynamhic range
frequency range
directivity pattern, etc.
reliability, repeatability and accuracy
low degree of vulnerability
field and laboratory calibration capabilities
* environmental conditions
dimensions (mostly coupled to other performance data).
21.4
The condensor type microphone is the best able to fulfil those requirements and is
therefore most widely used for measurements. The basic principle is the variation of the
capacity between two electrically charged plates with their separation distance.
One of the plates is made light and flexible and can move dynamically with the acoustic
pressure variations. The capacity change produces, for the constant charge, a voltage
variation which can be detected and amplified, see fig. 21.2.
The system requires a polarization voltage which is either supplied externally or, with a
so called electret microphone (prepolarized condensor microphone), generated by the
properties of the material itself. An extensive range of various types of condensor
microphones is available, suitable for a wide range of different measurements. The reader
is referred to /21,3/ and /8/ for further information.
Also ceramic type measuring microphones, which use a piezoelectric ceramic as the
voltage generating element, are sometimes used, see ref. /9/ page 110.
For standard airborne sound measurements in the field a Sound Level Meter is used in
which all aspects of a simple portable measuring instrument are integrated, see ref. /2/,/9/
and /10/. A schematic diagram is given in fig. 21.3. A good calibration facility of the
microphone (and the total circuit), various switchable filters, either shaping filters such as
dBA and/or frequency band filters in 1/3 octave or full octaves and a fast, slow, peak or
even maximum hold/pulse meter readings are included. Depending on the type of
measurement, reaching from precision research to a simple check, the Sound Level
Meter should comply with a number of international (ISO and IEC, e.g. IEC 651) standards to obtain the designation:
0 Laboratory Reference
1 Precision
2 General Use
3 Survey
Specific instruments fore each category are commercially available. The decreasing grade
of accuracy of the successive categories will be clear; in general also cost and complexity
of the instrument and also the calibration requirements relate to this classification.
21.3.2 For underwater noise measurements and measurements in liquids the abovementioned microphones are fully unsuitable. For that purpose special transducers have been
developped. Those hydrophones generally use piezoelectric ceramics as the sensitive
element, mostly shaped as a hollow cylinder or as a series of stacked discs. The sound
pressure causes deformation of the ceramic which generates an electric signal. Various
types of measurement hydrophones are commercially available from specialized companies.
21.3.3 For structure-borne sound measurements a transducer is required which produces
an electrical output simply related to the vibrational input.
In this respect the piezoelectric accelerometer has taken the full lead over all other
possible principles such as proximity, transformer type, capacity probe, position potentiometer, dynamic/moving coil or magnet and piezoresistive type which all nowadays enjoy
only incidental specialized applications in noise control related measurements. The basic
principle of the piezoelectric accelerometer can at best be illustrated from a cross-sectional drawing of a traditional compression type, see fig. 21.4 and ref. /10/. The seismic
mass and the piezoelectric element act as a mass-spring system with a high natural
frequency. Below that frequency the base and the seismic mass vibrate in phase and at
21.5
equal level; after all a basic property of such a mass-spring system. The force to vibrate
the seismic mass is transmitted via the piezoelectric element and converted into an
electric signal. This force is the product of mass (i.e. the seismic mass) and acceleration,
making the electrical output proportional to the input acceleration; hence its name
accelerometer.
More advanced types of accelerometers use a shear loading of the piezoelement, see fig.
21.5. The sensitivity is mostly expressed as voltage or charge output per unit acceleration
input, usually my, respectively pC, for IMS,2 or 1 g (abt. 10 ms*2) input. Various types of
accelerometers are commercially available from miniature below one gram of mass and
consequently a low sensitivity up to the larger types of about 500 gram of mass showing
a high sensitivity. Types for general application are 10 to 20 gram and have a sensitivity
of 1 to 10 mV/ ms2' or 1 to 10 pC/MS, 2.
Simple structure-borne sound measurements can be executed by replacing the microphone with an accelerometer connected to the input circuit of a Sound Level Meter. It is
obvious that the instrument readings must be carefully corrected for accelerometer
sensitivity to obtain the correct result; a full calibration with a vibration source is strongly
recommended to avoid any mistakes.
*The positioning and fastening of an accelerometer should be executed with great care.
Especially the performance at the higher frequencies may depend on the fastening
method. Most accelerometers are provided with a threaded (NFl 0-32) hole.
For more permanent use a threaded hole, carefully machined at the measurement
position, is recommended using a threaded stud to mount the accelerometer. For
incidental measurements anyhow the use of cementing studs is strongly recommended,
see also ref./ I1/ page 88 etc.; fig. 21.6 illustrates this way of mounting with specially
manufactured studs. Electric isolation between stud and measurement position, e.g. via
the thin layer of cement, is strongly recommended to reduce the risk of earth loops in the
measurement circuit.
21.3.4 The initial calibration of a transducer has mostly been accomplished by the
manufacturer and registered on a calibration chart. Superficially this seems adaquate for
a long term application in the field. However, there are very strong reasons to integrate
some form of calibration in every set of measurements.
Major reasons are:
trace deviations in transducer performance
to verify the correct operation of electronic circuits
to inject a standard signal at the measurement system input which acts
as a reference signal
to verify the frequency response of the system by the injection of a
variable frequency calibration signal
to enhance accuracy and reliability.
**to
The type of calibration can be a direct acoustical (for microphones or hydrophones) or a

vibrational (for vibration transducers) input produced by special calibration 'sources. Also
an electrical signal may be injected at the electronic input of the measuring system; use
of the socalled "Insert-Voltage" technique is recommended, see ref. /l/. Single frequency
signals are used for sensitivity calibration; either swept or stepped sine or sometimes
wide-band noise is used for frequency response calibration. It is urgently advised to
record also the calibration signals as a reference when tape recording or any other type
of data storage is applied.
21.6
A careful calibration is essential for accurate and reliable measurements. A measurement

executed without a suitable calibration procedure should be judged with great suspicion
regarding the quality of the resulti
21.3.5 Special problems related to the reliabilty of the results are signal-to-noise
problems and crass-talk, which both can induce a serious limitation of the measurement,
possibilities; both reduce the dynamic range and the minimum levels which can be
measured. The noise or background might be produced by
from other machinery or sources not intended to take part in the
measurements
unwanted signals from the electronic measuring circuit such as electronic
noise from high sensitivity input circuits
hum and other mains interference, mainly caused by inadequate earthing
or shielding
**signals
Cross-talk also raises background levels and reduces the measuring capabilities of a
system. It is caused by electro, (magnetic) coupling between circuits where signals from
one circuit (possibly a circuit with strong, high level signals of the measuring set-up) inject
into a sensor or other low level circuit. The recognition, identification and reduction of the
various types of background noise requires a considerable experience and patience (and
sometimes a little bit of luck[).
21.4 SOME SPECIAL MEASUREMENT METHODS
In this chapter some special measurement methods will be described which have proved
their value in ship noise control work and which the reader is expected to come across
sooner or later.
21 .4.1 Reciprocity
Reciprocity in mechanical constructions is already known for more than a century,
ref./1 21. Reciprocity experiments on the transmission of sound in ships have been
elucidated in /13/. In this paragraph some main lines will be described.
The transmission of sound and vibration between two paints in a linear, passive system is
identical to the transmission obtained when the position of source and receiver are
interchanged. Obviously a number of conditions should be carefully understood and
fulfilled.
The capability of reciprocity as a powerful method is illustrated here with the measurement of seating transfer functions, a method frequently executed and published. The
interest is in the transfer function from a force on a seating or on the hull of the ship to a
sound pressure at one position in the water, see fig. 21.7. The force can be in any
direction; also a moment can be considered, of course with the appropriate adoption of
the system. It is essential that only the intended input is applied.
All other inputs, especially those in the other degrees of freedom than the intended one,
must be zero. This means that transverse and rotational (or momnent-) excitation must be
avoided, which is not a simple task. The resulting underwater sound pressure is then
measured carefully at a certain position. Full scale application of such a "direct experiment" is surrounded with a range of practical difficulties. The result, however, will be a
transfer function: sound pressure as produced per unit input force: p/F.
21.7
The reciprocal test applies an omnnidirectional sound source ("point source") with
accurately known source strength at the position of the hydrophone. The response is
measured as acceleration at the original exitation position in the ship. Reciprocity teaches
then that:
p/F
a/V
where i represents the volume acceleration m3&2" of the source. By simple repositioning
of the accelerometer or even using a multiple of accelerometers with the associated
multichannel receiver systems a large amount of transfer functions can be measured
simultaneously in a short period of time.
Also by using matched pairs of accelerometers the rotational responses and with that the
transfer for moment excitation but also for in-plane excitation can be obtained. Also other
positions for the sound source in the water can be selected, thus representing other
receiver/hydrophone positions in the direct case. In addition to the very large reduction in
measurement effort and increase in accuracy, the reciprocity method usually gains also
from much better signal-to-noise properties (logically signal-to-noise is not reciprocal and
therefore not the same for the direct and the reciprocal measurement).
The correct application of the, in practice very simple, boundary conditions is vital, see
ref./1 3/ far further details. To obtain confidence in the method it is recommended to
perform a number of direct and reciprocal transfer measurements in various situations
and investigate the cause of possible deviations. Usually one inclines to attribute
deviations to the reciprocity measurement or even to reject the principlel The direct
measurement, however, may even inhibit larger problems than the reciprocal one.
Furthermore the neglect of boundary conditions and the incorrect application of reciprocity
by selecting an incorrect transfer relation,see ref /6/, Appendix A, are frequent mistakes.
One could even say that that a reciprocity experiment is a reliable means to verify the
accuracy of a direct measurement. For further study the reader is referred also to
/14/,/1 5/,/16/ and /17/. Some further examples of the application of the reciprocity
method in experiments on ship noise control are:
- determination of propeller source strength from inboard sound levels, see /18/,/19/
and /20/: the sound transfer function is measured in a reciprocal way, since the
installation of a hydrophone very close to the propeller is much easier than the
arrangement of a large, powerful underwater noise source at that position.
- sound path quantification, see /13/,: the contribution via a specific sound path, e.g. the
mountings under a machine, can be determined in a reciprocal way (with the engine
stopped) by disconnecting succes ,sively all flanking paths (shaft coupling, bellows, etc.);
this experiment is practically impossible on a running machine.
- acoustic scale models, see /6/,: it may be more convenient to install a (larger)
exciter at the original receiver position and mount a small accelerometer at the
sound source position. So to determine the sound transfer from a model engine
seating to underwater (or to the accommodation), the installation of an (underwater)
sound source and small accelerometers on the seating is more practical.
- multi-directional sound transfer experiments, see /6/,: separation of translations and
rotations at the receiver position using the "two accelerometer method", see paragraph
21.4.3 is much easier to perform than excitation with forces and moments in various
directions. Also "in-plane excitation" is difficult to realize with the usual electrbdynamic
exciters; with the reciprocity method using a multiple set of accelerometers this can easily
been done.
21.8
21.4.2 Coherence technique

Coherence technique is a special measurement technique based on digital signal analysis
applied on two different but related signals. The first is a reference signal which is
strongly related to the noise source and excludes signals from any other source, either
mechano-acoustic or electronic, and where its frequency content and phase is the critical
information. The other is a signal at some receiver position originating from the same
source but somewhat masked by background or distortion. The coherence technique, as
a digital signal analysis method, has the capability to establish that part of the receiver
signal that is to be attributed to that specific source.
This is called the coherent output. It also produces a coherence function, indicating the
grade of relation between the reference signal and the resulting signal. The coherence
function goes from zero (no coherence, i.e. no source related data found in the signal)
and one (full coherence, receiving signal fully originates from the reference source). The
method functions most effective for sources with stable pure tones. See also ref. /4/.
The coherence technique is a powerful means to improve the signal-to-noise conditions
during transmission measurements. It has also the capability to identify the contribution of
one (reference)source in the response at the receiver position when more sources are
active. The effect of the method, however, may be limited by noise from other machinery
on the reference signal. Other disturbing factors are the multidelay characteristics of the
transmission path, see ref. /19/, and time variations in the transmission path both giving
rise to loss of coherence.
21.4.3 Two-accelerometer method
Structure-bome sound manifests itself in structural motion in all degrees of freedom, i.e.
basically in three translational and three rotational components. So for a full description of
the sound transfer it is necessary to measure at one position all components separately.
The use of two identical accelerometers - connected to electronic devices to adjust for
small differences in sensitivity and phase of the accelerometers - makes it possible to
derive the translations from in-phase measurements and the rotations from anti-phase
measurements. The signal handling (in-phase or anti-phase) can be accomplished by
either an analog electronic network or by digital signal handling. Methods like this are
used for the description of transfer functions (for six degrees of freedom) of resilient
elements, properties of seating structures from reciprocal measurements, in source
strenth measurements, see ref. /22/ and /23/, and in the determination
of a full set of
input parameters for mathematical models. Multiple sets of accelerometers
are also
applied for the measurement of structure-borne sound energy flow along pipes and
similar structures, being one of the methods to describe and investigate the transmission
via various paths to a receiver position. A description of this method exceeds the scope
of this paragraph, see ref. /6/, chapter 5.
21.4.4 Substitution source method
To determine the relative importance of the various sound paths from one machine, a
substitution source can be applied. which generates sound via one specific sound path.
Both the source input and the result at the receiver position can be compared with similar
results from the running machine. For example, a diesel engine produces both structure-borne and airborne sound. With respect to airborne sound the source can be substituted by a loudspeaker. Comparing the results (differences I) with those obtained with a
running diesel engine gives an indication on the relative importance, and in specific cases
also on the absolute value, of that path.
21.9
A correction for the airborne sound source strength of the loudspeaker compared with
that of the diesel engine is required. Similar experiments can be executed for structure-borne sound transmission paths but it is obvious that a more complex effort is required
in that case to obtain reliable answers. The substitution source method is typically an
experimental method to investigate existing situations and where the results can be of
essential value for improvement actions. Also in many situations on full scale and on
model scale, where more information on a certain transmission path is required, this
method can be very powerful.
21.5 MEASUREMENT STANDARDS
In various national and international standards guidance notes or requirements are given
for noise measurements in ship(board) situations, sometimes in combination with noise
level requirements, see ref. /24/ to /27/. Measurements executed according to one or
more of those standards simplify reliable and accurate comparision. Also in legal
procedures measurements executed according to a generally adopted standard have a
higher confidence level.
21.6 FURTHER RECOMMENDATIONS
In performing noise measurements and judging the results it is recommended to pay
attention to a number of aspects concisely discussed in the following paragraphs.
-calibration
Calibration of transducers and electronics is essential for reliable measurements; anyhow

a calibration must be executed directly before as well as after the measurements, see
also paragraph 21.3.5. Calibration data and readings must be recorded for further
reference and verification in a similar way as the measured data. The calibration is mostly
executed with a stable and accurate acoustic source of known magnitude; various types
are commercially available, see the appropriate manafacturers data sheets.
*fluctuating or impulsive type sounds
The measurement of strongly fluctuating sound, which show large variations even with
the meter reading at "SLOW", requires special precautions. Vauious standardized
measurement methods are available where a certain averaging over time takes place.
When fluctuations larger than 5 dB(A) occur a special method of averaging is required,
mostly automatically executed by a modern high class sound level meter. Such a
systerm takes samples at regular intervals and averages the results via an internal
calculation procedure. Fluctuations smaller than 5 dB(A) can be red directly from the
meter applying averaging by carefull observation of the meter reading; mostly the
averaged value is found at the 2/3 position of the fluctuating indicator. Pulsative sound
requires a special treatment which goes to far beyond the basic scope of the course,
specialist literature is recommended.
averaging over space/position
Since sound fields, e.g. in a cabin, may vary over the position in a cabin (and since
various positions in a cabin can be used in practice) it is required to "average over
measurement space" to obtain relavant results.
A simple way of averaging over space is~to, move the transducer (microphone) slowly
over that space and to make an averaged meter reading as the result.
-
description of measurement conditions and situations

It is essential that an extensive logbook is made from data on the exact measurement
positions and the (operational) conditions at the moment of the measurements. Not only
the obvious data such as exact position and orientation but also the condition of a cabin
*(furniture, bed, etc.,ventilation, door open or closed, number of persons (absorbtionl) and
-
21.*IG
condition (load, speed) of all machinery including auxiliaries. This largely improves the
possibility of a careful study of deviations in the result and their origin. Possibly some of
those factors can be modified during the measurements as a means of diagnoses, e.g. by
simply switching of.
- importance of 1/1 or 1/3 octave results
A broadband level (either linear or dB(A),etc.) provides very limited possibilities for
analyzing causes of excesses or deviations. In that respect a 1/1 octave band and the
more so a 1/3 octave reading provides much better capability for diagnostic activities.
This will be clear from the information from other lessons in this course. It is strongly
recommended to collect in addition to the dB(A) values also the 1/1- octave or better 1/3octave data for diagnostic use. Also taperecording of the signals (with calibration) is an
excellent method to preserve the data for later diagnostics.
21.7 CLOSURE
The ample use of references /3/ and /9/ from B&K and of references /2/J4/,17/,/8/ and /10/
from Noise Control Engineering for the preparation of this text is kindly acknowledged.
Furthermore the critical and valuable assistance of the collegues of the Ship Acoustics
Department of the TNO Institute of Applied Physics is highly appreciated as are the
patience and the accuracy of the secretarial assistance.
21.11
REFERENCES
/1/
/2/
/3/
/4/
/5/
/6/
/7/
/8/
/9/
/10/
/11/
/12/
/13/
/14/
/15/
/16/
/17/
/18/
/19/
/20/
Beranek, L.L.,"Acoustic measurements".

John Wiley & Sons,Inc. New York,
1949.
Starr, E.A.,L.L.Beranek,"Noise Measurements
1977", Noise Control
Eng.,Volg9-No.5, Nov-Dec 1977, p.
100-108.
Hassal, J.R., K.Zaveri,"Acoustic Noise
Measurements", Brael & Kjaer,
Denmark, June 1988.
Enochson,L.,"Digital Techniques in
Data Analysis", Noise Control
Eng.,Vol.9-No.5 Nov-Dec 1977, p.
Bendat,J.S., A.G.Piersol,"Random 138-154.
Data: Analysis and Measurement
Procedures", Wiley Interscience, New
Verheij, J.W.," Multi-path sound transferYork, 1971.
from resiliently mounted shipboard
machinery", Thesis, Delft University
of
Technology, 1982.
Kamperman,G.W., Moore,M.,"Real
time frequency analyzers for noise
control", Noise Control Eng.,Vol.9No.5, Nov-Dec 1977, p. 131-136.
Rasmussen,G.,"Measurement Microphones",
Noise Control Eng., Vol.9-No.5, Nov-Dec 1977, p. 109-119.
Peterson, A.P.G., E.E. Gross, Jr,"Handbook
of noise measurement,
General Radio Company, Concord,
Massachusetts,
USA, 1972.
Kundert,W.R.,"Sound level meters:
The state of the art" Noise Control
Eng.,Vol.9-No.5, Nov-Dec 1977, p.120-130.
Serridge, M, and T.R.Licht,"Piezoelectrc
preamplifier handbook", BrOel & Kjaer, accelerometer and vibration
Rayleigh, J.W.,"The Theory of Sound", Denmark, November 1987.
volume I, Dover Publications, New
York, second edition, 1945.
ten Wolde,T ten,"Reciprocity experiments
on the transmission of sound in
ships", Thesis, Delft. University of
Technology, 1973.
Steenhoek, H.F., T. ten Wolde,"The
reciprocal measurement of
mechanicap-acoustical transfer functions",
Acustica, Vol. 23, Heft 5, 1970,
p. 301-305.
Wolde, T.ten,"On the validity and
application of reciprocity in acoustical,
mechano-acousticaj and other dynamical
systems, Acustica, Vol. 28m, eft
1 (1973), p. 23-32.
Wolde, T.ten, J.W.Verheij, H.F.Steenhoek,"Reciprocity
method for the
measurement of mechanoa-cousticaj
transfer functions", J. Sound & Vibr.,
1975, 42(1), p.
Bakel, J.G.van, 49-55.
H.F.Steenhoek,"On recent ship noise
transmission experiments using the reciprocity
method",
Proc.
Undersee Defence
Technology (UDT) Conference '88,
26-28 October,1988, London, UK,
p.
297-303.
Wolde, T.ten, A.de Bruijn,"A new method
for the measurement of the
acoustical source strength of cavitating
ship
Shipbuilding Progress, Vol. 22, November propellers", International
1975, No.255, p. 385-396
Janssen,J.H., W.H.Moelker,"Some
experiments
on the transmission of
propeller cavitation noise into the ship's
structure" Proc. ISSA'86, 7-9 Oct.
1986, The Hague; Martinus Nijhoff
Publishers,
de Bruijn, A.,W.H,Moelker, F.G.J.Absil,"Recent Dordrecht, The Netherlands
progress in propeller
cavitation noise experiments", Proc.
ISSA'86, 7-9 Oct. 1986, The Hague;
Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht,
The Netherlands.
21.12
/21/
/22/
/23/
/24/
/25/
/26/
/27/
Verhulst,K.,J.W.Verheij,"Coherence measurements
in multi-delay
systems", J. Sound & Vibration, 1979,
62(3),
ISO/DP 9611 "Acoustics - Characterization p. 460-463.
of sources of structure-borne
sound - Measurement of translational
and rotational velocity levels on the
mounting feet of resiliently mounted machinery",
CIMAC,"Structure-borne noise from high-speed ISO/TC 43/SCI.
and medium-speed
engines", CIMAC Standard Method, draft
(completd 1990) in the phase of
approval by the CIMAC Permanent Committee.
International Maritime Organization, "Noise
levels
noise levels on board ships and recommendation on board ships, Code on
on methods of
measuring noise levels at listening posts",
Resolution A. 468(XII) of 19
Nov. 1981, London 1982.
ISO 1922, "Acoustics-Measurements
of noise emitted by vessels on inland
waterways and harbours, ISO 1922-1975E.
ISO 2923, "Acoustics-Measurement of
noise on board vessels", ISO
2923-1975E.
DIN 80 061, "Gerauschmessungen auf
Wasserfahrzeugen", Nov. 1968;
new issue March 1982.
21.13
I
"
I
I CALIBRATION
PHYSICAL
PARAMETER
TRANSDUCER
I
DATA
I STORAGE
ISIGNAL
CONDITIONING
Microphone
Hydrophone
Vibration
Force
ANALYSIS
DATA
DISPLAY
HUMAN
OBSERVER
Amplifier
Filter
Passbandanalysing
(analoa/digital/
hybrid)
Averaging
Statistics
Var. digital oper.
Signal recording
and replay
Net er
Scope
Data
Loudspeaker
Diagram
etc
Fg. 21.1
Basic concept of measurement system. The three basic

funcfional parts are:
--
the transducer
--
the signal conditioning and analysis

the data handling, storage and display
--
21 . 14
Equalization adjustment
fsilver wire
ring arrangement
Capillary tube for pesr
equalization
pesr
iprg
iprg
00
Quartz insulator
Symmetrical
protection grid
Backplate
Output terminal
gold
Fig.21.2
Sectional view of a condensor microphone cartridge

from /3/, page 117.
DC
OUTPUT
AC
SUPPL ('IF
_J
WIND
SCREEN I
Flg.21.3
TrFAST
AVERAGE
SLOW
RECUIED)
--WEIGHTING
-WEIGHTIN
MIC
TRANSDUCER
A-WEIGHTINC
PRE
AMP
[4]SIGNAL
~FLAT
SO
ADJ
GAIN
AM P
COND.
ANALYSIS
DISPLAY
A simplified block diagram of a Sound Level Meter; from 12t, page 103:
21.15
S
-
Centre Mounted Compression
Fig.21.4
850412
Cross-section drawing of an accelerometer of traditional design and

intensively applied since about mid sixties, from /11/, page 24.
M = seismic mass, P = piezoelectric element, B = base and S = spring.
Piezoelectric
Cenltre Post.
element
Seismic
mass
Aceolerometel
base
Fig.21.5
Schematic drawing of the Delta ShearA piezoelectric accelerometer of

advanced design which is intensively used for many types of measurements, from /11/, page 13.
21.16
Ai
Fig.21.6
Cementing stud
Mounting the accelerometer on the measurement position using a

threaded cementing stud, from/11/ page 100.
UsuaJlly a fast hardening, two component cement, e.g. dental cement, is
used.
-direct
reciprocal
12
Fig.21.7
A typical example of the application of reciprocity to measure a transfer

function. Basic interest is in P/,, which can be obtained by measuring its
reciprocal%, where 0 denotes the volume acceleration of the underwater
sound source at the original meceiver position and a the acceleration at the
original source position.
21.17
LESSON 22
16 th WEGEMT SCHOOL
SESSION
CHAPTER
LESSON
TEACHER
COMPANY
Noise and Vibration

: 5. NOISE AND VIBRATION CONTROL IN PRACTICE
: 22. Conflicting requirements in ship design
KAI A. ABRAHAMSEN
DET NORSKE VERITAS CLASSIFICATION AS.
DSO 263, Noise and Vibration,

P.O. Box 300,
N-1322 Hovik,
NORWAY
ABSTRACT
Noise and vibration control on board ships, depend on a number
of practical restrictions. These may be caused by safety
requirements, economy, maintenance, architectural design,
hygiene, space, weight, etc. During a design process noise and
vibration control measures will often have to be adjusted due
to requirements from other disciplines. Alternatively the
noise and vibration responsible will have to convince people
from other disciplines. It is important to have a certain
knowledge of restrictions in order to avoid as many conflicts
as possible. This lecture outlines the most frequently
encountered restrictions to noise and vibration control
measures.
AUTHORS' BIOGRAPHY
KAI A. ABRAHAMSEN is a senior project engineer at Veritas

Marine Services. He has been with the company since 1982 and
is working in the section for Noise and Vibration. During his
time in Veritas, he has carried out a wide range of projects
on noise and vibration problems. The projects have included
design
assessments,
predictions,
measurements,
trouble
shooting and research, on board most types of vessels as well
as on offshore installations.
Before joining Veritas, Mr. Abrahamsen worked at the
Acoustical Laboratory of Sintef at the University of
Trondheim. He is a graduate of the University of Salford and
has an M.Sc. from the University of Southampton.
22.1
1.0 INTRODUCTION:
e.g.
cargo,
Ships
are
built
for
different purposes,
passengers, cruise/leisure, research, fishing and military.
All these different vessel types are optimised and constructed
for a particular job. Also, they do usually have varying
requirements to noise and vibration control.
vessels it is important 'that hearing damage is not
For all
inflicted to the crew. Further it is important that the crew
is allowed sufficient peace and quiet to be able to rest. From
a safety point of-view all persons on board should be able to
comprehend messages and alarm signals. On yachts and cruisevessels noise as well as vibration ought to be as low as
technically possible. Passengers on such vessels are expecting
a high degree of comfort and may be unfamiliar with ships.
Further, they are spending too short time on board to become
acclimatised to the environment. For research, fishing and
some military vessels the noise radiated into the water may be
of prime importance. High vibration levels may cause damage to
structure and machinery in addition to being uncomfortable and
should be avoided on all types of vessels.
In order to satisfy the particular requirements certain noise
and vibration reducing measures may have to be implemented. At
this stage in the course you have got a fair amount of
information about noise and vibration reducing measures and
noise and vibration
However,
their physical principles.
control is not always as simple as it may seem at a f irst
glance. In this lecture we shall look at problems and
restrictions that may arise due to conflicts with other design
parameters.
2.0 SAFETY
2.1 General
All vessels have to comply with certain safety regulations,
specified by:
-
International organisations like IMO0

National authorities
Classification societies
Military standards
navigation,
evacuation,
flotation,
'These may cover fire,
The
design.
the
of
aspects
machinery
and
structural
requirements may vary depending on the type of vessel. It is
outside the scope of this lecture to treat the various
requirements in detail, only potential conflict areas are
outlined here.
2.2 Fire
From a fire safety aspect, there will be restrictions on the
use of certain materials in certain areas. Examples of such
areas may be: inside the engine room, the divisions between
machinery spaces and accommodation areas, between the galley
22.2
and the accommodation and between the bridge and neighbouring

locations. The casing and ventilation ducts to/from machinery
spaces are usually defined as being a part of the engine room.
The restrictions will
usually
be covered by
certain
standardised fire classes such as "A-60", "A-30", "A-15", "Aot$, "B-15" and "B-0" specified by IMO in refs. /I/ and /2/, or
similar "H" classes specified by offshore organisations.
From a noise and vibration control point of view this will
limit the type of measures that can be used in the relevant
areas. Certain types of absorptive materials, linings, viscous
damping materials, plastics and rubbers will be restricted.
Most floating floors can on the other hand be used as part of
the fire insulation and thereby reducing the requirement to
fire insulation on the opposite side of a partition, see
example in figure 1.
AccommodationI
I M steel
70 mm mineral wool
steel deck
Engine room
A 60 floating floor on top of decK

deck
in stead of insulation below
Figure 1, Example of a partition above an engine room.
22.3
An exception to this is vessels built in FRP/CRP single skin

or sandwich materials where the material has to be protected
on the side facing the potential fire due to structural
integrity requirements.
The fire insulation required in a machinery space can usually
advantageously be utilized as airborne noise insulation. By
increasing the air gap between layers, adjusting the material
dimensions and by using resilient bonds between material
layers the fire insulation can be optimised acoustically.
.One should note that the fire requirements usually applies to
an integral bulkhead or deck construction. Therefore a
material to be used on top of a deck, being a boundary having
a fire rating, will have to sustain a high surface temperature
without emitting smoke or poisonous gases and without being
ignited. Also a material to be used inside or as a part of a
partition with a fire rating will have to keep it's
structural
integrity in a fire. E.g. resilient elements of rubber or
synthetic materials may not be used to secure a lining if the
lining is to be part of the fire insulation, certain resilient
bulkhead penetrations for hydraulic pipes, exhaust systems
ventilation ducts and shafts can not be used.
In order to avoid violations of the fire regulations one
should be aware of the relevant regulations for a certain
project and consult the manufacturers of noise control
materials for information
about fire ratings, flammability
and smoke emission. If possible it may be advisable to avoid
placing noise sensitive areas close to locations with fire
ratings due to the limitation in useful noise and vibration
control materials.
2.3 Floatation
Most vessels have certain compartments which have to be
watertight and able to sustain a certain pressure.
Such
restrictions usually apply to sections of a ship and below the
waterline. This may put restrictions onto the use of resilient
bulkhead penetrations for pipes, ducts and shafts. One way to
overcome such difficulties could be to locate critical pipes
and ducts above the waterline. This may, on the other hand,
locate the critical elements closer to the receiving positions
and hence be disadvantageous.
A few of the commercially
available bulkhead penetrations on the market are rated for
water tight bulkheads and for A6O fire insulation, see example
in figure 2. Large size and weight are disadvantages of such
elements.
Similar requirements apply to windows. This may restrict the
use of thin flexible windows having poor radiation properties
and therefore being desirable from a noise control point of
view.
Such measures would be of particular usefulness on
smaller high speed passenger vessels, having large window.
areas close to strong noise sources.
22.4
bulkhead
rubber
Figure 2, Example of a bulkhead penetration which is rated

for water tight bulkheads and for A60 fire
insulation.
2.4 Evacuation and Navigation
Requirements for evacuation and navigation of vessels do
generally not lead to restrictions in application of noise and
vibration control materials. Arrangement considerations may be
slightly restricted, due to requirements for swift evacuation
and visibility from the bridge. This do not normally cause any
significant conflicts.
Both navigation and evacuation may require a certain level of
noise control in order for messages and signals to be
comprehended.
2.5 Structural Aspects
Noise and vibration control may require a local or global
stiffening / strengthening of the structure, from a safety
point of view this will usually have no implications.
Reduction of the stiffness may not be allowed due to
structural integrity requirements. Reduction of the stiffness
of local structural components may be used to lower a natural
frequency below a critical frequency range. The same effect
can usually be achieved by adding mass. Alternatively the
natural frequency may be increased above the critical
frequency range by stiffening.
22.5
2.6 Machinery Aspects

Safe and reliable operation of machinery is critical for all
vessels. The machinery is often major noise and vibration
sources. Hence measures like
resilient engine mounts,
resilient couplings, exhaust silencers, intake silencers and
enclosures are frequently specified. These measures may
influence the safe operation of the machinery.
This is
particularly so if the vessel will be exposed to shock loads,
e.g. high speed vessels, military vessels, ice breakers and
vessels operating under extreme sea conditions.
For acoustic reasons it is often desirable to have rather soft
isolators. In a seaway such mounts may allow large deflections
of the mounted machinery. If the deflections are too large the
isolators may break. Problems with connected shafts or
auxiliary connections such as cooling water pipes, fuel pipes
and exhaust ducts may also arise, see fig 3. All auxiliary
connections must therefore be matched to the softness of the
isolators.
Unless
solutions
with
matching
auxiliary
connections can be found, e.g. flexible shaft couplings the
choice of isolators will be restricted.
In order to restrict deflections of resiliently mounted
machinery as much as possible one should try to design the
isolation system as stable as possible. This may be achieved
by having the centre of gravity as low as possible, by
inclined positioning of the isolators or by separating the
mounts as much as possible, see figure 4.
Problems can to a certain degree be avoided by using end stops
or "snubbers" to restrict the deflections within allowable
fuel pipes and

electrical connections
flexible cooling pipe
exhaust compensator
RESILIENT
Figure 3, Resilient mounting and auxiliary connections
92.6
low centre of gravity
inclined mounts
separation of mounts
Figure 4, Stable design of resilient mounting systems

limits, see fig. 5. Nevertheless, when the end stops are met,
a shock load is imposed on the isolated equipment. If the end
stops are met too frequently the end stops themselves,
isolators or engine brackets may break due to fatigue.
Excessive
single
loads
may
have
the
same
effect
instantaneously. The knowledge about the motions that may
occur on board a vessel is limited and accurate calculations
of maximum deflections may be difficult or impossible. This
leads to a conservative attitude from many shipbuilders
towards allowing acoustically desirable isolators, and may
hence put restrictions on the choice of isolators.
VIBRATING
separate end stops
MOUNT
end stop integrated in isolator
Figure 5, End stops for resilient mounts
22.7
3.0 ECONOMY
3.1 General
Theoretically the noise and vibration on board any vessel can

be virtually eliminated if only the necessary amount of noise
and vibration reducing measures are included in the design.
This may, however, be prohibitively expensive or too space /
weight demanding such that the vessel become uneconomic in
operation.
3.2 Cost of control measures
The cost of noise and vibration control depends primarily on
the following:
- Criteria for allowable noise and vibration levels
- The strength and number of sources, e.g. main engines,
propellers, exhaust systems, hydraulic systems, etc.
- The space and weight allowance available for control
measures
- The arrangement of the vessel, particularly distance between
critical areas and the most significant sources
- The number of other constraints imposed on the selection of
suitable control measures, e.g. safety, hygiene, maintenance
etc.
- The approach to noise and vibration control
- The stage of a project where-noise and vibratioh control is
considered
Examples of the cost for noise control necessary to satisfy
the IMO criteria /3/ for merchant ships are illustrated in
figure 6. As can be seen from the figure the cost of noise
control in relation to the total building cost are greater for
smaller ships and for cheaper vessels than for larger or more
expensive vessels. The figure also indicates that the cost of
noise control measures will be in the range 0.3 - 3 % of the
total building costs. More stringent criteria as well as
possible additional considerations to vibration control will
increase the cost.
3.3 Economical noise and vibration control
Obviously it will be desirable to reduce the cost of noise and
vibration control as much as possibly or alternatively to
obtain as much effect as possible from a set budget.
Hence it is important to be able to calculate the noise and
vibration levels at the design stage of a vessel such that the
most cost effective control measures can be selected. The DnV
noise prediction program NV 590 is an example on a calculation
procedure that may be utilised in this respect, for noise
22.8
ADDED COSTS FOR

NOISE REDUCING
MEASURES IN
% OF TOTAL
BUILDING COSTS
4
LESS FAVORABLE DESIGN
CHEAPER VESSEL-
tMORE EXPENSIVE
FAVOUR ABLE DESIGN
VESSEL
112
1.000
7891'0'
2.
10.000
SHIP SIZE IN TDW
566789i0
5
100.000
Figure 6, Cost of noise control as a function of building cost

control. The program ranks the noise sources and determines
the significance of each particular surface for noise
emission. The program as well as DnV's full approach to noise
control is described in greater detail in ref. /4/. By having
such detail information about sources and transmission paths
the most economical treatments may be selected. The adverse
situation may arise if noise control is implemented without
such knowledge. As an example, treatment of airborne noise
transmission will have no other effect than to increase the
weight and costs of a vessel if structureborne noise
transmission dominates. Similarly, treatment of propeller
noise will be waisted effort if engine noise is significantly
stronger than the propeller noise.
For vibration control, calculations at the design stage are
possible by using simple analytical methods to calculate local
plate vibration or hull girder frequencies. More detailed and
comprehensive calculations are possible using finite element
methods, for example the SESAM package. A complete approach to
vibration control is described in /5/.
22.9
It is useful to have information about the cost and effect of

control measures from different suppliers. Only then may the
optimal solution from an economical point of view be selected.
This may be achieved by either keeping updated data bases on
noise and vibration control'measures or by investigating the
prices from different vendors for each particular job.
The cost of noise and vibration control depends upon which
stage of a project the control measures are included. As a
general rule one can say that the earlier in the project such
measures are included the less will the cost be. At an early
stage there will be few restrictions towards carrying out
desirable changes, and control measures can possibly be
included in the basis design. At a late stage, control
measures may have to be forced onto a settled design and
require expensive changes. The most expensive situation will
arise when a ship has been built and noise and/or vibration
problems occur. Retroactive solutions are inherently expensive
and in addition revenue may be lost in the time period
required to rectify the problem.
3.4 Philosophy
For a new vessel design or for series of vessels being offered
for sale by the building yard, it may be prudent to divide the
noise and vibration control effort into two levels:
- Develop and optimise the basic design as far as possible,
without adding measures that will increase the weight and
building cost significantly. This applies particularly to
the structure, foundations, isolators, optimising of the
fire insulation, mounting of interior details, arrangement
considerations etc.
- Evaluate effect, cost and weight penalty for additive
measures. These may then be offered to the customers at
actual cost. Such measures include floating floor, damping
layers, additional linings, exhaust silencers, added
absorption, etc.
In this way the yards will be able to offer an optimised
design with no or little extra cost and weight penalties.
Prospective owners can choose to which extent they want to buy
additional noise and vibration reduction in the form of
additive measures. The vessel may then be offered at a basic
price with
certain expected noise and vibration levels.
Further, the price for additive measures and their effect on
resulting noise and vibration levels will be available at the
customers choice.
4.0 OTHER PRACTICAL AND TECHNICAL ASPECTS
4.1 General
During the design
vibration control
arise. These may
space, weight, or
process many conflicts between noise and

and other considerations of the design may
be:
maintenance, architecture, hygiene,
other technical aspects.
22.10
4.2
Arrangement
The arrangement has a significant influence on noise and

vibration. For some vessels the task of the vessel restricts
the choice of optimal arrangement solutions. Some container
and cargo vessels must have the accommodation at the very aft
end of the ship due to a need for large unrestricted loading
space. The same applies to tankers, but then due to safety
requirements (separation of cargo and people). This leads to
unfavourable arrangements with the accommodation directly
above the main machinery, opposed to cargo, seismic, fishing
and supply vessels where the accommodation may be located at
the forward section of the ship, see figure 7.
55
70
60 dB(A)
dB(A)
-75
Figure 7, Example of acoustical differences between ships with

the accommodation positioned forward and aft.
22.11
'N
In some cases a forward arrangement may be of little

advantage. This applies to vessels which have to use their bow
thrusters for station keeping over long time periods, e.g.
diving vessels and offshore supply vessels.
With the superstructure positioned at the aft end of the ship
the
traditional
differences
exist
between
significant
superstructure arrangement shown in figure 8 and the
acoustically optimized solution in the same figure. Some
national rules for measurement of tonnage as well as space
requirements may restrict the choice to the traditional
superstructure arrangement.
SHIP 1: TRADIITIONAL SUPERSTRUCTURE

CASING
ACCO*MMODATION
SHIP 2: ACOUSTICALLY O
CASI"NG
'
IMIZED. ARRANGEMENT
L
TACCOMMODATION
ETC.
.STOIR
Figure 8, Traditional and acoustically optimized
superstructure.
22.12
4.3 Architecture
On board cruise vessels and yachts, the architectural design
of the exterior as well as the interior is given high
priority. This may in certain cases limit the choice of noise
and vibration control measures.
The exterior appearance of a vessel may disagree with the
requirements for a structure which do not vibrate. Certain
funnel designs will not allow sufficiently large silencers to
be fitted.
In the interior, certain linings, floating floors, inner
windows etc. may not match with the architectural ideas. Open
ceilings are popular with some architects, but may have poor
sound insulation properties. This is particularly critical in
areas where passenger cabins are situated directly above areas
with high sound levels, e.g. discotheques, night clubs and
theatres.
Arrangements which may be advantageous from a noise control
point
of
view,
may
be
prevented
by
architectural
considerations. It may be beneficial to position the passenger
cabins in low noise areas, and the public spaces in areas
closer to the main noise sources, see example in figure 9.
4.4 Maintenance
Control measures that may hamper maintenance are not popular
and there is a risk that such measures may be removed after a
short time of service. Obvious examples are enclosures,
screens and double doors.
Resistance towards noise control measures which in themselves
require maintenance do also occur. For example:
- Resilient elements may have to changed with regular
intervals if they are used in hostile environments.
- Resiliently mounted machinery will have to be re-aligned due
to creep in the resilient elements.
- Absorptive material in silencers may have to be changed due
to clogging or because the material is burnt or worn out.
Some times alternative noise control measures that do not
hamper access to machinery or require maintenance exist. If
they don't, the only solution to a noise control problem will
be to convince the maintenance people about the relevance of
the measures.
22.13
ORDINARY ARRANGEMENT
1870 PASSENGERS
1050 CREW
L 293 m
B 32 m
T - 67 139 grt
....
oo........
i
.
.:o:o:::..
..
OPTIMAL ARRANGEMENT
2600 Passengers
780 Crew
L 268 m
B 32 m
T - 74 000 grt
Figure 9, Location of passenger cabins, optimal and ordinary

arrangement.
22.14
4.5
Hygiene
In certain rooms hygiene requirements may disagree with

acoustical
requirements,
particularly
in
engine
rooms,
bospitals, galleys and wet rooms. Such areas may require hard
surfaces which do not absorb oil or water and which can be
easily cleaned. These requirements may restrict the use of
absorptive linings and floating floors.
Proper sealing of floating floors with elastic seals and
absorptives covered by thin plastic foils will sometimes be
allowed and may help to overcome the above problems.
4.6 Weight and Space
Many noise and vibration control measures have considerable
weight and space requirements, e.g. floating floors, damping
materials with restraining layers and structural stiffening.
The weight and space allowance on passenger ships and on high
speed crafts in particular may be limited. In some cases
lighter alternative measures may be used.
If this is
unrealistic it is important to calculate the effect of the
selected measures accurately such that the application may be
restricted to the absolutely minimum.
During a recent project involving noise control of a 230 Mn
cruise vessel the weight of the proposed noise reducing
measures were calculated for different resulting noise levels.
The vessel had resiliently mounted 32 MW medium speed diesel
engines, gears and dual skew back propellers. The following
weights were calculated:
Resulting maximum noise level 50 GB(A):
" Floating floors
" Damping layers
2
2 700 MD
, i.e.
2
:1
500 M , i.e.
Sum
124 tons
42 tons
166 tons
Resulting maximum noise level 55 dE(k):

" Floating floors
" Damping layers
2,. i.e.
1 050 in
2
2 100 Mn
i.e.
Sum
48 tons
59 tons
107 tons
Resulting maximum noise level SB dE(A):

*
Floating floors :
" Damping layers
2, i.e.
350 in
2
700 mn
, i.e.
Sum
16 tons
20 tons
36 tons
Resulting maximum noise level without additive -control

measures: 62 dB(A)
As can be seen the weight per dB(A)
noise reduction is
considerable.
22.15
4.7 Other practical aspects

Many practical limitations and conflicts may arise when adding
noise and vibration control measures. Examples of such
conflicts are:
- Cooling requirements being altered, e.g. enclosures and
linings.
- Visual inspection being restricted, e.g. enclosures.
-
Performance being reduced, e.g. exhaust silencers,

redesigned propellers or fans.
Corrosion being increased, e.g. double windows, linings,

floating floors, damping layers.
When such conflicts do arise it is important that either

alternative control measures can be selected or that the
effect of changes in a particular control measure is known.
Frequently a discussion with people representing other
disciplines of the design will be necessary. In addition to
sensible reasoning, the situation depicted in figure 10 below
may arise.
WANT THIN~SS\
-Yro BE QUIET,
/O
SOMETIMES At,.,,.,
U14AV KE70
'' '
KU
MAKE
\\MORE. NOIS
THANHAN
ANYBODY
ELSE'.
Figure 10
22.16
5.0 REFERENCES
/I/
IMO Resolution A.517(13) adopted on 17 November 1983,

"Recommendation on fire test procedures for "A", "B"
"F" class divisions.
and
/2/
IMO Resolution A.517(13), amendment dated 2 December

1988.
/3/
IMO Resolution A.468(12) adopted on 19 november 1981,

"Code on noise levels on board ships".
/4/
Andresen K., Nilsson A.C. and Brubakk E. "Noise

prediction and prevention " Proceedings of the 2nd
International symposium on shipboard acoustics ISSA'86.
1986.
/5/
Det norske Veritas, Noise and Vibration Group,

" Vibration control in ships" ISBN 82 515 0090 7 1985.
22.17
CHAPTER: 6
DESIGN
LESSON 23
16th WEGEMT SCHOOL
SESSION
CHAPTER
LESSON
TEACHER
COMPANY
Noise and Vibration

6. Design
23. Design Policy
COUNTRY
E. BONETTI
FINCANTIERI CNI (Cantieri Navali Italiani)
Via Cipro, 11
16129 Genova
ITALY
ABSTRACT
Taking into consideration the single steps of the procurement process
of the ships from the concept design to the onboard tests, the lecture
highlights the importance of some topics in an acoustic-oriented
approach to design and construction: the role of the Noise Control
personnel and of the Quality Control, the-prediction methodologies,
the search of the equilibrium in acoustic design. Finally, future
perspectives with regard to new types of ships, more stringent
requirements and new noise control measures are outlined.
AUTHOR'S BIOGRAPHY
Dr. Eng. ENRICO BONETTI
Graduated in Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering at Genoa

University in 1981. In 1981-82 at CETENA Structural Analysis Dept. In
1982 he joined FINCANTIERI - CNI, R & D Dept. of Technical Head
Quarters;
since 1983 involved in the acoustic activities relevant to
all major FINCANTIERI's new buildings. Since 1985 responsible of the
Noise Control Staff in the shipbuilding program of the Oceanographic
Reasearch Vessel "ALLIANCE", built for the NATO Saclant Centre, then
entrusted with the same task in Italian Navy Destroyer "ANIMOSO" Class
and in Submarine "SAURO IV Serie" Class and various auxiliary ships
programs.
In 1990 he moved to the Naval Ships Branch as Project Manager
above mentioned I.N. Destroyers.
23.1
of
the
23.1.
INTRODUCTION
23.1.1. The Design Spiral

Any Naval Architect knows very well that the ship is an
extremely complex product and that the design of a ship
represents a highly interactive process, needing a high level
of integration; a change to any one parameter will affect many
factors and, in turn, require changes to other parameters; it
is *virtually impossible to change one dimension or parameter
without significant effects upon many dependent variables.
These concepts are summarized in the well-known design spiral
(1), an example of which is shown in Fig. 1; different spirals
can be taught, including different parameters or steps, but
all will confirm the validity of this approach: the Naval
Architect has to go through each single step and than to
return the same way, after having verified and possibly
adjusted his evaluations.
23.1.2. The Procurement Process
However, the design is just a phase in the procurement
process, the long way that starts from the first thoughts
about a vessel, that should accomplish a task, and final
acceptance at sea of the same vessel; again, various steps can
be foreseen, Fig. 2 indicates a possible sequence (2).
Sometimes, not all the phases, particularly at the beginning
of the procurement process, are covered or are developed
extensively; merchant ships and naval vessels may experience
very different approaches, so that the duration of the various
phases can vary from weeks to years, but, basically, all the
ships go through the steps detailed below.
23.1.3. Naval Architecture and Acoustics
23.1.3.1.
The variety of the subjects discussed in the foregoing

lectures and the large amount of components examined
(machinery, outfitting materials, structural members and so
and vibration
on) well demonstrates that the noise
requirements have to be taken into consideration from the
first phase of the design and cannot be neglected during
any step both of the design spiral and of the procurement
process. Certainly, everyone can realize that noise control
treatments may have a dramatic impact on non-acoustic parameters; the following three brief examples can clarify how
this concept applies to all the stages of the process.
23.1.3.2.
Most recent ships have d~iesel-electric propulsion plant,

not only fbr acoustic reasons, but, primarily, in order to
maximize the acoustic comfort onboard.
23.2
The last class of Royal Navy antisubmarine frigates has an

electric motor on each shaftline, fed by acoustically
isolated generating sets, in order to provide an extraquiet
operational mode.
It is evident how early in the design such solutions, that
are fundamentally a form of noise control treatments, have
to be analized.
23.1.3.3.
Often and often the diesel generating sets onboard are

located inside a sound-proof enclosure with a single or
even a double stage elastic mounting system; the designer
however shall have clear in his mind that such
an
installation will probably double the weight and will
increase the required volume of the set three/four times;
so that a decision about such a configuration cannot be
postponed too long.
23.1.3.4.
The installation of small/medium size equipments (like

pumps, compressors, fans) on resilient mounts does not have
by itself a major impact on the global design of the
vessel, but the associated required spaces in auxiliary
machinery spaces cannot be neglected and more important
effect in this example, the labour hours and related costs
necessary to install an efficient elastic
system can
increase by an order of magnitude with respect to a
standard rigid installation.
Several
other
examples could be presented;
someone
indicating, like the first one, that certain noise control
treatments cannot be thought but in the very beginning;
others, like the third one, demonstrating that the adoption
of a treatment could be done at a later stage, but always
increasing time and costs.
All this means that, when specific noise requirements have
to be accomplished, an "Acoustic-oriented' approach to
design and construction is needed.
23.2.
ROLE OF THE NOISE CONTROL EXPERT/STAFF
23.2.1. Even if ship acoustics has increased its importance in

recent years in Naval Architecture, nowadays in our experience
this branch is not yet common knowledge of ship's designers;
due to this reason, looking to whom is entrusted with the
design and construction process (for example a Shipbuilding
Company with its technical and production departments), it is
our strong advice that dedicated personnel,
having the
necessary expertize, will follow the project- during the
various phases, taking care of all the topics related to noise
and vibrations.
23.3
The number of experienced people involved can vary substantially from a single Noise Control Expert to a well
structured Noise Control Staff (NCS), principally depending
from the following factors:
a) strictness of the requirements;
b) complexity of the vessel;
c) calculation and prediction capability
considers necessary that the NCS has;
that
the Company
d) amount and kind of documentation (technical specifications,

drawings) that the NCS has to develop;
e) experimental measurement capability
considers necessary that the NCS has;
that
the
Company
f) efficiency and role of the Quality Control Department,

particularly during the construction.
The importance of points a) and b) does not need any
explanation. About points c) and e) it is worth saying that
not all the Companies find cost-effective to have dedicated
personnel involved in specific computer calculations and/or in
the use of measurement instrumentation. In fact, these kinds
of activities can be carried out in a qualified way and
profitably by external consultancy Companies; the NCS duty in
results
of
the
this case shall be to integrate the
consultants' job in the project.
As far as point d) and f) concern, we will be back to these
extremely important items afterwards.
23.2.2. The block diagram, shown in Fig. 3, indicates the logical flow
of the activities, by which the acoustic analysis and design
of a ship should evolve and to which the Noise Control Staff
should attend step by step, (3).
It is quite clear that the engineers entrusted in this task
have to get in touch with practically all the other people
involved in the project:
-
Preliminary Design Technical Dept. during Phases I, II and

III.
Suppliers of potentially noisy equipments and specially of

Noise Control Treatments during Phases I through IV.
Detailed Design Technical Dept. during Phase IV.
Purchase Dept. particularly during Phase IV.
Production Dept. and Quality Control Dept.

and V.
23.4
during Phase IV
Planning and Control of Production Dept. when necessary to

plan and integrate, during the building period, all the
activities
related to implementation of the acoustic
treatments and, during the trials period, the specific
noise and vibration tests.
It can be useful to underline that the Noise Control Expert
has usually to sustain with determination his requirements
against the other departments, as often he is in a conflictual
position against consolidated procedures of design and/or
shipbuilding.
In fact, we cannot hide that, usually, a quite ship requires a
greater design investigation, a higher building care, a number
of compromises with other performance requirements.
23.3.
DEFINITION OF SHIPOWNER'S REQUIREMENTS
23.3.1. Why do we wish quiet ships?

As far as merchant ships are concerned the reason is obviously
clear: noise and vibration are two of the main causes of
discomfort onboard both for the crew and for the possible
passengers.
Coming to naval vessels, it is to be added to the above
mentioned reason the fact that noise, underwater radiated
noise actually, is a very important way of detection of the
enemy ships. by means of acoustic -sensors (sonars).
Consequently two topics rise to utmost interest:
-
The reduction of the Underwater Radiated Noise (U.R.N.)

levels; usually expressed as sound pressure levels, Lp, in
dB referred to 1 pPa, in 1/3 Octave Bands levels or in
Spectrum Levels.
The redu~ction of the noise levels (self-induced noise),

disturbing the sensors installed on the ship herself, that
is to say, defeaning the sonars.
Without going too much into details that are out of the scope
of this course, it is worth saying that, for surface ships
involved in Antisubmarine
Warfare
and
for
Submarines
themselves, these topics originate requirements of the highest
priority, affecting the design in a conclusive way.
23.3.2. Assessment of the requirements
23.3.2.1.
As already said more in detail in Lesson 2. and 4.,

acoustic
nowadays worldwide accepted regulation about
requirements onboard does not exist. However the most
widely used parameters, as far as acoustic comfort onboard
is concerned, are:
23.5
Maximum acceptable noise levels, associated to each

kind of space, in terms of dB (A)or noise rating (NR)
number.
- Maximum
acceptable
sound
insulation
between
Index IA or
insulation
of
sound
in
terms
compartments,
sound reduction index R.
Additional acoustic requirements may
example for impact sound insulation
intelligibility.
23.3.2.2.
be specified for
speech
and for
The definition of the design objectives is the natural

first step in the design process; this has to be performed
at the very beginning, possibly taking advantage of the
first preliminary noise prediction (see Fig. 3).
In assessing the results to be reached
factors should be taken into account:
the following
a. Desirable level of comfort for the crew and passengers.

b. Ship's operational states of interest.
c. Impact on "non acoustics".
d. In force country regulations.

About crew comfort, including under this topic hearing
protection and need of effective oral communication too,
criteria specified by the International Maritime
the
Organization (IMO) in the "Code on Noise Levels onboard
Ships", resolution A.468 (XII) on 19th November 1981, can
be assumed as a. guideline; they represent, among the
a
that various countries have set out,
regulations
reasonable standard for conventional ships of 500 Tons and
over.
About passengers comfort, the specification must come out
from a well balanced compromise between the shipowner's
demands and realistically achievable levels, looking to the
general characteristics of the ship and to the maximum
tolerable impact on "non-acoustic" subjects.
We would like to stress the attention particularly on point
b.; in fact, to assess maximum acceptable levels without
defining the exact conditions, at which is deemed important
to meet the specified noise levels, is meaningless.
The answer "in all the conditions" could be uncorrect or at
least could lead to overrequirements, having very often an
extremily high cost/effectiveness ratio.
23.6
To avoid this risk it is necessary:

-
to state the different conditions of the ship from an

operational point of view, that is: cruise, maximum
speed, manoeuvering, at harbour or others, depending
from the operational profile of the vessel;
then to select the spaces and the relevant required

noise criteria for each condition;
finally to associate as much as possibile detailed list

of plants and systems expected to be working during each
operational state.
The outcome of the above mentioned steps can be subject to

refinements during the design, but the first two steps have
to be completed to as great extent as possible, before
assuming any contractual obligation.
23.4.
PRELIMINARY AND DETAILED DESIGN
23.4.1. Rather than suggest specific noise control treatments, that

have been widely discussed in the previous lessons or design
procedures, that would be necessarily too general, we prefer
to underline the utmost importance in ship acoustic design of
two topics:
- Noise Prediction Methodology
- Well-balanced Acoustic Design
The two items are strongly linked to each other,
first absolutely necessary to reach the latter.
being the
23.4.2. Noise Prediction Methodology

Likewise most of the other areas relevant to ship design (for
example, hydrodynamics and structural analysis) the capability
to evaluate quantitatively the performances of a planned
solution is a key factor in the evolution of the design.
When we say Noise Prediction Methodology we mean a well
structured set of prediction procedures, which allow us to get
information
coherent with the input data and having a
satisfactory degree of reliability during the different phases
of the design. It is common experience in this field that a
single prediction method cannot be utilized from the concept
to the building design.
23.7
Even if some engineering and research

institutions
or
companies may have at disposal methodologies including more
steps, the relation between prediction methods and design
phases, as far as onboard airborne noise concerns, can be
summarized as per Table I.
Basically two steps are pointed out; the amount of information
at disposal originates the nature of the method of prediction
and how much the results are detailed.
Statistical methods have to be supported by a sound data-base
of measured ships; in general terms, greater and wider the set
of available cases, more accurate and reliable the results.
These prediction techniques, useful for first evaluations, are
comparatively-quick and cheep; it has to be borne in mind that
quite often this kind of analysis concerns tender designs that
will not be further developed.
Therefore in the design process the main scope of statistical
methods of prediction is to check the feasibility and/or the
achievability of the requirements.
With the wording "deterministic" are indicated predictions
based on theoretical models, almost always converted in
computer
programs,
generally
including also empirical,
experimental and statistical data.
Due to the higher costs involved and the need of a good degree
ofdevelopment in the drawings, these models are typically used
after the contract award. The calculations may need
updates
after significant changes in the design; however the first aim
of these methods is to identify the critical sources, to
identify the critical transmission paths and finally to
evaluate the possible acoustic treatments trade-offs.
In other words these analysis should represent the heart of
the ship acoustic design.
23.8
0-4
t.-
49
41
-'A
oj
4U)4
3Am
~41n
11111
II
44
-II
23.9
23.4.3. Well-balanced Acoustic Design

In order to understand what it is meant for well balanced
acoustical planning, let us take into consideration the dashed
cabin shown in Fig. 4.
The airborne noise levels in this space can be caused by
several sources:
propulsion
engine,
propeller,
diesel
generating sets,
some auxiliary machinery,
gas exhaust
systems, HVAC system, but the list could be even longer,
depending from the ship herself.
As it has been already pointed out, each of the above
mentioned noise source is transmitting noise via structureborne and airborne paths. In turns each boundary surface
(floor, bulkheads, ceiling) is radiating into the cabin the
noise coming through the various paths, so that the final sum
of the radiations leads to the total noise level.
A well balanced design is reached when
none
of
the
contributions generated by each chain "source-path-radiating
surface" is significantly higher than the others (let say, as
a thumb rule, no more than 3-4 dB).
The evaluation of the contributions has to be made of course
by means of a proper prediction method.
The most common mistake in shipyard acoustics is the wrong
evaluation of the main noise paths, so that the attention of
the designer and the consequent treatments are focused on the
wrong source or transmission mechanism.
The way in which the levels, expressed in dB, combine makes
clear that in this case once more applies the concept to
"devote our attention to the important few and not to the
trivial many". It is worth to remember that a source 10 dB or
more quieter than another one does not add anything to the
total noise. Moreover,
for instance,
if we have five
contributors, four equal and one ten dB higher, the total sum
is only 1.5 dB higher than the loudest contributor, so that a
10 dB improvement in the latter generates a total 3 dB
quietening, while an identical 10 dB improvement in the four
lower contributions provides only a 1 dB quietening.
Fig. 5 shows an example of procedure through which is possible
to reach the desired balance in terms of cost/effectiveness.
23.10
23.5.
MATERIALS PROCUREMENT
23.5.1. A few considerations

The selection and subsequent procurement of the materials,
which may affect the acoustic standard of the ship, are a keyphase and have to be considered as an integral part of the
design itself, so that the Noise Control Staff has to dedicate
a large part of his efforts to this topic.
It is our firm opinion that the attempt to turn to the subcontractors as large as possible responsabilities on the
vessel global performances has at the end opposite effect.
The most effective role of the Noise Control Expert shall be:
1. To draw-up precise technical specifications relevant to
each type of material for the procurement, assessing as far
as possible numerical thresholds to be checked directly or
by acknowledged institutions: for example, airborne and
structure-borne noise source levels for equipments to be
verified during shop tests before shipment or absorption
coefficient for insulation materials.
Indefinite sentences like "low noise equipment" must be
avoided.
2. To avoid as far as possible the risk of pretending too
stringent requirements. It make no sense on a merchant ship
to look for an extraquiet (and extremely expensive),
submarine type air compressor, while a commercial quality
marine one and some relatively cheap treatments can make
the same job.
3. During the design phase, not to rely too much on extremely
good
performances,
stated
by
possible
suppliers,
without a direct experimental check.
4. To be aware that some "non acoustic" requirements may have
an heavy impact on the acoustic ones.
If you buy a conventional generating set, having a diesel
as a prime mover, at the same time you give up the low
structure-borne noise levels, that might be guaranted by a
gas turbine generating set.
5. To prescribe detailed standards of installation for subcontractors supplying ready onboard systems or materials,
like for acoustic and thermal insulation is often the case.
6. Finally to integrate all the information and contractual
obligation of subcontractors in the whole design.
23-11I
23.5.2. Acoustic budget

When a project is quite complex and there is sufficient
freedom in the selection of suppliers and equipments, the
development of an acoustic budget, in order to asses the
maximum permissible
noise and vibration source levels,
represents a useful procedure.
An acoustic budget is a means of allocating noise levels to a
number of source items so that the total noise contribution of
all the items does not exceed some determined threshold or
specified level.
Source levels derived from this budget shall become the
proposed equipment guarantee levels. Subcontractors for the
subject equipment shall be asked to respond to these proposed
guarantee levels relative to their feasibility and related
confidence levels.
Based upon
subcontractor responses,
guarantee levels shall be raised or lowered to reflect
realistically achievable performance for marine equipment and
the acoustic budget shall be adjusted accordingly.
Individual noise guarantees shall be adjusted to the realistic
values provided that the total performance of all units
together reach the criteria needed to satisfy the vessel's
noise performance requirements.
23.6.
CONSTRUCTION AND ONBOARD TESTING-
23.6.1. Construction
As pointed out in Fig. 3, Quality Control (Q.C.) plays its
role during the phase of treatment
inplementation
and
evaluation, that is during the detailed design and building
period.
An acoustic oriented Q.C. is absolutely vital in ensuring that
the intent of the noise control effort is not compromized in
execution. The accuracy in installation of several acoustic
treatments is not a factor that might
improve
their
performances, but quite often this accuracy is absolutely
necessary to make them working.
Unless the shipyard is well experienced in building "quiet
ships", it is hardly understood even by skilled workers how
much damage can be done disregarding correct procedures of
installation.
23c12
A single example can be meaningful: the attenuation of a

sophisticated double stage resilient mounting system of a big
generating set (that is a device weighing several tons with
its unavoidable impact in terms of required spaces and cost)
can be almost vanished just because few bolts on the snubbers
have been tightened too much.
In this context the following items are worth to be stressed.
1. In selecting and planning
noise
control
techniques
continuous attention has to be paid to the easiness of
installation; too complicated solutions or devices, needing
extreme accuracy in assembling to be effective, should be
avoided whenever possible.
2. Ad
hoc written procedures of installation should be
prepared, at least for the most noise critical items, to be
followed by the assemblers. In the same way standard
procedures should be written for the use of the Q.C.
Department, detailing the kind and amount of checks to be
performed.
3. At the shipyard, during the construction and particularly
during the outfitting period, the Q.C. Department shall
entrust some dedicated personnel with day by day checks, on
the basis of the above mentioned procedures.
The NCS shall perform audits on a regular basis and take
care of the training of the Q.C. people.
23.6.2. Onboard Testing
1. Onboard tests should be carried out as much as possible
even
during
ship
construction,
in order to check
soonest the efficiency of the installed treatments and to
undertake timely remedial actions, if needed.
2. As soon as the ship is complete and starts preliminary
functional tests dockside or at sea, diagnostic noise tests
should be carried out on a no interference basis.
3. Procedures for final acceptance tests of the ships have to
be detailed in the Contract Specification making reference,
if possible, to international standards.
4. In case that the project foresees a class of sister ships,
it is extremely useful to perform measurements on the
largest possible number of vessels, even if it was not
strictly necessary from a contractual point of view. This
in order to establish a standard in the quality of the
construction, looking to the possible difference from one
ship and the other.
23.13
5. It must be always remembered that the opportunity to have a

real ship at disposal for measurements is an unvaluable
opportunity, from which take advantage at the maximum
extent.
Measured data provide the absolutely necessary validation
of the prediction procedures and represent a sound support
in the design activities.
23.7.
NEW PROJECTS AND SHIP ACOUSTICS
23.7.1. The present trend of the market, the undergoing constructions,

the studies and the research in naval field enables to advance
a forecast regarding new types of shipbuildings.
In particular, we think that in the shipbuildings of the next
future the acoustic quieting will have a great importance,
especially for:
- high speed passenger ships
- research ships.
- cruise/passenger ships
A different balance, tailored for each of these types of
vessels among requirements, treatments and impact on "nonacoustics", will have to be found.
23.7.2. High Speed Passenger Ships
Among the various types of fast vessels, now under design or
that can be supposed for the next years, the most important
could be:
-
SES, Surface Effect Ships

Catamarans and in general Twin Hulls Ships
Monohull Ships
which main characteristics, on the basis of the present

knowledges, can be supposed for the most advanced vessels in
the range of the following values:
SES
Catamarans
Monohulls
Length
Breadth
(m)
(m)
Displacement
(t)
Power
(kW)
Speed
(KN)
60
18
500
11000
45
75
C a100
25
35
700
15000
35
1500
30000
38
15
700
35000
45
60
23.14
As it can be noted all vessels require very great figures of

the power/weight ratio, up to 50 kW/ton; for vessels without
any noise control planning noise levels in the range from 80
dBA to above 90 dBA are not uncommon.
Although these vessels carry out short trips (max a few hours)
and have as a reference acoustic performances of aircrafts
they will require a better and better quieting degree, taking
in great consideration the weight reduction.
In spite of that, with noise control measures included in the
design, noise levels in the range from about 65 dBA to 75 dRA
are possible, even in the noisiest position onboard, which
usually will be in the aft ship and directly above or next
door to the engine room (4).
23.7.3. Research Ships
For these vessels the comfort requirements are increased by
the
presence
of
large
areas
devoted
to scientific
laboratories. Scientists involved in oceanography, mainly in
underwater acoustic propagation and in seismology, need an as
quiet as possible platform for their experimental activities,
so that the most stringent requirements are relevant to underwater noise levels radiated from the ship.
In this case the problems to be solved are similar to those
shown in para 3.1, concerning naval vessels and submarines;
the absence of specific protection requirements against underwater explosion usually enables to select more simple and
effective solutions in order to minimize noise transmission.
Certain fishing vessels, adopting advanced acoustic devices to
localize shools, may have analogous requirements: to reduce
the noise, radiated into the water (U.R.N.) from the ship, to
levels comparable or even lower than the ambient noise of the
ocean;
Due to this fact quite often the U.R.N. goals are assessed
having as a reference ambient noise levels, expressed as a
function of the sea or wind state and sometimes of ship's
traffic condition; for example: "the ship shall radiate noise
levels at 100 meter distance lower than 5.5.2 ambient noise"
Typical curves on this subject are shown in Fig. 6 (5).
23.7.4. Cruise/Passenger Ships
During the last decade these ships have got a renewed and
increasing interest on the international market and the trend
is expected to be promising for the future.
23.15
Since from the passengers' point of view the acoustic comfort

will often determine the quality and the reputation of the
ship, airborne noise levels down to 40/45 dBA are not uncommon
and often and often will be required for an increasing number
of cabins. In fact it is Owner's interest to increase the
number of "extra-quiet" cabins, using also areas, that for
their proximity to engine room or to noise sources, could
appear, in first analysis, not suitable.
In the same way sound insulation properties of partition in
the accommodation are already requested to reach values of
=
45; requirements for this order of magnitude represent
IA
nowadays the threshold in the adoption of single wall
partition.
23.7.5. New materials and techniques
Since principles of generation, transmission and radiation of
technical
established
shipboard noise are by now well
knowledge, in the last years and in the nearest future the new
acoustic quieting techniques are mostly oriented to:
-
adoption to a vast extent of methods before only seldom

stage
double
constrained layer damping,
used (e.g.
resilient mounting systems and so on);
adoption of materials that, in addition to their main

function (e.g. structural strength, fire protection), join
good acoustic characteristics..
Among the last ones we can mention:

-
polyimide foams, having excellent characteristics in terms

of resistance to open flame, smoke emission, thermal
insulation and above all weighing 4-5 times less than a
acoustical
with
comparable
fiberglass
conventional
absorption performances;
structural panels in composite materials, with integrated

damping treatment; the viscoelastic layer can be part of a
sandwich, where a kevlar cellular structure or fiberglass
layers provide the necessary strength.
Usually the above materials, often of aeronautical origin, due

to their high costs, make necessary most careful analysis to
optimize their employment; for this reason we foresee that the
modal analysis of ship structures will be extended even more.
23.16
REFERENCES
1. K.J. Ranson, E.C. Tupper "Basic Ship Theory" Longsman Scientific &
Technical
2. P.J. Gates "Surface Warships" Brassey's Defence Publishers
3. R.W. Fischer, C.B. Burroughs, D.L. Nelson "Design Guide for Shipboard Airborne Noise Control" SNAME Bulletin 3-37, 1983
4. K.A. Abrahamsen, E Brubakk "Human Comfort onboard Fast Passenger
Ferries" Cruise + Ferry '91 Conference
5. R.J. Urick "Principles of Underwater Sound" Mc Graw-Hill
6. K. Andresen, A.C. Nilsson, E. Brubakk
Prevention" Det Norske Veritas
23.17
"Noise
Prediction and
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23.20
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6023.22
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LESSON 24
16th WEGEMT SCHOOL
SESSION
CHAPTER
LESSON
TEACHER
COMPANY
Noise and Vibration

: 6. DESIGN
: 24. Applications: Noise and Vibration Control
Onboard Fast Passenger Vessels.
KAI A. ABRAHAMSEN
P.O. Box 300,
N-1322 H0vik,
NORWAY
ABSTRACT
Noise and vibration design procedures for fast passenger
vessels are outlined. The mechanisms of noise and vibration
onboard high speed vessels are described. The possibilities of
noise and vibration control are discussed.
AUTHORS' BIOGRAPHY
KAI A. ABRAHAMSEN is a senior project engineer at Veritas
Marine Services. He has been with the company since 1982 and
is working in the section for Noise and Vibration. During his
time in Veritas, he has carried out a wide range of projects
on noise and vibration problems. The projects have included
design
assessments,
predictions,
measurements,
trouble
shooting and research, onboard most types of vessels as well
as on offshore installations.
Before joining Veritas, Mr. Abrahamsen worked at the
Acoustical Laboratory of Sintef at the University of
Trondheim. He is a graduate of the University of Salford and
has an M.Sc. from the University of Southampton.
24.1
1. INTRODUCTION
Passenger transportation by high speed vessels is
of
increasing commercial importance. Speed and comfort are main
design parameters for such vessels. In this respect low noise
and vibration levels are of prime importance.
On board high speed vessels high noise levels occur more
frequently than high vibration levels. Whereas high noise
levels are inherent in all high speed vessel designs unless
precautions are taken, vibration problems are less frequent,
but more critical when they do arise.
For vessels without any noise control consideration noise
levels in the range from 80 dB(A) to above 90 dB(A) are not
uncommon. With noise control measures included in the design,
noise levels in the range from about 65 dB(A) to 75 dB(A) are
possible. The above applies to the noisiest position onboard,
which usually will be in the aft ship and directly above or
next door to the engine rooms. Vibration depend very much on
structural design, position of measurement and
source
installation. Vibration levels will vary a lot from vessel to
vessel and from position to position. Most high speed vessels
will have vibration levels
below some 4 mm/s to 5 mm/s on
passenger
decks,
though,
unless
resonances
occur
or
particularly strong sources are present.
Fast passenger vessels may be of different design concepts,
e.g.
monohull,
catamaran,
SES,
hovercraft,
hydrofoil,
wavepiercer or swath, see figure 1. Although these designs
have large differences and may be equipped with different
machinery, the approach towards noise and vibration control
will be of a similar nature.
All types of fast passenger vessels have high power to weight
ratio, short transmission paths and stringent weight and space.
restrictions. This limits the use of conventional noise
reducing measures. The arrangement of noise and vibration
sources of a typical fast passenger vessel is shown in figure
2. All the main sources except the waterjets may be
resiliently mounted.
Monoriull Planing Yacn:
Monohull Displacemernt
SES
Hycrotoil
Patrol Hovercratt
Passenger Moverciatt
Wave Piercer
/4C
Wave Piercer
SWATH.
(is1all waterline rea twin hull)
Catamaran
Figure 1,
Different types of high speed vessels
M.-3
* 4Waterjet
Propeller
Gear
Mainn Engine
Shafts
-l
Au~xiliaryy M~achinery
aulcs
- V~t~
tion fan.
- tzflust qst.
KM
Figure 2, Noise and Vibration Sources

2. CRITERIA
2.1 General
First relevant criteria for noise and vibration, must be
established. Such criteria will be agreed upon between the
prospective owner and the yard building the vessel. The
criteria discussed below are based on steady state conditions,
calm weather
and straight course. It is self evident that
short
and
infrequent
exposures
should
be
considered
separately.
2.2 Noise
Requirements specified by IMO in the "Code on noise levels
on board ships", resolution A.468 (XII) adopted on 19.
November 1981, as well as some national criteria may apply in
the crew
areas. The criteria have been set to protect the
crew
from hearing damage and to avoid disturbance of
communication, work performance and rest.
For passenger vessels no formal legislation cover noise levels
in the passenger areas. However, high noise levels reduce the
passenger comfort significantly and
may also be a safety
problem by masking warning signals and communications. This
has been recognised by owners of high speed passenger vessels
and these usually specify a maximum allowable noise level in
the passenger saloon when ordering new vessels. The choice of
criteria will necessarily be a compromise between the desire
for a low noise level, technical feasibility and cost
considerations. Figure 3 shows speech interference levels. As
24.4
can be seen a noise level of 70 dB(A) will allow passengers

in neighbouring seats to communicate readily. Also, 70 dB(A)
is a level that may be met onboard most vessels, provided
noise control is taken into account at the design stage of the
vessel. Recently many owners
have specified limits in the
range 70 dB(A) - 75 dB(A) for the passenger localities.
90
85
Noise Lev'el
dB(A)
80
75
Speech Impossible
70-
Normal speech
65
60"~
5550
Loud speech
sturbed :;-
45
10 Distance Between
Speakers (m)
Figure 3, Speech Interference

2.3 Vibration
Vibration onboard ships may have three types of detrimental
effects :
- Fatigue damage to the structure
- Cause damage to or impair proper functioning of machinery

and equipment
- Annoyance and discomfort to crew and passengers
Fatigue damage to the structure depends on the actual
structural design and on
the materials used and no exact
criteria covering all situations can be set.
Experienced
consultants will usually be able to evaluate whether fatigue
damage is likely to occur or not for a given situation.
Several ISO and national standards giving recommended maximum
vibration levels for various types of machinery exist, e.g.
ISO 2372, ISO 3945, VDI 2056 and BS 4675. None of these are
found to be particularly suited for application to the
machinery onboard high speed vessels. Again, it will be a
matter of experience to assess if vibration levels will be
tolerable or not for various situations.
For human exposure to vibration, ISO 6954-1984, "Mechanical

vibration and shock - Guidelines for the overall evaluation
of vibration in merchant ships", are
usually used as
background in order to specify maximum vibration levels.
According to this standard, vibration levels from 4 mm/s to 9
mm/s (peak) in the frequency range above 5 Hz are considered
to represent an average shipboard vibration environment, see
figure 4. For vibration levels exceeding 9 mm/s above
5 Hz
adverse comments are probable. DnV's experience from shipboard
vibration measurements indicates that vibration levels above
approximately 6 mm/s (peak) may give rise to complaints after
prolonged exposure.
-b,
ISO 694-1S84 (E)
a1
'm/s
n
cOct/rain
tIOz
IN?
z
IM2t ,
Pe~n a*c t-nm
Is;.-~*
100
Frle'..nc y sng.
P.
-W.
ea
tOOHz
HZ
n"
nn
Figure 4, Guidelines for the evaluation of vertical and

horizontal vibration in merchant ships (peak values)
24.6
For large conventional passenger vessels where a high level of

comfort
is
sought,
stricter
requirements
are
usually
specified. Typically 2 mm/s to 4 mm/s (peak),
above 5 Hz.
These vessels would also have rather low noise levels,
typically in the range 40 dB(A) to 50 dB(A).
Investigations have shown that there is a coupling between
noise and vibration with respect to annoyance, ref /1,2/. The
results from these investigations indicate that for vessels
with noise levels around 70 dB(A),
little
is gained by
specifying a too strict vibration requirement, see figure 5.
A maximum vibration level in the range 4 mm/s to 5 mm/s
(peak), above 5 Hz, would ensure that vibration do not reduce
the passenger comfort.
70-
ore than SO% prefer to

M5
red:ce
the mnoe.
40
40
More than 501 prefer to

reduce the vibration
35
Lin/
Figure 5, Equal annoyance curve for noise and vibration in a

ship cabin. (Nilsson 1982)
3. NOISE CONTROL PROCEDURE
3.-1 General
Onboard a high speed vessel there are many noise and vibration
sources.
The
most
important
sources
are
the
waterjets/propellers, the main engines, gears,
shafting
systems and auxiliary machinery including lifting fans for SES
vessels, see e.g. fig. 2. Further, there are numerous
secondary sources like hydraulic systems, ventilation fans,
exhaust system, EVAC, sea and wind. The relative importance of
the various sources depends on the actual design of the
vessel, type of machinery and installation. This relationship
has to be established through analysis or measurements in
order for efficient noise control measures to be selected.
The noise originates at the source and is transmitted through
the structure or through an air or a fluid path (e.g.
hydraulics) . When arriving at the receiving position the noise
is influenced by the radiation and absorption properties of
the interior materials in that position, as well as the size
and the shape of the room.
24.7
3.2 Early Design Stage

3.2.1 General
If noise control is borne in mind from the beginning of a new

design concept, much effort and costs may be saved at later
stages of the project. The following can advantageously be
considered at the early design phase:
3.2.2 Arrangement
The resulting noise levels are
arrangement of noise critical
machinery.
strongly dependent on
areas relatively to
the
the
As a general rule machinery and noise sensitive areas should

be kept as far apart as practically possible. Onboard high
speed vessels this is only possible to a limited extent, due
to the compactness of the vessels. It may be possible though,
to position technical rooms, stores, entrance areas, toilets,
etc. in the least favourable locations close to the machinery.
The propulsion machinery may be positioned as far aft in the
vessel as the trim allows.
Also, the actual machinery arrangement
resulting noise levels. For example:
may
influence
the
- Systems allowing a horizontal mounting of machinery may be

advantageous compared with systems requiring inclined
mounting. Horizontal mounting may allow a better isolation
system to be used.
- Systems where a gear have to be mounted forward of the
engine, may generate more noise than a system with the gear
aft of the engine. The gear often have to be mounted on
stiffer mounts than the rest of the machinery and may
act as a short circuit for noise from connected engines and
propulsors.
- The turbocharger side of an engine may generate more
airborne noise than the opposite side. Hence, if the
turbocharger is on the forward side of an engine this side
may be closer to passenger locations and more critical to
airborne noise.
-
Systems allowing resilient couplings to be used in the

propulsion shaft may have advantages to systems not allowing
resilient couplings. A resilient rubber coupling will
isolate noise transmission between sources, e.g between a
waterjet and a gear.
3.2.3 Source Selection and Mounting

Starting at the source, different manufacturers may be
approached and asked to provide measured noise and vibration
levels for their equipment. Noise reduction can be expensive,
hence a low source level should be considered an economic
advantage.
24.8
The mounting of the sources is important as this can

drastically influence the noise being transmitted into the
structure. As far as practically possible, machinery should be
mounted on resilient mounts. Usually all machinery except
waterjets and propellers can be mounted resiliently.
In addition to the resilient elements themselves the machinery
feet and the ship foundation plays important roles in
determining the resulting effect of the mounting.
The foundation response and the importance of correct location
of the engine feet are illustrated in figure 6. The point
mobility of a structure is defined as the ratio of vibration
level to the applied external force at the same point:
V
F
Where V is the vibration velocity (m/s) and F the applied
dynamic force (N). At frequencies where structural resonances
.are present. Peaks will occur in the point mobility spectrum.
POINT MOBILITIES
'6'
7W
7~~
~
~
31
20
FRQEC
Figure
6,Maue
on
enin
moblteWna
fo.ndaion
,24.9
50 '315 100
/
00
Hz
auiimmi
80
In figure 6 the point mobility is measured on an aluminium

foundation at three different locations with
varying local
stiffness. It can be seen that the stiffest of these three
points
(point 3) results in the lowest mobility in the low
and mid frequency region. This means, that for a given
excitation force, the resulting structureborne noise level of
the foundation will be lowest in point 3.
Selection of acoustically optimal resilient mounts requires
expert knowledge of their properties. Manufacturers of
isolators usually issue static stiffness or low frequency
dynamic stiffness data for their mounts. Such data are
satisfactory for low frequency (less than 100 Hz) calculations
only. In order to assess the efficiency of a mount at higher
frequencies where the most significant noise energy occur, one
has to rely on previous experience or otherwise to perform
tests.
3.2.4 Structureborne transmission
The structure will commonly be designed and optimised from
other criteria than noise and vibration (e.g. strength,
appearance
and
function).
Hence, the
transmission
of
structureborne sound can seldom be influenced through the
structural design face. It is, however, as will be shown
later, important to be able to calculate the structureborne
transmission in order to determine resulting noise levels.
3.2.5 Airborne transmission
The passenger saloons
in small passenger vessels are
frequently located directly above or next door to the engine
room(s). The sound insulating properties of the partitioning
constructions
(bulkhead/deck) may therefore significantly
influence the resulting noise levels in the passenger
locations.
All passenger vessels are required to have fire insulation
between the engine room(s) and the passenger saloons. Fire
insulation can additionally be utilised as sound insulation.
By using well known acoustic theory, the composition of the
insulation can be optimised to provide the necessary sound
insulation. In this way the airborne sound problem can easily
be solved without significant weight or cost additions. This
ought to be considered while specifying the fire insulation.
3.2.6 Sound radiation
In the receiving location each surface will radiate sound. The
radiation
strength
of
each
surface
depends
on
the
structureborne noise reaching that surface, the size of the
surface and the radiation efficiency. Radiation efficiency for
a plate is primarily a function of the material parameters,
dimensions and mounting. Normally the radiation efficiency for
a flexible plate will be less than for a stiff plate. As an
example, the rather stiff FRP. sandwich material compares
unfavourable with thin aluminium or sheet steel. Also, a thin
plate of given material and size will radiate less noise than
24. 1I
a thicker plate of the same material and size. when selecting

linings for the interior this should be kept in mind.
3.2.7 Bound absorption
The ability to convert sound energy to heat is termed sound
absorption. The
absorptive properties of a material depends
mainly upon the porosity and thickness of the material. The
resulting noise level onboard a vessel will to some extent be
influenced by the absorption in carpets and seats. It is also
possible to increase the absorption by for example specifying
absorptive ceiling panels. The influence of absorption is,
however,
relatively small compared to the other elements
determining the resulting noise level mentioned above.
3.3 DESIGN EVALUATION AND CALCULATIONS
3.3.1 General
At the stage in the design process when the arrangement of the
vessel has been finalised, the machinery has been selected and
interior materials and insulation specified, the resulting
noise levels onboard a vessel should be evaluated. This is
done to determine if the criteria will be satisfied or if
additional noise control measures will have to be introduced.
3.3.2 Calculation of Noise Levels
The structureborne noise levels induced into the foundation of
a noise source will be transmitted throughout the ship
structure. The structural damping, (transmission lass) in the
plate structure of the ship depends on a number of factors. It
is possible to calculate the damping by several methods, more
or less accurately.
DnV has developed a method based on waveguide theory
specifically
for
calculation
of
structureborne
noise
transmission, the Noise Prediction Program NV590, ref s. /3/
/4/
and /5/.
By modelling the ship as a cross sectional
element model the transmission losses can be calculated.
Airborne noise from the engine room may also be calculated by
standard acoustic theory, or alternatively evaluated by means
of measured data from similar constructions.
The program
calculates resulting noise levels in specified
positions onboard a vessel.
In
addition information is
provided about dominating noise sources transmission paths and
radiating surfaces.
Figure 7 shows a flow-chart for the
program, figure 8 is an element model for a fast passenger
vessel and table 2 displays an example of a print-out for the
same vessel.
24.11I
jL
LV
SOURCE I
SOURCE I
F
ATTENUATION
IN
STRUCTURE
AIRBORNE
SOUND
TRANSMISSION
THROUGH
STRUCTURES
BULKHEA
E
FLO
CEILING
A
LEVEL
INDUCEDINNOISE
CABIN BY
AIRBORNE
SOUND FROM
SOURCE I
;L
INDUCED NOISE LEVEL IN CABIN

BY STRUCTUREBORNE SOUND FROM.
SOURCE I
TOTAL CONTRIBUTION FROM SOURCE I

OCTAVE BAND SOUND PRESSURE LEVELS
iOTAL CONTRIBUTION
RESULTING NOISE LEVEL
FROM SOURCE 11
IN CABIN
TTFROM SOURCE III

---___
____-
NOISE LEVEL IN cB(A)
--
--
OTHER SOURCES
,
IN CABIN
--
Figure 7, Flow chart for DnV Noise prediction program NV 590.
) t
T "
10
22 262
Figure 8, Cross
Vessel.
S9
Sectional
Predicted
Noise Level-
Location
11
Element
Model
of
Major Noise Type of

Source
Excitation
dB(A)
Lower Hull:
a High
Speed
Major*Radiating
Surface
Air/structure
..........
Waterjet Room
Main Engine Room
93-97
WJ
Deck/Hulls.
111-120
ME
Dir.
Main Deck:
Open Deck Area
98-100
WJ/Exh.
Dir.
Entrance
Battery Store
8N-82
84-86
WJ
WJ
S
S
Deck/Bulkhead
Deck/Bulkhead
Hospital
82-83
WJ
Deck/Bulkhead
Catering
75-78
WJ
Deck/Bulkhead
General Store
76-79
ME/WJ
Aft. Pass. Saloon
79
ME
Deck/Hulls.
Mid.
74-77
ME/AE
Deck/Hulls.
Fwd.
68-70
Sea/Air
Deck/Hulls./Bulkhead
Aft. Saloon
72-73
WJ
Deck/Hulls.
Mid.
68-70
ME
Deck
Fwd.
64-67
Air
windows/Ceiling
66-67
Air/Int
Ceilina/Dir
Deck/Bulkhead
Upper Deck:
Bridoe
Abbreviations:
- Main Engine
WJ -
Waterjet
ME
AE -
Auxiliary Engine
Sea - Seagenerated noise
Int - Internal Equipment S

Dir -'Direct Radiation
TABLE 2
Exh. - Exhaust
Air
- Structureborne noise A
- Aerodynamic noise
- Airborne noise
Hulls. -. Hull side
Example of a print-out from the NV590 program
13
3.4 NOISE CONTROL

3.4.1 General
Based on the results from a calculation, the means and extent
of noise control may be determined. It may be prudent to
divide the noise control effort into two levels:
- Develop and optimise the basic design as far as possible,
without adding measures that will increase the weight and
building cost significantly.
- Evaluate effect, cost and weight penalty for additive
measures.These may then be offered to prospective owners
during contract negotiations at actual cost.
In this way the yards will be able to offer an optimised
design with no or little
extra cost and weight penalties.
Further, prospective owners can then choose to which extent
they want to buy additional noise and vibration reduction in
the form of additive measures.
3.4.2 Noise reducing measures
Possible noise control measures include:
- Modification of sources. Some sources may be modified such
that their source levels are reduced. This approach applies
in particular to shafts, fans, propellers and any other
component on which a yard may influence the design. In order.
to modify other sources the manufacturers may have to be
approached.
- Improvement of source mounting. This is a measure that may
reduce the noise levels of a basic design dramatically
without significant weight penalty and with only an initial
development cost. Both the actual isolator as well as
foundations and machinery feet may have to be considered.
- Fire insulation may be optimised acoustically. In special
cases the insulation may even have to be increased beyond
the elements included in the fire insulation. Also, there
may be a need to cover certain surfaces in high noise level
zones in order to avoid structureborne noise induced by
airborne noise.
- Additive noise reducing measures. These include viscoelastic
damping layers, floating floors, resiliently mounted linings
and absorptive materials. It is important to use such
measures selectively. Damping layers will have very little
effect on a structure where the internal damping is high,
e.g. a sandwich structure. Damping.treatment is not
effective if the vibration/structureborne noise in the
treated area is mainly forced and not resonant. Conventional
floating floors may be too heavy to be used onboard high
speed vessels. Alternative lightweight floating floors have
been developed, but are not commercially available. Inner
linings will have to be of a material having low acoustic

radiation efficiency. Also, inner linings will have little
effect on low frequent noise. Added absorption do only have
a limited effect provided the existing absorption is below
a certain value. The effect of absorption is also rather
frequency dependent.
4. DESIGN FOR LOW VIBRATION
4.1 General
Vibration is due to a source acting with a dynamic force on
the structure. The complete global structure may then vibrate
(hull vibration) or the vibration may have local character
(local vibration) or act on the source itself
(source
vibration), see figure 9. High levels of vibration may be due
to a strong source
and/or a weak structure (forced
vibration). Alternatively structural properties may cause a
natural frequency to coincide with a source forcing frequency
and
thus lead to strongly amplified vibration (resonant
vibration).
Global vibration
Machinery Vibration
Hull vibration
Local vibration
Figure 9, Examples of vibration onboard high speed vessels.
24.15
4.2 Source properties

Fault free sources mounted correctly on a sound foundation
will normally not cause excessive forced vibration. Factors
leading to high dynamic forces from a source may be unbalance,
shaft misalignment, shaft resonance, propeller pressure
impulses, some sort of shaft resonance or a mechanical fault.
Onboard high speed vessels the shaft systems are usually
rotating with relatively high speed and cardan shafts and/or
flexible couplings are often used to take up the motion of
resiliently mounted machinery. Therefore the shaft systems
become critical in respect of vibration. It is important that
shaft resonances are avoided, that cardan shafts are correctly
installed and that misalignment is avoided. When aligning
shafts, the relative deflection of resiliently mounted
machinery under load (e.g. main engine/gear) and long term set
of resilient elements should be taken into account.
4.3 Source mounting
In order to reduce vibration all sources should be mounted to
the structure at points of sufficient stiffness. This applies
to resilient as well as rigidly mounted sources. Again the
shaft systems may be critical and it is important that the
.structural stiffness at the bearings is satisfactory.
For resiliently mounted machinery due care should be taken in
choosing mounts having a resonance frequency below the first
forcing frequency of the mounted equipment. Additionally the
stability of the equipment may be increased by lowering the
centre of gravity of the equipment and increasing the distance
between the outer mounts.
4.4 Structural properties
Structural resonances, local as well as global, should be
avoided in order to achieve vessels with moderate vibration
levels. The only way to assure that resonances are avoided for
a new design, is to perform calculations. Detailed finite
element calculations of a complete hull are expensive. It is
usually
feasible to make a rough assessment of
the
possibilities of resonances from
empirical data and/or by
using simple analytical methods. Detailed calculations will
then only have to be performed if the probability for
resonances are indicated by the simpler approach. Also, it
will usually be necessary to compute a detailed analysis of a
section of a vessel only.
24.16
Due to the moderate global dimensions of present high speed

vessel designs the likelihood for global resonances are
usually small. One exception being vessels with particular
slender hull design, e.g. SWATH vessels. As the dimensions are
increasing rapidly for new designs the possibility for global
resonances increases, and should be considered by designers
of all vessel types. Local resonances have been detected on
a number of high speed vessels. Such resonances have lead to
cracks in local panels and unpleasantly high vibration levels
in deck plates.
5. VIBRATION CONTROL
5.1 General
In order to assure a vessel with moderate vibration the
practical factors mentioned previously in chapter 4 should be
observed. Further it is recommended that the following
approach is adhered to :
- Natural frequencies of the propulsion shaft and other major
shafts ought to be calculated and the probability of
resonances assessed. Such calculations will usually be
offered by the machinery manufacturers or classification
societies.
- The structure should be subjected to a simple analytical
assessment to determine the probability of structural
resonances.
- If there exists a probability for a structural resonance a
detailed calculation using finite elements (e.g. SESAM)
should be carried out or the forcing frequency of the source
in question altered.
If a vibration problem occurs onboard a new built or existing
vessel. The best way to solve the problem will be to carry out
a trouble shooting measurement survey.
24.17
6. REFERENCES
/I/ NILSSON S. (1985) A study of the annoyance of vertical
whole-body vibration and
noise in a simulated ship cabin.
Report : Sjofartsverket, Arbetarskyddsfonden och Det norske
Veritas.
/2/
FLEMMING and GRIFFIN M.J. (1975) A study of the
subjective equivalence of noise
and whole-body vibration.
Journal of Sound and Vibration 42(4), pages 453-461.
/3/ NILSSON A.C. (1977) Attenuation of structureborne sound
in superstructures on ships. Journal of Sound and Vibration
55, pages 71-91.
/4/ NILSSON A.C. (1984) A method for the prediction of noise
and velocity levels in ship constructions. Journal of Sound
and Vibration 94(4).
/5/
ANDRESEN K., A.C. NILSSON and E. BRUBAKK (1986) Noise
prediction and prevention.
2nd International symposium on
shipboard acoustics ISSA'86, pages 433-459.
24.18
LESSON 24
16th WEGEMT SCHOOL
SESSION
CHAPTER
LESSON
:
:
TEACHER
EINAR BRUBAKK
AUTHORS
COMPANY
:
:
EINAR BRUBAKK AND HANS SMOGELI

Noise and Vibration

6. DESIGN
24. Applications: Conversion of a Large
Cruise Vessel from Steam to Diesel.

P.O. Box 300,
N-1322 Hovik,
NORWAY
ABSTRACT
The noise and vibration aspects of the conversion of a large
cruise vessel, the QE2, from steam turbine to diesel
propulsion is described.
HANS SMOGELI graduated from the Norwegian Technical University
in 1968, and joined Det norske Veritas in 1970 as a Research
Engineer, working with acoustics and structural dynamics. He
was appointed Senior Research Engineer in 1976, and between
1977 and 1984 was Project Manager of the ship division,
responsible for commissioning work on ship vibration, design
stage analyses and full scale measurements. From 1984 to 1986,
Mr Smogeli was Project Manager of the AS Veritec noise and
vibration section. In 1986, he was appointed Principal
Engineer, responsible for the ship activities of the Veritas
Marine Services noise and vibration group.
EINAR BRUBAKK is the Head of the Noise and Vibration Section
of Veritas Marine Services.
Mr. Brubakk joined Det norske
Veritas as a project engineer in 1973, after graduating from
the Norwegian Institute of Technology. From 1973 to 1976
he was working with acoustics and structural dynamics in the
Research Department.. From 1976 to 1978 he was employed
in the Research Department of the Norwegian Shipowner's
Association, Oslo. In 1978, Mr.. Brubakk returned to Det
norske Veritas. Since 1984 he has been Head of the Noise and
Vibration Section, situated at the Veritas Centre near Oslo,
where he and his 14 colleagues are working in close contact
with Veritas stations all over the world.
Of recently
completed projects, the conversion of Cunard's QE2, various
cruise/ferry
projects
for
Meyer
Werft,
Mitsubishi,
Fincantieri, as well as high speed vessel projects for
Kverner Fjellstrand and Ulstein/Brodr. Aa, may be mentioned.
24.19
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The noise and vibration situation on a cruise ship is one of
the most important parameters with regard to the overall
standard of the ship. Very strict requirements for noise and
vibration are normally incorporated in a contract to cover
these items and to ensure that the owner eventually receives
a product which is attractive to the market.
When the QE2 went into service in 1969, the ship performed
extremely well with regard to noise and vibration. The ship
was equipped with two steam turbines, which is regarded to be
the most silent type of propulsion plant. The main source of
noise and vibration was the two six-bladed fixed pitch
propellers. Naturally, the vibration level increased towards
the stern, but mid-ship, forward and higher up it was almost
unnoticeable.
In the initial stage of the planning of the re-engining, a
major cause of concern was the influence on the noise and
vibration
situation* in
the
ship.
Obviously,
it
was
unacceptable for the owner Cunard, to allow a deterioration in
the noise and vibration qualities after the re-engining.
Thorough investigations and analyses had to be presented to
prove this before a re-engining was finally decided. At this
stage, Cunard appointed the author's company as their
consultant on noise and vibration. At a meeting in London in
December 1984, to which shipyards and engine manufacturers
interested in bidding for the re-engining were invited, the
noise and vibration aspects and criteria were
firmly
addressed. With regard to noise, the general criterion of 49
dB(A) in passenger cabins, which is regarded as a very strict
requirement, was introduced.
Another concern was the noise situation in the engine room,
with the installation of 9 big diesel engines in a relatively
limited space. The noise levels had to meet the DTp's limit of
1!0 dB(A).
On the vibration side, the general criterion of 1.6 mm/s RMS
was introduced Again, this is a rather strict requirement and
has been a trend setting value for new cruise ships built
since.
An additional requirement for the post-conversion noise and
vibration situation was that it should not be worse than the
preconversion situation at comparable speed and power. It was
therefore decided that a team should perform extensive measurements on the QE2 in order to establish the actual noise and
vibration situation. The noise and vibration consultants of
the two engine manufacturers formed this team, together with
Cunard's consultants. The results were later used as a basis
for the noise and vibration criteria after re-engining and as
a tool for predicting the noise and vibration situation on the
renovated QE2.
2.0 VIBRATION
2.1 Method of vibration prediction
As mentioned, it was necessary to prove that the vibration
specification would be met after the re-engining of the QE2
On new designs it is common to perform extensive vibration
analysis by means of finite element models in order to predict
the vibration levels. The same approach could, of course, have
been applied to the QE2. However, it was decided to use a more
direct method based on the full scale measurements carried out
pre-conversion. This method consisted of the following approach:
1. The new Lips controllable pitch propeller was designed with
5 blades running at 144 revs/min. This gives a blade
passing frequency of 12 Hz.
2. The fitted Stone Manganese fixed pitch propeller was
equipped with 6 blades, absorbing maximum service power at
about 156 revs/min. Running the ship at 120 revs/min
resulted in an excitation frequency of 12 Hz, which is
what the ship would experience with the new Lips propeller.
The excitation forces would, however, be much lower at this
speed (approximately 21.5 knots, 25 MW power) compared to
the design point and contractual condition of the
controllable pitch propeller which was 28.5 knots, 53 MW.
3. A scaling of the measured vibration level at 120 revs/min
had to be performed in order to arrive at the expected
vibration level for the re-engined ship at 53 MW.
4. The scaling factor had to be based on a comparison of the
excitation forces at 120 rev/min, 6-bladed propeller, and
144 rev/min, 53 MW, 5-bladed controllable pitch propeller.
The advantage of the above described procedure, compared to a
theoretical approach is:
1. The dynamic behaviour of the structure is correct, compared
with a finite element model where the idealisation has to
be simplified, particularly with regard to local structure
and mass representation/distribution.
2. Since measurement at full speed had to be carried out and
the surveyors and equipment were already onboard, the cost
involved was much lower compared to a finite element
analysis.
It was decided that the author's company, having had the
longest experience in vibration, should be responsible for the
vibration prediction.
24.21
2.2 Pro-conversion vibration measurements and prediction

The vibration level was recorded on the ship in approximately
140 positions.
The measurements were carried out at two
conditions, 120 revs/mmn and 154 revs/mmn (52 MW) . The results
from the measurements at 120 rev/min were to form the basis
for the vibration prediction, whilst the full speed results
'as is'
vibration situation for
were to establish the
comparison with the expected vibration levels. In addition,
pressure impulses above the SB propeller were measured in two
points at increasing speed of the propeller shaft (110 to 152
revs/mmn).
From this measurement emerged the ratio of 3.6
between the propeller excitation force at 120 and 152 rev/mmn.
Assuming that the 6-bladed f ixed pitch and the 5-bladed
controllable pitch propeller were equal with regard to
excitation forces at 53 MW,
this means that the measured
vibration level at 120 rev/mmn should be multiplied by 3.6 in
order to arrive at the expected vibration level at the
contractual speed of 53 MW.
However,
the highly skewed
controllable pitch propeller was expected to reduce the
propeller excitation. An analysis of the excitation forces for
the two propellers was therefore performed by means of
propeller analysis program (NV571),
which is based on a
lifting surface approach. The results from this analysis were:
Integrated forces (kN)
391
292
6 bladed Stone propeller

5-bladed Lips propeller
Thus, the ratio between the excitation forces from the two
propellers is
292:391 = 0.75,
i.e. the forces for the
controllable pitch propeller are 75 A% of the f ixed pitch
propeller at approximately 53 MW. The resulting scaling factor
to be applied to the measured vibration level at 120 revs/mmn
is,
according to the approach described above, 3.6 x 0.75=
2.7.
In addition to the propeller change, a vane wheel was to be
added aft of each propeller in order to improve the propulsion
efficiency. The effect of the vane wheel was not taken into
account since the excitation force from a non-cavitating, low
loaded vane was not expected to contribute significantly to
the overall vibration level.
The measured vibration level forward, approximately at frame
40 in the accommodation and public rooms, was measured to be
very low (below 1 mm/s RMS). The prediction based on the above
described method also showed that the expected vibration level
in these areas was very low and at the same order of magnitude
as measured pre-conversion.
The large deck areas in the aft ship are naturally exposed to
propeller excited vibration. The highest vibration level was
expected to be found here. As an example of the Vibration
level measured pre-conversion and the prediction performed,
the results at the aft end of the quarter deck around the
swimming pool and club Lido are shown in Fig. 1.
24.22
As shown in the figure, the pre-conversion vibration level

even at the large open deck areas may be considered low. It is
interesting to note that in some points there is a large
difference
between
pre-conversion
vibration
level
and
predicted post-conversion level, even though the excitation
forces for the two cases do not differ drastically . For
instance, at position 5 much larger vibration level is
predicted than measured pre-conversion, even though the
LADOEPASSING FREQUENCY
3mm/s53
MW
[TT
/0
;41-4
MEASURED
PSTCONVERSDON
PREDICTEDNEW
PROP DESIGN
Figure 1, vibration levels on quarter deck

excitation forces are 25% lower. In point 8, a much larger
reduction of the vibration level than the decrease in
excitation force is predicted. This reflects the different
dynamic behaviour of the structure to an excitation frequency
of 15.2 Hz (6-bladed propeller, 152 rev/min) and 12 Hz (5bladed propeller, 144 rev/min). This phenomenon was, of
course, of great concern since unwanted resonances may
counteract the favourable predicted reduction in excitation
forces. However, as seen in Fig. 1, no resonances were found
to result in a high vibration level.
The prediction shows that in general the vibration situation
was expected to be approximately the same as pre-conversion.
Because of the change in excitation frequency, the vibration
level at some points-was predicted to be reduced and in other
24.23
points to be increased. However, no vibration level was predicted to be above the existing level. With regard to the main
engine excitation, the 9-cylinder MAN B&W engines were to be
mounted resiliently. The transmission to the engine foundation
of free moments of 2nd order and the firing sequence of 4.5th
order
were
therefore
expected
to
be
reduced
to
an
insignificantly low level.
Consequently, it was concluded that the vibration situation
after installation of new propellers and diesel engines would
be similar to the present situation. This applied both in the
large open deck areas in the aft ship and in the rest of the
ship. The vibration level in public spaces and passenger
,cabins was expected to be extremely low.
2.3 Post-conversion vibration measurements
Shortly after the ship entered service the Vane wheels were
damaged
in
service
and had to be
removed.
Vibration
measurements,
in
exactly
the
same
positions
and
at
approximately the same power (53 MW, 27.5 knots) as performed
pre-conversion, were then carried out. As pre-conversion, the
vibration level forward of frame 40, ie passenger cabins and
public rooms such as Yacht Club, Queen's Room, Grand Lounge
etc, was f ound to be very low and at the same order of
magnitude as pre-conversion. Above the engine room, vibration
excited by the main engines was hardly noticeable.
As an example of the propeller excited vibration level in the
aft ship, the measured vibration level at Club Lido/swimmning
pool on quarter deck is shown in Fig. 1.
In this f igure it is
thus possible to compare the predicted vibration level with
the actual measurement and also with pre-conversion vibration
level at these positions . With the exception of position 1
and 5,
it can be noted that the general influence on the
vibration level caused by the change of excitation frequency
was fairly well predicted.
The actual measured vibration
levels are somewhat lower than the predicted levels, with the
exception of a couple of positions. The vibration levels are
all
below the general criterion of 1.6 mm/s RMS and,
in
general, lower. than the pre-conversion values.
24.24
3.0 NOISE
3.1 Noise prediction analyses

The two engine manufacturers bidding for the delivery made
their own estimate of the resulting noise levels expected
after re-engining. These predictions were carried out by their
acoustic consultants. The predictions were based on the engine
manufacturers' proposals for engine installations, layout of
engine room and necessary additional insulation. The propeller
data was supplied by the propeller manufacturer.
As the owner's consultants,
the author's company made a
separate noise prediction. The feasibility of the two diesel
engine arrangements and additional noise reducing measures
were evaluated. The acoustical data for the engines, presented
by the suppliers, were examined and the prediction was based
on the author's company's noise prediction program for ship
structures (NV 590). The calculations in the program are based
upon the wave-guide theory for the transmission of structureborne noise through the steel plates in the ship.
The structure-borne noise transmission was calculated for two
sections of the ship.
one at frame 8,
to describe the
transmission of propeller noise, and one at frame 140, to
describe the transmission of engine noise. A longitudinal
model connected these sections together.
Because of the availability of pre-conversion,
full scale
measurement
data,
certain
adjustments
to
the
normal
theoretical approach were made:
1. Calculated results based on the transmission models
were compared with measured results whenever possible.
2. The acoustic response of the various cabin types was
taken directly from measurements in the actual cabins.
Acoustic response is here defined as the-'transmission
from vibration velocity in the steel deck to sound
pressure level in the cabin. It includes insertion
losses of panels/ceiling, radiation efficiencies, room
absorption and geometric room response.
3. The calculation of propeller induced velocity levels
was correlated with measurements on the old propeller.
The basic prediction was based on estimated data for the
foundation
of
the resiliently
mounted diesel
engines,
including firmly mounted generators and step-up gear for one
engine alternative. The estimated effect of the resilient
mounting
(average insertion loss)
for the two engine
alternatives was as follows:
Octave band
(Hz) 31.5
Insertion loss (dB)
13
63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000

18 18 19 19
19
18
16
Data for the electric propulsion motors were also estimated,

whilst the input data for the propellers were based on
24.25
analyses. No input data were available for the vane wheel.

However, as for vibration, the low-loaded vane was not
expected to give significant contribution to the resulting
noise levels.
3.2 Basic prediction and pre-conversion noise measurements
Based on the pre-conversion measurements, 55 passenger cabins
and 18 crew cabins were chosen as reference positions. In
these the noise levels were to be no higher than the preconversion situation at comparable speed and power.
The predicted noise distribution for the passenger cabin areas
on five, three and one deck, together with the pre-conversion
noise situation, are shown in Fig. 2. Five deck is the lowest
deck with passenger cabins and it is directly above the engine
room area. As shown in the figure, an increase in the noise
levels was predicted in the area above the engine room from
five deck up to three deck. From three deck and above, no
increase of the pre conversion levels was expected. In the aft
ship, no significant changes in the pre-conversion noise
situation were predicted.
-10
..
PREDICTED
MEASURED PRECONVERSOI
. MEASURED POSTCONVERS.
ONE DECK
dS(A)0
"'C .
CASING
THREE rECK
dBI(A)0
- 10
---- ---n.I0
FIVE DECX
d B(A)0C
-IC
Fig. 2: Distribution of noise levels along the bull
24.26
3.3 Noise reducing measures

Based on the results from the noise prediction analyses,
necessary remedial measures to meet the noise criteria were
proposed. After selection of engine supplier, the noise
reducing measures were determined in close co-operation with
the engine contractor and their acoustic consultant.
The most important measures were:
Diesel Engines
Improving the effect of the resilient mounting system.
Removing the step-up gear between engines and generators.
Engine room insulation I additional deck
To meet the necessary sound insulation values between engine
rooms and accommodation areas, as well as to prevent air-borne
sound generating structure-borne sound, an extra deck was
constructed in the engine room. The new deck construction
(six-deck) separated the diesel engine rooms from he new
auxiliary engine rooms.
In the diesel engine rooms, all bulkheads / hull sides and
deckhead were specially acoustically insulated. The insulation
consisted of mineral wool plus 2 mm to 3 mm steel plates,
resiliently mounted, as well as additional mineral wool with
perforated steel sheeting. The necessary distance between the
insulation construction and the ship's steel structure was
evaluated.
Auxiliary machinery
To prevent structure-borne sound transmission from the engine
room, all machinery in the new auxiliary engine rooms on sixdeck was resiliently mounted. In addition, selected auxiliary
machinery in the diesel engine rooms on seven deck, such as
lubrication
oil
pumps,
hydraulic
pumps,
separators.
compressors etc, was also mounted on vibration isolators.
Engine room casing / exhaust system
The engine room casing bulkheads were acoustically insulated (mineral wool + steel sheeting) and the exhaust system,
including boilers, silencers and pipes, was resiliently
mounted. From quarter deck, the
structure-borne sound
transmission from the exhaust system was further reduced and
optimised by resilient mounting to an exhaust stack. This
pre-fabricated steel structure had no firm connections with
the surrounding casing bulkheads, except for the anchoring
points at the top of the casing on the signal deck.
24.27
Exhaust silencers
To meet a required level in the range of 60 dB(A) on the upper
open
deck
recreation
areas,
specially
designed
high
performance silencers had to be applied. After full scale
testing of 7 different silencer systems, the 3-silencer-series
combination Huss system proved to give a reduction of more
than 40 dB(A).
The basic configuration for each of the 9
exhaust systems consisted of two absorption and reflection
type silencers, one with a spark arrester, and one absorption
type.
Fan / ventilation system
The 24 exhaust and supply fans installed for engine room
ventilation were mounted resiliently and equipped with absorption silencers.
Luxury suites
To provide a high standard acoustic environment for the new
and renewed luxury suites on signal deck, special noise reducing measures were implemented,
including optimised sound
insulation
to
ensure
acoustic
privacy,
impact
sound
prevention, reduction of air conditioning noise and prevention
of noise disturbance on the open balconies.
3.4 Post-conversion noise measurement
Post-conversion measurements were carried out in the reference
cabins mentioned above. The recorded noise level distribution
in dB(A) for the passenger cabins is shown in Fig. 2, together
with
the
pre-conversion
and
basic
predicted
noise
distribution.
As shown in the f igure, compared to the basic prediction, the
noise situation on all decks has been improved by between 3
and 7 dB(A),
except for the aftmost cabins where the levels
have increased slightly on the lowest decks.
The reduction is caused by the implemented noise reducing
measures,
as mentioned above,
as well as the achieved
improvement of input levels (reduced source strength) from
major sources compared to the design estimates. Referring to
the diesel engines, when comparing full scale measurements onboard with the estimates used in the prediction, the improvements are:
Octave band (Hz)
63
Reduced input (dB) 8
125
3
250
3
500 1000 2000

5
8
5
The f inal average transmission loss for the 9 resiliently

mounted engines (difference over and below the isolators) was
recorded as:
Octave band (Hz)
31.5
Transmission loss (dB)
32
63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000

25 33 28 24
30
21
17
24.28
From the f igure it can be seen that the largest reduction

occurs on the lowest deck (five deck), where noise levels in
the same range as pre-conversion have been reached. On three
deck the post-conversion levels have been reduced to below the
pre-conversion condition.
However,
around the engine room
casing the reduction is less. This is caused by low-frequency
air-borne sound transmission from the engine room casing, due
to the limited distances available from exhaust gas boilers to
casing bulkheads. For the higher decks the reduction compared
to preconversion conditions again increased.
With reference to the frequency distributions of the recorded
noise levels, a slight expected increase of the low-frequency
noise contribution was observed. However, based on experience
from other cruise ships, low-frequency noise of a steady
character is not regarded as annoying. In fact, for most areas
directly above the engine rooms and surrounding the engine
room casing, a considerable improvement was experienced when
compared to the characteristic high-frequency noise from
steam-turbine plants. A typical example of this is shown in
Fig. 3. The recordings are taken in the staircase, directly
aft and adjacent to the engine room casing.
In the preconversion situation, the main steam throttle valve was placed
directly adjacent to this staircase. It can be seen that a
slight post-conversion increase occurred in the two lowest
octave bands, whilst a considerable reduction occurred in the
high-frequency.
The overall reduction from pre- to postconversion varies between 13 dB(A) and 16 dB(A).
For the open deck recreation areas the criterion of overall
levels below 65 dB(A) was met. The exhaust silencers gave the
expected reduction, as did the absorbent attenuators, for the
engine room fans. A typical overall reduction for an absorbent
baffle attenuator was in the range of 20 dB(A),
with the
following octave band reduction:
Octve and (H)31.5 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
Reducin
dB
11 13
14 16 20
21
23
21
18
Referring to the aftmost passenger cabins on the lowest decks,
a post-conversion increase of up to 5 dB(A) was observed. This
aft ship magnification of the noise levels was further
increased in the crew cabin areas, arranged directly above the
propellers and steering gear room.
Normally, the propeller excited noise reaches a maximum level
close to the propeller plane and decreases in the forward and
aft direction. This is due to the fact that the growth and
collapse of the cavitation volume on the propeller is the
acoustical source which excites the hull plating. The preconversion measurement of the noise in the aft ship showed the
expected distribution. The decrease aft of the propeller plane
for the lowest crew deck, directly above steering gear room,
is shown in Fig. 4. The measurement carried out on the sea
trial with the vane wheels still intact showed an unexpected
increase in the noise level in the propeller plane. According
to the prediction of the propeller source strength, a slight
reduction of the propeller noise was expected.
24.29
The propellers/vane wheels seemed, therefore, to be a

dominating noise source, while the longitudinal distribution
was as expected. After the vane wheels were removed the noise
level above the wheels was reduced by 10 dB(A). However, the
noise distribution aft of the propeller plane has now changed
completely, with an increase in the levels 10 frames behind
the propeller and a slight decrease further aft.
20
31.5
-c
PCSTCONVERSION.
63
125 2W0 500 i=
800
FREUENCY Mz
APRIL'87
o--.c0 PRECCNVERSION '85
70
BETWEEN
TWO
DEC-_K
2%
3',
BETWEEN
FOUR DECK
& rIVJE DE:K
63
125 .5 5M0
2O50MAB
FREU2JENCY
"Ji'll
5 63 "25 25OC
"
*C
2CO
CCC
FREQUENCY
Figure 3.
Pre- and post-conversion A
- weighted octaveband
frequency recordings from E - staircase.
24.30
%CC
MI
S()
IPCSTCONV;SEAT
wiTT.
IAL
VANE WHEr.
. 10
:
PCSTCZjN'I
CUT VANE WHEEL
0---
112
-1C
.10
'6
FR M
PNCp
VANE
WHEEL
Figure 4. Characteristic noise level distribution on the

lowest crew accommodation deck directly above the steering
gear room.
Measurements of structure-borne sound in the aft ship were
performed in order to trace the cause of this phenomenon.
Because of the change in the excitation frequencies from the
propeller this measurement was focussed on the possibility of
magnification of the sound transmission caused by resonances
of the structure. The results showed, however, that resonances
were not the reason for the increased noise. The structure and
air-borne sound consisted of an abnormal high energy content
in the frequency range from 20 Hz to 50 Hz. Hence it was
concluded that there had to be a noise source behind the
propeller. The most probable source was assumed to be the tip
vortex from the propeller and this was based on the following
information:
1. Relatively strong tip vortex was found at the model
test.
2. The flat noise distribution in the aft ship indicated
a noise source over a considerable length of the ship.
3. The high noise level above the propellers, with the
vane wheels still present, was possibly caused by the
impact of tip vortices on the vanes and not caused by
cavitation on the vanes themselves.
24.31
4.0 PROPELLER EXCITATION

4.1 General
In order to investigate the cause of the noise distribution in
the aft ship,
it
was decided that the cavitation on the
propeller and the phenomenon taking place behind the propeller
should be analysed in an extensive full scale measuring
programme.
observation windows were mounted above the SB
propeller in order to investigate the type and extent of
cavitation. The pressure impulses and plate response were
measured at several points from the propeller plane to 12
frames behind the propeller.
4.2 Cavitation on the propeller
The photos and high speed films taken of the propeller at 53
MW revealed a well developed stable sheet cavitation which was
approximately of the extent as seen in the model test carried
out in a cavitation tunnel,
and calculated by means of
theoretical approach.
The observations also showed the tendency to rolling up of the
sheet cavitation towards the tip, resulting in cavities shedding into the tip vortex. Similar to observations during the
model test, the tip vortex on full scale was described as
strong and trailing down the slipstream.
4.3 Pressure impulses
The distribution of the pressure amplitudes behind the
propeller at 55 MW is illustrated in Fig. 5 As expected, the
blade passing frequency component (5th order) falls of f with
increasing distance from the propeller, except for a slight
increase from frame 7, to frame 3. The 2nd harmonic component
(15th order) unexpectedly shows a rather stable value along
the aft ship. The 3rd harmonic component (15th order)
surprisingly increases to approximately three times the value
measured in the propeller plane, at a position (approximately
9in) aft of the propeller plane. Another unexpected finding was
the frequency content of the signal. Normally the pressure
signal has discrete peaks at the harmonic of the blade passing
frequency. However, as illustrated in Fig. 5, it was found
that particularly far behind the propeller, peaks of order
This was most
between the harmonic orders were detected.
pronounced in the frequency band 24 Hz to 48 Hz. Sound in this
frequency band is audible and was responsible for the
relatively high low-frequency contribution to the noise level
aft of the propeller plane.
Another phenomenon which did occur was the fluctuating nature
of the pressure signal. The result presented in Fig. 5 is the
average value over approximately 1 minute, while the peak
value is approximately twice the mean value.
Vibration level was recorded at the pressure transducers in
the aft peak tank. The results at 55 MW are shown in Fig. 6.
As seen, the same frequency pattern and distribution as the
pressure signals are found.
24.32
Through these investigations, the phenomenon recorded behind

the propeller was consequently confirmed to be caused by the
dynamic behaviour of the tip vortex, which creates pressure
impulses acting on the hull plating which starts to vibrate.
4.4 New propeller design
After the vane wheels were damaged and the hubs removed, it
was decided that new vane wheels should not be installed and
that the propeller blades should be re-designed. The diameter
was to be increased to obtain optimum diameter without vane
wheels. From the extensive post-conversion measurements it was
decided that the tip vortex should be minimised on the new
design. A new propeller design was then made using an interactive procedure by means of the latest design program based
on lifting surface theory. The theoretical analysis based on
this program showed a remarkable improvement of the cavitation
phenomenon on the propeller and the pressure impulses of the
blade passing frequency.
RESULTS
FROM
FUL.LSCALE
MEASUREMENTS,
5 MW
k Pa
5
BLAOEP.SSING FSEOUE'JCY
2. BLAOEP-SSING FRE0UENCy
.~--.--O-,,
-.
BLACEPASSIN
FREQUENCY
c a.PONENTS
0 f
IN BE TWEEN
YKE HA R.ONIC
POSITION
FRAME
1
314
2
7/8
A
11112
15116
Ir11
i'-.T,
10
20
'
30
Figure 5. Distribution of pressure impulses in the aft-ship
24.33
The table below compares the as fitted propeller with the new
design, based on a theoretical analysis approach (NV571).
New design
D = 6.0 m
As-fitted propeller
D = 5.8 m
Power (MW)
Cavitation volume (litre)i
Pressure impulses (kPa)
55
90
4.2
Integrated force
292
(kN)
55
4
0.8
18
70
480
9.6
-
70
102
3.3
261
As seen, the blade passing frequency component at 70 MW for

the new design is lower than this component for the as-fitted
design at 55 MW. The integrated forces indicate that the
vibration level of blade passing frequency will be reduced to
only approximately 10% of the present level at 55 MW and that
at 70 MW the vibration level will be only 90% of the present
level at 55 MW. The predicted level at 55 MW is illustrated in
Fig. 1.
BLAODEPASSING
.--...
III
*
FREQUENCY
2. BLADEPASSING
FREoQUENCY
3 xBLADEPASSING
FREOUE4CY
BLADEPASSING FREQUENCY
-.
mm/s RMS
7 FR EQUENC
"".
CO
oNe T
IN BETWEEN
.20th
"-
POSITION
FRAME
"ni
314
7M8
'i
15116
11112
T 4- - -"TrT ---
rf
4MJ!!l''rjTT
lll
J,
Figure 6.
II llln
I M
l
t Ir
to
/MT
,',
20
24.34
.q
30
Distribution of vibration level in the aft peak tank
24.34
The main phenomenon of concern was, however, the cavitating

tip vortex. In order to investigate these effects, the as
fitted
and
new propeller
designs
were
tested
in
a
depressurised towing tank. The test of the as fitted propeller
was to form the correlation link to the full scale
measurements / observations in order to have a direct
quantitative measure for the improvement of the new design.
Figure 7 shows the result from the model test for this
propeller, which should be compared to the full scale results
in Figure 5 . Although there is a somewhat lower amplitude of
the 3rd harmonic (15th order) in the aftmost measuring point,
the full scale phenomenon is regarded as sufficiently
represented in the model test.
As for the theoretical calculation, the model test shows a
considerable reduction of the blade passing frequency component for the new design. With regard to the higher harmonic
components behind the propeller and the strength of the tip
vortex, which are closely linked together, a remarkable improvement was found. This is illustrated in Fig. 8. The frequency spectra from the model test of the as-fitted and the
new design illustrate the differences between the two
propellers. The high energy content in the frequency range
from 2nd to 4th harmonic, measured at the aftmost point for
the as-fitted propeller, is not found with the new design.
MOOELTEST
---
,-
THE
BLAOEPASSING
*--.
kPa
WITH
AS FITTED
PROPELLER .55 MW
FRECU(NCY
2. BLAOEPASSIIG FRMEOUCNCY
3.B LADEPASSING FRtOUENCY
4
FREOQUEkC Y
COMPONENTS
2t
INBETWEN
TI.IE
A A .CW Ii
CO. PCNET
5t
POSITION
FRAME
314
718
111t2
15116
-- ---in
mT, rn
1 rn
I
I
I
0-
to
,III
o 10
Tf --I
6
T I
20
30
20
30
Figure 7. Distribution of pressure impulses in the aftship
24.35
The visually observed tip vortices at the model test revealed

that the new propeller design had a considerably less
developed tip vortex, compared with the as-fitted propeller.
Full scale measurements were performed after the ship entered
service with the new propeller design. The results are listed
in the table below. The table also compares the results with
the results from the previous propeller designs and with the
results from model tests and calculations.
Stone 6-bladel
Lips 5.8 m
Average Pressure impulses
Lips 6.0 m
kPa
50 MW
70 MW
70 MW
55 MW
70 MW
Full scale
Model test
2.2
6.8
9.2
2.0
2.2
4.0-5.0
4.2
1.8
1.2
NV 571
5.9
4.2
9.6
0.8
3.0-4.0
1.7
3.3
55 MW
55 MW
AS
NEW PAOPELLER DESIGN
PIfTED PROPELLER
FRAME
2.0.
314
-0
FRAME
7)8
10
20-
10
>0
>,
720
FRAMEIVlr-.2 0
10
o
3.0
ILFRAME 15516
10
2
A'
O.AOEH&BSCNICS
*&
AVE
i4ICSAPhiQ
Figure 8. Pressure amplitudes measured on model at MARIN
24.36
The results show that the pressure impulses were reduced,

although not as much as predicted from the model tests and the
calculations. Both the noise and the vibration situation was
improved. For comparable power settings the results were
better than with the original stone propeller used prior to
the re-engining.
In addition to the reduced pressure impulses the following
were observed:
- The tip vortices were initiated at a much higher power
setting than for the 5.8m propeller.
- The peculiar pressure distribution discussed above, was not
as noticeable as for the 5.8m propeller.
- The new propeller design had to be operated at considerably
higher pitch settings than indicated by the model tests and
the calculations.
The discrepancy between the full scale results and the model
tests may be due to the pitch difference. The pitch difference
may have been caused by a difference between the actual
manufactured propeller profile and the theoretical design
profile. The design profile was a NACA profile, while the
actual manufactured profile was elliptical.
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
The noise and vibration situation onboard the re-engined ship
was very good in the forward and centre sections of the ship.
The control measures incorporated in the design, ensured that
the diesel engines did not create a situation in any way
inferior to the situation with steam turbines. In many
locations the noise and vibration levels were reduced after
the re-engining.
In the aft ship the noise and vibration is dominated by the
propellers. Due to the initial service problems with the vane
wheels and the tip vortices from the propellers, the noise and
vibration situation in the aft-ship was not ideal during the
initial service period of the vessel. Hence, new propellers
were designed. With the new propellers the situation was
improved. For comparable power settings the noise and
vibration was improved in most locations compared to the
situation prior to the re-engining.
24.37
CHAPTER: 7
SHOCK
LESSON 25
16th WEGENT SCHOOL
SESSION
CHAPTER
Shock
SHOCK
:7:
25. Shock:
Introduction to and General
Overview of Shock Phenomena
TEACHERS
COMPANY
Research
COUNTRY
:
:
R.G. WHITE / J.K. HAMMOND

ISVR - Institute of Sound and Vibration
Southampton S09 5NH
UNITED KINGDOM
ABSTRACT
This chapter is an introduction to the fundamentals of
shock
phenomena.
Basic time and frequency domain models are
described with examples.
Aspects of shock vibration and shock
testing are included.
The latter part of the chapter considers
the associated problem of damage assessment.
The general aim
is to offer guidelines for the interpretation of data obtained
from trials.
A major problem that is
emphasised is
the
reconciliation of results from (i) prediction of the effects of
shock (using mathematical/computational
models) ;
(ii) trials
results;
and (iii) experimental results.
The specification of
the shock environment is a vital aspect of designing equipment
to withstand shock and an introduction to descriptors is given
with
a view to offering
guidance *to the
designer
for
experimental design criteria.
J.K.
Hammond,
B.Sc.,
Ph.D.,
Professor of Signal Analysis,
Chairman of Signal Process 'ing and Control Group,
Institute
of
Sound and Vibration
Research,
University of Southampton,
Southampton,
England.
Research
interests
include nonstationary processes,
nonlinear phenomena,
shock phenomena,
signal enhancement and system identification.
R.G. White
See Chapter 3 Lesson 11.
25.1
I.
INTRODUCTION
This chapter is an introduction to shock phenomena, and will also address the associated
problem of damage assessment, with a view to offering guidelines for the interpretation of data
obtained from trials and also posing questions that should be considered in research and
development programmes.
Whilst the emphasis relates to shock response for naval applications, the discussions are of a
much more general nature. Furthermore, though much of the emphasis is on structural
response to shock, it is clear that specific consideration should be given to the effects of shocks
(via supporting structure) on payloads.
We must begin by noting that since by damage assessment we mean 'failure' of some kind to
some component, then there is very little documented about failures resulting from shock
damage. It is this lack of information that renders the problem an open one.
2.
FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
Mechanical shock may be characterised by a variety of physical quantities such as, for
example, velocity shock, blast waves or mechanical impact. Shock is therefore difficult to
define rigorously but the functions described all fall into the category of transient or nonperiodic phenomena, that is, sudden disturbances which do not repeat in a finite time interval.
Shock is in most practical cases an undesirable occurrence and it is necessary to estimate the
response of a system in order to predict peak dynamic displacements, velocities, accelerations
or stresses. This almost always involves simplification in order to set up a mathematical
model of a system which may be analysed with currently available techniques. Forcing
functions, for instance, may be approximated by pulses of very simple geometric shape.
Mechanical systems may be characterised generally as single or multi-degree of freedom
systems. The single degree of freedom system representation is very useful because of the
relatively simple dynamic analyses necessary for response prediction and also because the
single degree of freedom analogy may be used to predict the response of multi degree of
freedom systems in* each mode of vibration, the complete response being built up by
superposition. Structures having distributed mass and elasticity have an infinite number of
degrees of freedom but often a good approximation to the dynamic response may be obtained
by, considering motion in a few lower modes only. The effects of shock may often be reduced
by mounting equipment on isolators but, again, dynamic analysis is necessary if system
performance is to be predicted.
Shock studies may therefore be seen to fall into the familiar pattern of dynamic analysis. The
problem is illustrated in Figure 1.
Three quantities are involved: the excitation, the response and the system transfer function
which relates the particular physical response to the excitation. If two of the quantities are
known, then it is possible to estimate the third.
Two types of analyses are possible, time domain and frequency domain. Figure 1 indicates
time domain analysis, that is, time functions are given for the force and response. If
frequency information is required, then frequency domain analysis must be carried out. This
is illustrated in Figure 2. Again, there are three quantities: the excitation spectrum, the
response spectrum and the system frequency response function. If two quantities are known,
the third may be calculated.
25.2
SYSTEM
EXCITATION
~TRANSFER
FORCE
RESPONSE
FUNCTION
TIERESPONSE
TIMETIME
Figure 1
SYSTEM
EXCITATION
FREQUENCY
RESPONSE
RESPONSE
FUNCTION
AMPLITUDE
AMPLITUDE
FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY
PHASE
PHASE
Figure 2
25.3
Although theoretical predictions may be made, the analyses are often approximate, or if the
system is very complicated, analysis in the time available may be precluded. In both
instances, experimental studies are necessary. It is often also necessary to carry out shock
tests on equipment for specification testing. There is therefore a need for instrumentation for
shock testing.
This item is an introduction to some of the concepts involved in shock and system response
analysis.
Instrumentation and data analysis techniques are considered in a separate
presentation.
2.1
Freouencv analysis
Both frequency and time domain analyses are possible and necessary. - Frequency analysis will
first be studied. The Fourier spectrum of a shock or transient is given by the Fourier
transform which is
FOW) =
f(t)e-JtOt dt
or, conversely, the time function may be derived from the complex spectrum according to
F(t) = L
J F(jow)eClt
do.
The first of the two Fourier transforms above, F~oc), is probably the most useful in practical
terms because, by substituting the appropriate function f(t) for a given shock waveform, its
complex spectrum may be evaluated.
The Fourier transform, because of its integral form, shows that the amplitude and phase spectra
of shocks or transients are continuous functions of frequency. A transient may be represented
by a continuous spectrum of frequency components with the correct phase relationship. Thus
the transient response of a system in the frequency domain may be examined in a manner
similar to that used in steady state analyses. For example, consider the system shown below
in Figure 3.
I:.
Figure 3
25.4
The complex frequency spectrum of the transient force is given by the Fourier transform
PwoO) =
. p(t)e-Ji'
dt
and the complex spectrum of the response is given by

j t dt.
x(t)e-W
XjW) =
-00
Now, and this is a most important concept, if the frequency response function of the system is
H(iw), that is the steady state response to sine waves, then this function may be used to relate
the frequency content of the force and response in the transient state, i.e.,
X(jco) = H(jco).Pgo).
Thus the Fourier spectrum of the system response is given by the product of the Fourier
transform of the excitation and the complex sinusoidal frequency response function. Also, the
time history of the response may be determined by evaluating the inverse Fourier transform of
XOcO).
An example of the former concept above may be illustrated by considering the response of a
single degree of freedom system to a blast wave defined below in Figure 4.
(a)
Blast Wave Shock Pulse
Po
~
TL
(b)
Single Degree of Freedom System

P,) J,
ris
x(t)
SpiIN~c-
Vsco.US
Figure 4
25.5
OAPER.
The blast wave is defined by

P(t) = P0 I
t r
-TIe-
where T is the characteristic duration of the blast wave. The Fourier transform is given by
P ,=P0T7[1 4]e-/T}e-Jtdt
which gives a modulus spectrum
IP(o)I
(w0T) 2
P0
w 1 + ((oT) 2
The complex sinusoidal frequency response function for a single degree of freedom system
with a viscous damper is given by
InHjo)I -
fl]ln
and
(on
(1-
tan
where = the viscous damping ratio (fraction of critical damping)

= the natural frequency =
The modulus spectrum of the displacement response of the mass is given by
(OT)2
=PXj
Ol
IU)
[1 + (wT)2][(I
W T+
(2
'of])2t/
where Po/k is the static deflection of the system

and
k is the spring constant.
This function is indicated below in Figure 5 for a particular case where OnT = 2 and = 0.1.
The broad peak at w) = 1/T shows the maximum value of the spectrum of the blast wave
excitation and the sharp peak at w = 2/T corresponds to the peak at the resonant frequency of
the system.
25.6
10
FOURIER
SPECT RUM
-RESPONSE
SPECTRUM
1-0
It
ix 61~
INPUT
SPECTRUM
Zf:
&jT=FREOUENCY
X DURATION
Figure 5
2.2
Time Response Analysis
The above approach resulting in Figure 5 shows how the frequency content of the response of
a system to a pulse may be calculated, but there is no indication of the time history or the peak
values of the response attained.
The time response may be calculated from the inverse Fourier transform of the response
spectrum as already defined. In certain conditions the equivalence of the Fourier and the
Laplace transform may be demonstrated; by substituting s =jwo in the above relationships and
using tabulated functions of Laplace transforms, the time history may be derived. However,
the impulse response of a system may also be used to calculate the time response to a transient
and this approach is useful because for very short duration shocks, the response may
sometimes be shown to approximate to the impulse response, thus simplifying analysis.
If a system is initially at rest and an impulse I is applied at t = 0, then the impulse response is
a free vibration with the initial condition that v = 1/rn, where v = velocity. If the impulse is
defined such that I = 1, then we have a unit impulse. The response to a unit impulse, h(t), or
the impulse response of a single degree of freedom system, defined previously, is for example
h(t)
e-fln sin (odt
where (ox is the damped natural frequency = won-F
C2-
Now the response of a system may be calculated by considering the excitation as a series of
impulses and summing the impulse responses produced in the system. Such a process is
called convolution and will be explained below.
The response to a transient force may be calculated by considering the excitation as a series of
impulses. An arbitrary forcing function is shown in Figure 6 and the time history may be split
up into elementary impulses shown by the shaded area.
25.7
Figure 6
The magnitude of the impulse = f(r)At, and if h(t) is the impulse response of a system
(remember, response to a unit impulse), then the increment of response Ax due to the impulse
at time t is given by
Ax(tt) = f(,)At.h(t -,c).
That is the product of the magnitude of the impulse multiplied by the shifted impulse response.
For a linear system we can add the effect of successive impulses such that
t
x(t) = 7 f(,t)h(t - ")Ac

0
which is the limit as A-t -4 0 gives
L
x(t) =
J0 f(,)h(t - t)dt.
This expression is known as the convolution integral or Duhamel integral and is expressed in
many forms, it being possible to reverse the order of convolution of the two functions and alter
the limits of integration in particular conditions. If analytical expressions are known for f(t)
and h(t), then x(t), the system response, may be calculated by direct substitution in the above
equation and evaluation of the integral.
An application of the convolution integral to the prediction of the response of an undamped
single degree of freedom system to a rectangular force pulse is shown here and the concept of
the shock spectrum is demonstrated. Consider the system and the forcing function in
Figure 7. According to the convolution integral
t
x(t) =
J f(,)h(t - t)dt
0
1
where h(t) =
sin coat.
mo2n
25.8
F F0
P1
xk
[liM
Figure 7
Now there are two components of x(t) which occur in forced and free vibration; that is, forced
vibration during the application of the pulse, with free vibration for t> t1 .
x(t) = forced vibration + free vibration
Xl(t)
x2(t)
For forced vibration, from above

C
XI(t) =
mCon
f('r)sin o)n(t - r)dc
k (1-cos cot).
Now, for t > tl, the free vibration may be represented by
x2(t) = k (A sin o1n(t - ti) + A2 cos COn(t -tl)),
Al and A2 being found by equating displacement and velocity for x1(t) and x2(t) at t = ti,
whence
x2(t) =2
[sin
2 .sin Wnt
Thus, from the two time functions, xl (t) and x2(t), the complete expression for the response of
an undamped single degree of freedom system to a rectangular force pulse has been calculated.
The form of the response to this particular transient depends on the natural frequency of the
system and the pulse duration. The expression for the response does not by inspection readily
yield information to the designer. Thus the concept of the shock spectrwn is introduced.
25.9
This is an important concept of considerable value in the comparison of shock responses in the
design of systems to withstand shock motions. The shock spectrum is plotted by, as above,
applying the shock to an undamped linear single degree of freedom system and plotting the
response characteristics as a function of the natural frequency of the system.
Figure 8 shows the maximum response and residual amplitude of the response of the system
described above. The maximum deflection can be seen to be twice that produced by applying
a static force equal in magnitude to that of the rectangular pulse. The shock spectrum is
therefore very useful in the estimation of damage and in time domain analysis. Shock spectra
may be calculated for many types of pulse of simple shape which approximate well to shocks
encountered in practice.
MAX RESPONSE
-1ATIO---------------------------------------
RESPONSE
RESIDUAL AMPLITUDE
STATIC RESPONSE
THE NATURAL PERIOD OF THE SYSTEM
Figure 8
If the duration of a shock is less than one fourth of the natural period of a system, then the
shock may be approximated to by an impulse with the same total impulse as the actual shock.
For example, consider a triangular pulse defined in Figure 9.
P
(t
Figure 9
The impulse I for the triangular pulse is
I=J P(t) dt-=Pt
From the expression for the impulse response of an undamped si ngle degree of freedom
system the free vibration amplitude has a maximum amplitude given by
25.*IC
Xmax
I
mOOn
lO)n
k
For the triangular pulse, and noting that the static deflection of a single degree of freedom
system under an applied load P0 is P0 /k, then
Xmax
Xstatic
(C)nt2
2 =
fnt 2 .
This gives good agreement with the calculated response to triangular pulse excitation for
t2 <<< T (see Figure 10), as is generally true for pulses with simple shape and positive phases
only.
SHOCK SPECTRUM FOR A TRIANGULAR PULSE
I-iS
RESPONS
SMax
i X
FOR A TRIANGULAR PULSE
I'0,
max
i Static
--
0~-~
fnt2
Figure 10
It is worthy of note at the end of this section of work concerning the transient response in the
time domain, that although the importance of the impulse is evident in this context, the impulse
response does completely characterise a system because it may be shown that the frequency
response function is the Fourier transform of the impulse response.
It is also interesting to note that the Fourier spectrum of a shock is related to the residual shock
spectrum by the relationship
S(f) = 2itf IF(OI
25.II
where SQ') is the residual shock spectrum and IF(f)l is the Fourier spectrum of the shock.
Thus a computer operation which yields the Fourier spectrum will, with modification, yield the
residual shock spectrum.
2.3
Shock Isolation
Shock and vibration isolation are achieved by similar means, that is to mount the body to be
isolated on resilient supports. Thus the essential features of the isolator are its resilience and
energy dissipating mechanisms. The latter may be achieved by separate dampers or the
internal damping of rubber or wire mesh isolators may be used. It is usually assumed, in
order to simplify analysis, that the springs and dampers are separate elements, that the springs
are massless, viscous damping only is present and that the elements exhibit linear
characteristics. These are idealisations of course, but although the presence of nonlinear
elements and hysteretic dampers may be beneficial in practice, the dynamic analysis of systems
containing such elements does become complicated.
Two classes of shock isolation problem are encountered:
(a)
shock motion of the support or foundation where an isolator is required to reduce the
severity of the shock experienced by the supported equipment
(b)
shock generation by impacting machinery which must be isolated from the foundation
to reduce the forces exerted on the foundation.
The application of isolator elements, which may be of a commercially available type or a special
purpose development is largely dictated by the particular circumstances in which they are to be
used. The method of application, in the sense of geometrical arrangement and disposition with
respect to the mounted device, usually leads to non-symmetry of the complete system which
produces coupled modes of vibration. It is usual, however, in analytical work, to idealise the
system as having uncoupled modes of vibration and hence this justifies reversion to the single
degree of freedom system model for response calculations. This may be used in the study of
translational or rotational motion, the principles being the same in each case but the notation
being different.
Two idealisations of the above two isolation problems are shown below in Figure 11.
(a) FOUNDATION EXCITATION
mT
(b) FORCE GENERATED BY EQUIPMENT
Ia:
Figure I11
25.*12
In both cases above, the mass m represents the equipment or machine to be isolated and the
spring-damper combination represents the shock isolator. The equations of motion for the
systems may be written
(a)
The displacement of the support is u; the equation of motion is therefore

r + F(8, 5) = -mUi
where m = mass of system

6 = deflection of spring 5 = (x - u)
F(8, 5) = force exerted by spring-dashpot unit
u = absolute displacement of lower end of spring-dashpot unit.
Dots denote differentiation with respect to time.
In the typical isolation problem, the system is initially at rest and a shock causes the support to
move.
(b)
The spring-dashpot unit is fixed to a rigid foundation and an external force is applied to
the mass. The force F may be an external force in practice or an inertia force generated
by
moving parts of the machine or equipment. The equation of motion is
mr + F(5, 8) = F
where F is the force applied to the mass and 8 = the absolute displacement x of the mass.
Assuming the system to be initially at rest, a solution may be sought if F is a known function
of time.
The similar form of the two equations above can be seen. The right hand side (-mU or F) is
given as a function of time and the extreme values of 8 and F(S, 5) are required. Now F(8, 5)
represents the isolator characteristics which could be linear or nonlinear. Analytical solutions
are generally possible only if the system is linearised by assuming that
F(, 8) = c8 +kS
where c = damping coefficient, N.sec/m
k = spring stiffness, N/m.
Even with this simplification, a large parameter study is necessary for a given system because
of the effect of damping. If damping is neglected, solutions of a general form suited to
engineering application may be obtained. This approach is demonstrated here.
25.13
(b) FORCE
(a) SYSTEM
-DEFLECTION
CURVE
DEFLECTION
m3C
WPRING
FORCE
Figure 12
Equation of motion mS + Fs(5) = -mU.
Consider the system subjected to a velocity step of magnitude i6m at t = 0.
Therefore at t = 0, 8 = 0 and 8 = jim.
2
82 = 2
um = m
Integration of the above equation gives
8
Fs (8)dS.
0
At the extreme isolator deflection 5 = 8 m, the velocity S =0, then

fJ Fs(8)dS
~mum
The integral represents the work done on the isolator, and is equal to the potential energy stored
in the isolator. The right hand side represents the initial kinetic energy of the mass and is
given by the shaded area of Figure 12(b).
For a linearspring
Fs(8) = kS
and the system natural frequency cOn = l"k-I.
Maximum acceleration
2 sm
Km = (On
and
6rm = (4nm
combining gives
m==(O
Urm.
25.14
Now it may be seen that, in general, the reduction in shock severity is obtained by the use of
isolators which store energy and subsequently release it to give oscillation of the system. If
the duration of the shock is short compared with one half period of the system, then the
calculations may be simplified. (See the previous discussion on the impulse response.) In
this case, the exact form of the shock pulse is not required and the concept of an 'effective'
pulse height is used.
(a)ACTUAL SHOCK PULSE
(b) EFFECTIVE SHOCK PULSE
F.
Figure 13
tl
area of actual shock pulse
I F(t)dt
0
1 tl
f F(t)dt,
tj 0
effective pulse height

where tI is the pulse duration.
Thus, the effective height of an equivalent rectangular pulse has been calculated.
Now, if the pulse duration is much less than the period of the system T, say 9-T, then the
maximum response may be read from Figure 8. An exact analysis shows that for the case for
til/T = 0.1 then the ratio (max. response/static response) = 0.6. Thus the dynamic
displacement to the shock of Figure 13(b) is xmax = 0.6(F 0/k), where Fo/k is the static
displacement. Since the resulting motion is an oscillation at the natural frequency of the
system, then
Xmax =
and
x=
2tfnx
1.2tfn
k
max = c2x =47f,2 x = 2.4,t2f FIf the forcing function is unknown, or difficult to measure, then the response acceleration may
be measured; the effective force F0 and other quantifies of interest may then be calculated.
25.15
Although the above analyses were carried out using an ideal linear model, shock isolation
systems are often purposely designed to be nonlinear. These may be broadly classified into
'hardening' and 'softening' systems. That is, the restoring spring force increases or decreases
with deflection. Such systems, with or without damping, often defy exact analytical solution.
These isolators when deflecting into the nonlinear region change natural frequency and
harmonic force components are produced, which could cause unwanted resonant effects. As
shock isolation i' only achieved by allowing the isolator to deflect, then a great number of
additional response mechanisms may occur when nonlinear elements are used. However, the
energy approach presented earlier (see Figure 12) may be used, sometimes employing
numerical or graphical methods to evaluate the integrals.
2.4
Response of Continuous Systems - Structures
Preceding considerations have been centred around the single degree of freedom system; that
is a system which requires only a single coordinate to define the configuration of the system.
Such a system has one natural frequency. Some engineering systems may be idealised as
lumped multi-degree of freedom systems and a finite number of natural frequencies,
corresponding to the number of degrees of freedom assumed, may be calculated. Now in all
physical systems, elastic members have mass and all masses have some elasticity; thus, all real
systems have distributed parameters. It can therefore be seen that although practical systems
may be represented in some instances by very many masses and springs, then as the number of
degrees of freedom becomes very high, the concept of a continuous system is established.
Continuous systems, or structures such as beams and plates, require an infinite number of
coordinates to define the motion of each infinitesimal mass and spring element. Continuous
systems with distributed mass and elasticity are therefore characterised by having an infinite
number of degrees of freedom and an infinite number of natural frequencies. Each natural
frequency of a structure is associated with a vibration mode shape, that is the deflected shape of
the structure when vibrating freely at that natural frequency. All possible free vibration of any
linear distributed system is made up of superimposed vibration in the normal modes at the
corresponding natural frequencies. The total motion at any point of the system is the sum of
the motions resulting from vibration in the natural modes.
The free vibration characteristics of structures may be calculated exactly in simple cases and
approximate solutions may be sought in more complicated cases. Thus the natural frequencies
and mode shapes may be estimated.
Distributed systems are considered again in a later item.
2.5
Shock Testing
In order to investigate the dynamic response of systems such as equipment, perhaps in order to
see if it is rugged enough to withstand in-service shocks, it is necessary to carry out shock
testing. This is most often carried out mechanically using drop test machines or pendulumtype exciters. It is required that the shock testing machine should generate a shock which is
representative of that to be encountered in practice. This is achieved by approximating to the
practical shock using a simple pulse such as a half-sine or triangular waveform. Mechanical
elements such as springs or lead blotks are used to shape the force pulse generated. It is also
possible to use electrodynamic vibration tables and considerable effort has been devoted to
developing techniques in order to compensate for the transfer characteristics of the shakerpower amplifier combination so that well-defined predetermined shocks may be generated at
the table of the exciter.
25.16
3.
UNDERSTANDING SHOCK SPECIFICATIONS
3.1
Introduction
Shock testing is usually carried out to provide confidence that a structure has adequate strength
to survive real-life shock conditions. In order to interpret and assess the adequacy of a
particular shock specification and test when applied to a product, we must consider:
(a)
The nature and source of the real worst-case shock environment;
(b)
The degree of simulation of either the actual shock or of the effects of the shock, which
can be reproduced by practical test methods. This requires, in turn, a knowledge of
the various shock machines and test techniques currently in use.
(c)
The form of shock specification applied to similar products and a knowledge of its
proven effectiveness.
3.2
Sources of Shock Excitation
The actual worst-case shock condition that a product will experience depends upon a large
number of variables. Considerable literature on the subject of measured shocks for most
forms of transport is available. Several standard laboratory shock tests have evolved and these
will now be defined. The selection of the level of each parameter and the degree of
I'protection' so produced must be carefully considered.
3.3
.Tvncs of Test and their Performance
3.3.1 Shock tests - These are used to simulate the effects of relatively infrequent, nonrepetitive shocks encountered during service or transport. In addition, these tests may be
used, as in BS 2011, to establish the satisfactory design of a specimen as far as its structural
integrity is concerned, i.e., to see if it breaks!
Classical shock tests - The majority of cur-rent shock specifications utilise standard laboratory
tests which are designed for machine reproducibility and damage potential and not for
simulation of actual field conditions. The specifier and designer must therefore understand the
implications of pulse shape, peak acceleration and duration and relate these to the degree of
under-testing or overtesting that may occur. Where possible, the validity of the shock
requirement should be confirmed by field measurements.
Useful guidance in the selection of pulse parameters for classical waveform (i.e., half-sine,
final peak, saw-tooth and trapezoidal) testing is given in BS 2011, MIL STD 8 10C and DEF
STAN 07-05.
Since the pulse waveforms are uni-directional they are generally applied to the item in all six
directions and most commonly with three pulses per direction, i.e., 18 shocks.
Classical shock waveforms are generally produced using free fall drop machines. For large,
heavy items, there are obvious practical problems in rotating the item for lateral shocks.
Naval shock tests - Shock tests for naval equipment, installed in ships, are presented in the
form of grade curves which present acceleration, deceleration, velocity, time ah~d displacement
for any position in the ship as a function of the weight. These test parameters can only be
simulated on specially designed Deck Shock Machines and it is recognised that even these give
only an approximation of shock waveforms resulting from underwater explosion.
25 .17
Transient waveform control - Another class of shock specifications are those where a record of
the transient time history is available, such as airborne landing shocks and spacecraft
pyrotechnical separation shocks. These may be accurately reproduced by means of transient
waveform control of an electromagnetic vibrator. This uses an on-line digital computer to:
(a) Define accurately the transfer function H(w) of the test system, i.e., the vibrator, power
amplifier and fixture-specimen interface.
(b) Develop the Fourier transform F((O4R of the transient time history record and divide it by
the test system transfer function.
(c) Inverse-Fourier transform the quotient into the time domain.
The resulting time domain function is applied as a voltage to the amplifier input. Classical
shock waveforms can also be produced by this method but most electromagnetic shakers have
limited displacement. Electro-hydraulic machines may provide higher displacement but have
severe high frequency limitations.
Shock synthesis - Where field shock data in the form of shock spectra is available, the
computer controlled shaker system can (within limits) be used to synthesise shocks with
This form of testing is growing in importance since the
equivalent shock spectra.
displacement limitations of shakers can largely be allowed for in the synthesis. Unfortunately,
few specifications yet encompass this method.
4.
'HARDNESS' EVALUATION
Damage protection and survivability is concerned with the evaluation of the failure of complex
systems. This may be looked on from a 'systems' point of view and reference[[I] presents a
statistical approach to this problem. This method has developed from the survivability
assessment of hard and fixed strategic weapons systems due to nuclear attack but the method
described named FAST (Failure Analysis using Statistical Techniques) is a systematic approach
to the evaluation of system survivability. The schematic of Figure 14 (which is taken from
reference [1]) summarises the procedure.
The assessment of the hardness of a system due to a shock requires the calculation of the
environment seen by each component, evaluation of how each component responds to the
environment, and evaluation of how the probability of failure of these components contributes
to the overall failure probability of the-system:
In Figure 14, this process relating weapon detonation to component failure is modelled as
involving three basic steps:
The free field environment is specified in a statistical form to include size of
(i)
weapon, weapon/target configuration, etc.
Transfer functions are employed to describe the transmission of the shock
(ii)
through any structure and isolating equipment to the component. To account for various
transmission paths this, too, must be specified in some statistical manner.
The failure probability of the component is given by its fragility which is the
(iii)
failure probability of the component as a function of the severity of the local environment.
25.18
The final stage is the combination of component failure probabilities to obtain the system failure
probability. By repeating the calculations, the system probability of survival may be obtained
as a function of over-pressure.
2
Freefield
environment
>.
CD
environment
0-v
Force
.2:
CO>
0 2
2
Transfer function
""
overpressure
.0C
''oc
transfer function
Fragility component
interior environment
Figure 14
As pointed out in [1], one of the innovations involved in the approach is the inclusion of
uncertainty concerning both the inputs and the mathematical models (i.e.,
probabilities/uncertainties in transfer functions, system failure networks, and
probability/uncertainty in component hardness (or fragility)).
Whilst such a procedure seems highly attractive as it offers an ordered and systematic approach
to the problem and in turn dictates what measurements should be made, it is perhaps too ideal a
goal. Numerous questions arise, for example, just how does one link the free field excitation
and structure? The use of transfer functions implies a linear analysis of the transmission
paths. How significant are nonlinearities in a high shock environment? What sort of
measurements (and of what scope) are necessary to specify the transmission path statistically?
What test methods aire necessary to assess the fragility of components in such a way as to be
relevant to the particular environment to be expected?
These questions lead one to contemplate a huge test programme in conjunction with a massive
mathematical modelling exercise, the sheer scale of which is daunting. Nevertheless, the
25.19
methodology as described in the paper is a very useful way of viewing the problem and any
other techniques we apply might be considered as contributing some part toward the objective
of finally specifying the probability of survival of, say, a weapons system.
5.
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR SHIPBOARD SHOCK
Whilst the previous discussion might be an ideal to bear in mind, the approach to providing
some specific recommendations for designers faced with considerations of shock resistant
systems might be more pragmatic. The article by H. Pusey [2] is an interesting survey of the
problem highlighting the gaps in the information available to designers. In contrast to
reference [1], this study is directed specifically at ship shock but the coverage is still wide
ranging. We shall only pick on'a few of the conclusions and recommendations here that are
considered pertinent to this chapter.
The most fundamental point made was that it has proved to be difficult, if not impossible, to
reconcile the results of the following three approaches to shock resistant design.
(i)
Damage prediction from mathematical/computational models.
(ii)
The results of trials data obtained on a Floating Shock Platform.
(iii)
The results obtained from shock machine data.
The fact that results from the three methods appear to show poor correlation throws into
question the rationale of some or allI of the above.
Whilst in [2] the damage prediction from the mathematical model related particularly to a
technique based on modal analysis, it is clear that such prediction is generally very difficult.
Quite apart from the method used to characterise the structure, a critical problem is just how
should one specify failure, i.e., more realistic failure criteria are required. In view of the fact
that the majority of analytic/computational methods are based on linear theories, the implication
is that any nonlinear behaviour of structures, e.g., yield, constitutes damage to the structure.
Whether yield constitutes a good parameter as an indicator of damage is certainly not clear. It
seems eminently reasonable that nonlinear characteristics of structures should be included as
part of the hardening design. This seems to be amply reinforced by the fact that many shock
isolators clearly have nonlinear characteristics which are most desirable.
As far as reconciling predicted results with the second and third items above is concerned, this
seems to be a problem of selecting how the shock environment should be specified. Obviously
the time histories produced in shock testing machines are far removed from trials results which
in turn may be different from the likely 'in service' environment to be encountered.
Finally, there is a need to incorporate all the data available on shock environment/response to
aid the selection of design criteria. The basic difficult here is a fundamental lack of
information. To quote from reference [2], 'Feedback is needed on critical design points for
various (Navy) equipments. There is a need for knowledge of typical failures in equipment
during shock tests, full-scale ship tests and, if possible, during combat'. There is an urgent
need for the collation and organisation of data on shock damage as it becomes available. The
improvements in transducer performance and data capture capabilities should widen the
appreciation of the true environment encountered in shocks. Failure to update data perpetuates
the use of shock specifications which themselves grew out of just such an exercise during an
era when information capture/processing/storage may have had severe limitations.
25.20.
6.
STRUCTURAL DAMAGE
We have already painted out that as far as the 'structural'

paths
considered it is very common that 'yield' is assumed to constitute for shock propagation are
due to the fact that analysis methods are based upon elastic responsedamage. This is primarily
(linear) methods.
As pointed out in [3], a large class of ductile structures when
subjected to shock loadings from
explosions, may undergo considerable plastic deformations
before their performance is
seriously degraded. In fact it may be more sensible to talk
of damage in termis of structural
'failure', i.e., fracture related to high strains.
yieldfailure
U)
V)
strain
Figure 15
Figure 15 (drawn for the static case) depicts what is meant
by the terms used. It is clear
though that permanent set that may occur owing to having exceeded
the yield point may in itself
cause sufficient degradation of performance of the weapon
system so as to render it useless.
Let us therefore, in this section, consider the implications
using yield as synonymous with
damage. Furthermore, assuming that the stress-strain of
curves
of static analysis apply in
dynamic situations then several papers have addressed the
question
of what measure of the
motion of a structure is most 'closely related' to damage.
Analysis
of simple structural
systems very soon shows that maximum stress in a structure
is
directly
proportional to
maximum velocity of the structure (making suitable assumptions
about
the
type
of motion) as
will be described below. In reference [4], the point is emphasised
that
it
has
proved
difficult
to correlate acceleration (g level) measurements with shock-induced
damage,
whilst
there is
evidence of heuristic velocity-damage correlation. More specifically,
reference
[4]
reports
that
as a measure of shock severity, acceleration levels (without regard
to frequency) do not exhibit
a straightforward correlation with shock-induced damage. As
long as acceleration remains the
predominantly used shock parameter, the correlation between
shock
damage will remain elusive, because shock-induced accelerations level and shock-induced
have too wide a dynamic
range to allow resolution of damage-causing accelerations'.
An interesting experiment is briefly reported in [4). A simple apparatus
composed of high and
low frequency elements composed of brittle and ductile materials
was tested. It was reported
that a variation in acceleration between 2.45 g and 9. x 103g combined
with displacements
varying between 48.26 and 193.06 x 10-4 mm was necessary
to produce damage. The
extremes of each would damage one part but not affect the others.
The extremes of velocity associated with the extremes of displacement
0.76 ni/second and 6.09 rn/second (a very narrow range by comparison).and acceleration were
The figures quoted
correspond to the following dynamic ranges:
25.21
Acceleration
Displacement
Velocity
i.e., 71 dB
i.e., 68 dB
3700:1
2500:1
8:1
i.e., 18 dB
From a measurement point of view alone it is clear from this that the lower level damage
causing accelerations or displacements are not resolvable on typical data acquisition devices
with dynamic ranges of 50 dB.
6. 1
Stress-Velocity Correlation
In reference [4] it is shown that the analysis of simple structures, e.g., longitudinal waves in
rods and transverse waves in beams shows that modal stress is directly proportional to modal
velocity and is independent of frequency.
(a) Longitudinal vibrations in rods
It is proved in [4] that the maximum stress
0 max
due to longitudinal vibrations in rods in a
mode is onia = Vmax. 4Ep, where Vmna is the maximum velocity in that mode and E, p are
modulus and density of the material, respectively.
(b) Transverse beam vibrations
A similar analysis of the transverse vibration of a beam yields 0 max = Vmax C-Fpwhere C
is a shape factor (= -0_ for a solid rectangle, for example) and is typically in the range 1-3.
Choosing 0max to correspond to the yield value, then a 'yield velocity' may be computed (say
for a rectangular beam) as 3.3 mr/s for steel and 10.2 m/s for aluminium.
What must be borne in mind, of course, is that these calculations relate to harmonic motion in a
single mode. In a general shock response, many modes are excited -and the relative severity of
the various components should be assessed.
7.
SPECIFICATION OF THE SHOCK ENVIRONMENT
An integral part of considerations of damage and damage potential is the manner in which the
cause of the damage is specified. This in turn should dictate the type of measurements that
should be made in the shock environment..Various types of measurements are made including acceleration, velocity and (relative)
displacement and various specifications for shock exist in both the time and frequency
domains. A very common descriptor is the 'shock spectrum' and it is instructive to examine
this characterisation in the light of the comments in the previous section relating velocity and
damage.
Let us first define exactly what we shall mean by the shock spectrum here. The rationale
behind the notion of the shock spectrum is that in shock analysis it is not the analysis of the
wave form experienced at some point in a structure that is of intrinsic interest, but rather a
means of estimating what effect that shock has on a (mechanical) system. The difficulty of
specifying a shock is one of interpreting the effects of shock rather than its generation or
measurement (though of course these two problems pose unsolved difficulties too).
215.22
7.1
The Shock Snectrm
A concept that has developed is that of the shock spectrum of a shock

pulse
by applying the shock pulse to a linear single degree of freedom system which is obtained
and plotting (for
example) the maximum response of the system as a function of the
(undamped
natural)
frequency of the oscillator. Various types of spectra may be defined
depending on which
variable characterising the response of the oscillator is taken, and
also the time
considered.
For example, we may specify peak accelerations, velocities or interval
relative
displacements of the oscillator (see Figure 16), i.e.,
yM
k
Xb
y y
jk
Y- xb
Figure 16
and we may specify these maxima as occurring whilst the shock is acting
(initial shock spectra)
or after the shock is over (residual shock spectra) or the overall maximum
(maxi-mag), etc.
(Another aspect is choice of damping but we shall ignore this and assume
c = 0).
Clearly the shock spectrum differs from the Fourier transform of a pulse
aspects arise if we restrict considerations to the residual shock spectrum. but some interesting
show that (for the undamped case and f is the undamped natural frequency It is not difficult to
of the oscillator)
lYmaxi
27tf13kb(OIl = limaxi
and
1'Ymaxl
Ib(f)l = 't rnaxi.
It is perhaps the second result that is most interesting. It states that

the peak velocity
experienced by the mass of an oscillator of undanmped natural frequency
f Hz following a shock
equals the modulus of the Fourier transform of the base (input) acceleration.
oscillator is assumed not to 'load' the input.) Several important considerations (N.B. The
follow from
this and the previous section.
Firstly, as long as peak motion occurs after the completion of the shock
structure of the shock is irrelevant. Thus, an infinite number of different then the phase
shocks have the
same effect. This may well have very important implications for testing
where certain wave
formns may be far easier to generate than others.
Secondly, it has been argued in the previous section that it is velocity of a structural
element
that correlates best with damage. Here we see (assuming that the peak velocities
occur
the shock excitation is over) that the peak velocity experienced by the mass (representing after
component) attached to the structure is simply the Fourier transform of the acceleration some
structure to which it is attached. This has important implications for measurement of the
and data
processing since it means that to obtain this particular information we should instrument
the
structural points to which payloads are attached by accelerometers. It is
important to
25.23
emphasise here that the acceleration measurement is not particularly useful in respect of the
structure itself but rather for any equipment that might be attached to it at that point.
Thirdly, if it is damage to the supporting structure that is of concern, and if velocity does
indeed correlate with damage, then accelerometer measurements of structural motion are in
themselves not helpful. This implies that velocity meters should preferably be employed for
this purpose.
7.2
The Fourier Spectrum
The study of the spectral content of signals is a common way of characterising data as an
alternative to the time history. Very often just the modulus of the Fourier transform of the
appropriate signal is used. The difficulty here is interpreting the results of this. We have
already seen that the Fourier transform of the acceleration of a structure may be useful insofar
as interpretation of the velocity shock spectrum is concerned. However, very often such a
Fourier transform is also used to try and interpret the structural response in modal terms. The
figure below is an example of the sort of spectrum obtained from a typical trials test. The
spectrum is certainly characterised by peaks and troughs but it is primarily rather 'featureless'
and seems to contain energy as high up in frequency as one cares to go. The rapid roll-off in
the picture is due to antialias filtering. This data seems to pose more questions than it
answers. We now list a few pertinent considerations.
modulus of
Fourier
itransform of
i accelerometer
signal
160
16
1600
16000-11z
Figure 17
(i)
If modal information is sought, this firstly implies linear structural response and
repeatability. Such information may be extracted with some degree of
confidence only by having replication so as to seek out those responses that are
always present in the spectral pattern.
(ii)
The question arises as to quite why the spectrum is so featureless. A possible

answer relates to the fact that the system is very complex and is an example of a
25.24
modally dense system. Alternative possibilities that might explain the observed
characteristics include:
(a) In a high shock environment, instrumentation is being utilised in regions
hitherto unexplored. It certainly requires rigorous analysis and cross-checking
to ensure that extraneous and signal-induced disturbances are not the dominant
source of measured data.
(b) Another possibility relates to nonlinear response of the structure.
Typically, the structure (undergoing severe shock) may distort sufficiently so as
to enter the plastic (rather than elastic) deformation region. Indeed, this is
certainly so (by design) for shock isolators. This nonlinear regime may only
last during the primary stages of response, following which the structure 'rings
down' in its usual 'linear' manner. The question arises as to what signature
such a nonlinear response would impart to the Fourier transform of the signal.
These considerations are very important as they are vital to interpretation of the
results. It matters greatly whether we wish to describe the structure and
interpret the implications for the structural design and integrity, or whether we
are confident that structural integrity is assured (nonlinearities and all; indeed,
the nonlinearities may be beneficial) but that we wish to characterise the
environment to be experienced by a payload placed upon the structure.
7.2.1 The sienificanceof phase
As remarked earlier, a significant feature of the residual shock response spectrum is that it is
phase independent. It is of course critical to emphasise that this is a single oscillator that
characterises the response and also that the initial part of the response is ignored. Since a
complex system will be an assemblage of components, then using a modal model the peak
velocity will be the summation of the responses in the various modes, i.e., the conceptual
oscillator it replaces by a 'system' characterised by many modes. Clearly in this case the
phasing of the input does matter as it may cause modes to superpose in ways which amplitude
alone does not dictate the response.
There is no general solution to this problem since the response depends on the particular
system being driven, but if a system is fixed upon, then one may select a 'worst case' response
using notions related to matched filtering.
x(t)
X(CO)
h
h(t)
.
[
yMt
y(C)
H(co)
Figure 18
For example [5], if x(t) has Fourier transform modulus X(wo) then a time history xl(t) that
will cause y(t) to have a maximum value from among all the time histories having Fourier
transform modulus IX(o)i satisfies (approximately) (see reference [5])
j0t 0
F(xj(t)} = IX(w)I H*(co)e
IH(c0)l
(t
o is the time when peak response occurs).
25.25
This result may have some value in providing upper bounds for response or for designing
specific test signals.
7.3
The Conversion of Shock Data to DesiznMlest Criteria
An obvious requirement arising out of the analysis of shock data is that some relatively simple
design or test rules should evolve. Indeed, just this rationale has led to the development of
time histories which specify the shock experienced at different 'levels' in a ship, in terms of a
time history characterised by specific parameters (e.g., rise time, etc.). The basic idea is that
the ship's structure acts as a mechanical filter, progressively reducing the frequency content
experienced as the site gets more remote (higher in the ship) from the primary cause.
The use of this data in this form makes the inherent assumption that any equipment attached to
the structure does not modify the motion of the structure. This of course has drawbacks since,
in general, payloads are highly reactive, and so the shock input into an equipment is unique to
the equipment and its support structure. Thus, an aim here is to specify the shock in such a
way that the motion of, say, the support structure (unloaded) may be specified and then, given
the equipment characteristics and using system coupling methods it would be possible to
predict the response of that particular equipment to the input.
8.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
This section lists briefly some of the main questions and suggestions discussed earlier. It is
hoped that the comments, though perhaps sometimes obvious and the aims always difficult to
achieve (if at all), might help concentrate the mind of the investigator engaged in a shock
investigation.
(i)
It should be decided whether a particular measurement is to be used to

characterise the shock experienced at a point in a structure with a view to
assessing (a) the likely damage that may occur to the structure or (b) if a
payload is to be mounted on a structure, then the likely damage that may occur
to the payload. If the considerations described in Section 5 apply, then if (a) is
the objective, velocity should be measured but if (b) is the objective, then
acceleration should be measured.
(ii)
It is highly desirable that as much experimental data as possible is collected in

order to:
(a ) update the specification of the shock environment (improved transducers
and data capture/analysis are revealing characteristics hitherto unobserved).
Indeed, this raises the question of choice of frequency range to be used.
(b) aid correlation between the results obtained from prediction (based on
computational models) and the results of trials/testing programmes.
(iii)
The shock data gathered should be reduced to a form allowing the specification
of test signals for laboratory testing. This involves developments in the
conversion, for example, of velocity shock spectra to time histories.
(iv)
The use of coupling methods for the analysis of shock processes should be
used. This should be directed at taking account of the influence of reactive
loads on structural motion, thus aiming to describe more accurately the
particular environment experienced by a specific payload.
(v)
Realistic damage criteria should be sought. Empirical evidence relates to

velocity as the motion characteristic which best correlates with damage; this
25.26
should be substantiated further. Criteria for analytical design should

be
reviewed. 'Yield' seems to be too naive an indicator of damage.
The
significance and use of nonlinear structural behaviour should be investigated.
(vi)
In view of the considerable computational problems associated with detailed

descriptions of structures using modal analysis or wave propagation methods,
it
is highly desirable that:
(a) it is established in the light of (v) whether low order modes account
for
majority of the damage related strains in a structure (in which case the
high
frequency modal analysis with their attendant difficulties are obviated).
Additionally, it should be established whether the apparent high acceleration
structural responses (assuming them not to be spurious) are due to
linear
response or the result of nonlinear effects on low order modes.
(b) Approximate methods for the analysis of shocks through structures
should
be developed.
9.
REFERENCES
I1.
W.H. ROWAN 1970 The Shock and Vibration Bulletin 41(5). Hardness evaluation.
H.C. PUSEY 1969 The Shock and Vibration Bulletin 40(7). Ship shock
- A survey
of the information needs of industry in designing to meet Navy shipboard
shock
requirements.
2.
3.
L.T. BUTT 1968 The Shock and Vibration Bulletin 37(4).

mechanism of a simple structure.
4.
R.H. CHALMERS and H.A. GABERSON 1970 Report of Naval

Engineering
Laboratory, PortHueneme, California. Modal velocity as a criterion of shock
severity.
5.
R.J. PINNINGTON 1983 ISVR Report No. SAL 1026.

indication of damage potential.
25.27
Shock damage
Shock spectra as an
LESSON 26
16th WEGEMT SCHOOL
SESSION
CHAPTER
:
7:
Shock
SHOCK
26. Modelling Techniques and Associated

Signal
Processing
TEACHERS
COMPANY
Research
:
:
S.J.C. DYNE / J.K. HAMM~OND

ISVR - Institute of Sound and Vibration
COUNTRYSouthampton S09 5NH
COUNTRYUNITED KINGDOM
AnBSTRACT
This chapter considers the problems
associated with the
measurement of shock data, the subsequent
processing of the data
and its
interpretation.
The various objectives of shock
analysis may be defined as
(i)
-assessment of time domain
parameters of the shock,
(ii)
frequency decomposition of the
shock,
and (iii)
assessment of the effect of the shock
on
particular systems.
Basic considerations for data capture
are described,
together
with a description of experimental
work carried out using a
blast wave simulator at the ISVR.
AUTHORS'
BIOGRAPHIES
S.J.c. Dyne,
B.A.,
Research Fellow,
Institute of Sound and
Vibration Research, University of Southampton,
England.
Currently investigating the effects of
blast waves and rapid
decompression on aircraft structures and
on cockpit voice
recorders.
J.K. Hammond,
B.Sc.,
Ph.D.,
Professor
Chairman of Signal Processing and Control of Signal Analysis,
Group, Institute of
Sound and Vibration Research,
University of Southampton,
Southampton,
England.
Research interests include nonstationary processes,
nonlinear phenomena,
shock phenomena,
signal enhancement and system identification.
26.1
ACQUISITION AND ANALYSIS OF SHOCK PHENOMENA

S.J.C. Dyne and J.K. Hammond
1.
INTRODUCI'ON
This chapter considers the problems associated with the measurement of shock data and
subsequent processing of the data to reduce it to manageable form or render it suitable
for further use or interpretation. A shock signal is assumed to be a time history
(usually a voltage representing a physical variable, e.g., acceleration, velocity,
displacement, force, pressure, strain, etc.) that is short lived. (See reference [1],
where a shock is defined as being of such a duration as to be 'short' as compared with
the period of oscillation of a system upon which the shock acts.)
In shock analysis, various objectives might be defined: (i) an assessment of the shock
itself as a time history (peak level, duration above a certain level, etc.); (ii) the
frequency decomposition of the shock (energy spectrum, etc.); (iii) an assessment of
the effect that the shock will have if imposed upon a particular system.
In Section 2 some basic ideas in relation to the above are outlined and in Section 3 some
In Section 4, a description of some
practical considerations are described.
simulator is described.
wave
blast
on
a
out
carried
work
experimental
Each topic is considered in very brief form and the reader is referred to the references
for more information. In particular, reference [2] is a valuable source of information.
2.
SHOCK CHARACTERISATION
In this section, some fundamental descriptions of shock phenomena are summarised,
with particular reference to analysis of experimental data.
2.1
Repetitive Tests - Signal-to-Noise Ratio Immovement

When a signal is contaminated by noise but is repetitive, the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
may be improved by signal averaging [3]. If the data is x(t) = s(t) + n(t), where s(t)
is the signal that is repeated (say with equal period Tp) and n(t) is the noise (assumed
to be stationary, zero mean with standard deviation a) then define the SNR at a sample
instant as s(t)/I. Now, if we form (say)
I M-1
IX(t- nTp) = y(t)
n =0
for M repetitions, we can show that SNR(y(t)) = s(t)/aJFM, i.e., the improvement in
signal-to-noise ratio for M repetitions over that for a 'single shot' is -fM. We note
that it is assumed that Tp is known exactly, so that there is no 'timing error'.
2.2
Frequency Analysis
One method of characterising shock (or any transient) is in terms of its frequency
components. If the time history of a shock is x(t) then its Fourier transform X(f) is
26.2
J x(t)e-j 2n ft d t
X(f) =
and the inverse is
x(t) =
f X(f)ej2nftdf
X(f) is an amplitude density function and the total energy of the shock is written in
terms of an energy density function Sx(f) as
x2 (t)dt
Sx(f)df
where
Sx(f) = IX(f)12 .
This characterisation is useful for linear systems since (see Figure 1) for a linear time
.invariant system with impulse response function h(t) and input x(t), the response y(t)
is
t
y(t) =
Jh(t - tl)x(tl)dt1
0
or, in the frequency domain

Y(f) = H(f)X(f)
where H(f) is the system frequency response function. It follows that the input and
output energy spectra are related by
Sy(f) = IH(f)I2 Sx(O.
Figure 1 Linear time, invariant system

The Fourier transforms are usually computed using digital techniques and so are
subjected to the usual problems associated with digital signal processing, i.e., aliasing,
dynamic range effects, etc. Some of these aspects are discussed later.
A point to bear in mind here is that if a hammer blow is to be used to excite a structure,
say, then it is important to ensure that a 'bounce' does not occur in the input since, if
we model the bounce as giving a scaled replica of the initial impact, i.e.,
x(t) = s(t) + a0s(t - to) for example, then
26.3
X(f) = s(f() + aoc

-j 2 f 0
and this effect of the 'echo' is the term (1 + aoe n' ) which causes ripples in the input
spectrum whose magnitudes, etc., depend on ao and to.
Finally, we note that the transfer function approach is sometimes inadequate in

describing complex systems (i.e., system coupling effects are not easily accounted for)
and the effect, for example, of structural load changes on a shock source requires the
use of mobility methods [2].
2.3
The Shock Snectrum

The Fourier spectrum of a shock describes how a time history is composed in terms of
frequency components and may be used, for example, to study how the energy
spectrum changes when transmitted through a linear system. However, when dealing
with shock, one is often concerned more with trying to specify the effect the shock may
have on a specific component (rather than a characterisation as a general Fourier
decomposition). A commonly used notion in relation to this is the shock spectrum.
This is not the Fourier transform of the shock pulse. The shock spectrum is obtained
by applying the shock to a linear undamped single degree of freedom system having a
particular natural frequency and noting (for example) the maximum value of the
response of the system. This value is displayed as a function of the natural frequency.
Obviously various types of such spectra may be defined, e.g., one may define the
initial shock spectrum (maximum response whilst the shock acts) or residual shock
spectrum (maximum response after the pulse is over). Other possibilities are the
overall spectrum (maxi-max), overall negative maximum, etc.
Calculationof spectra
A single oscillator is described (see Figure 2) by
my = -k(y - x) - c(, -
and letting z = y - x, then
+ 2owoi + o2 z=-g.
Lm
Figure 2 Single degree of freedom system
26.4
Posed in this way, Xt is the base acceleration (shock input) and, depending on the
application, we may be concerned with calculating peak acceleration Y or, perhaps,
peak relative displacement z (a measure of 'distortion'). The calculation of any
required quantities involves the solution of the differential equation by any convenient
method (e.g., Runge Kutta integration).
The relationship between the residual shock spectrum and the power spectrum
It is natural to enquire whether there is any relationship between the Fourier spectrum
and the shock spectrum, and for the particular case of the residual shock spectrum there
is a simple one. Appendix 1 has the details.
2.4
The Nomograph
It is worth pointing out that often spectra are displayed on a graph as indicated in
Figure 3 (sometimes called a nomograph).
The nomograph exploits the simple
relationship between the magnitudes of displacement velocity and acceleration for
harmonic motion. For if displacement of magnitude A is given by A sin cot, then
velocity is given by Aco cos cut; and the magnitude is to times the magnitude of
displacement. Similarly, acceleration is given by -Amo2 sin wt with magnitude 0)2 times
the displacement magnitude. It should be emphasised that the figure relates to
harmonic motion and that for shock often Fourier transforms, i.e., amplitude densities
are computed making the direct use of a nomograph difficult to justify.
2.5
Deconvolution Problems
A problem that often occurs (and it is not restricted to shock) is this: in a situation as
depicted in Figure I with measurement y(t) available, we are often required to make an
estimate of the input x(t). This is a deconvolution problem that requires the inversion
of the operator whose impulse response function is h(t). Numerous possibilities for
the solution of this problem exist, the most 'obvious' of which is perhaps simply using.
Fourier transform techniques, i.e., multiplying Y(f) by H(f)-' and then inverse
transformting the result. It is appropriate to note that this is not always possible, e.g.,
data lengths may preclude this, noise may result in unsatisfactory performance, etc.
Often optimal methods need to be-employed to design inverse operators to undo the
effect of h(t) and discussions on this topic are given in [4].
2.6
Parametric Identification
As an 'aside' from shock analysis, an important aspect of dynamic testing of structures
and components is the (experimental) determination of natural frequencies and damping
factors of modes of vibration. Sometimes the measured data from which this is to be
deduced may come from a shock or impulsive test and the analysis of 'ring down' data*
is required. Obviously, Fourier methods may be applied (assuming care is taken not to
truncate the data) but the object here is to point out that other techniques may be used to
extract modal information, namely, the Prony series [5]. The principle here is that we
write x(t) as the sum of damped exponentials
x(t)
Y,~ a,1 e
n= 1
COS(w~t +On
and the parameters an, n, (Oni, On for each mode are calculated from a measured
segment of data x(t) using a nonlinear process. The method is complicated by the fact
that the frequency is not known a priori. An advantage of this technique is that it is not
26.5
10
0.00
0,01
I~~~~
IC101k1
26.
subject to the need for a data length T [2/(f2 - f )] to resolve to frequencies

1
f1, f2 as
is required using Fourier techniques.
3.
CONSIDERATIONS FOR DATA CAPTURE

In this section we discuss the practical arrangements for the measurement
of shock
phenomena.
3.1
Transducers
Transducers attempt to convert a physical phenomenon such
as velocity and
acceleration into a more accessible quantity, usually voltage or current,
but sometimes
frequency or a direct digital output (e.g., shaft encoders). Most
transducers
only
partially succeed in achieving this objective and it is very important
to
ensure
that
the
transducer under consideration is capable of measuring the
required
quantity
to
an
acceptable accuracy. To achieve this the transducer must ideally
have
a
flat
amplitude
and linear phase responses over the bandwidth of interest. If these
conditions do not
apply, then some form of compensation will be necessary to ensure
the accuracy of data
to be processed.
The specification tables for transducers contain a bewildering
important to match the transducer to the measurement requirementsvariety of data. It is
of the specifications together with the characteristics of the motion so an understanding
is essential.
Shock response motion may be characterised by three factors; time
duration, amplitude
range and bandwidth. The bandwidth is the value of the highest
frequency of the
motion. Note in response to an impulse shock that potentially all
vibration
modes-of a
system can be excited and so the motion bandwidth tends to be
very
high.
More
formally, the bandwidth is the difference between the highest and
lowest
frequencies
but this lowest frequency can be assumed to be zero, i.e., static
response (often called
d.c.) in structural shock response.
The factors characterising the transducers are broadly either physical
or electrical. The
physical factors include the size, mass and mounting arrangements.
When
investigating the highest frequency response of a light structure,
small size and mass
and strong structure to transducer bonding are all important, so
that the transducer
output is a true reflection of the behaviour of the structure which
is itself largely
unaffected by the trasducer. Conversely, the response of the first
bending
mode of a
ship will be low frequency but subject to high levels of noise. A large
transducer with
high sensitivity will be more appropriate here. The electrical factors
relate the electrical
output to the physical input. These include sensitivity, resolution, linearity,
range and
bandwidth. Consider a piezo, resistive pressure transducer; the
sensitivity
is the
voltage output for pressure input, i.e., x millivolts per bar. However,
the
full
scale
output of the transducer may be specified as y millivolts for a pressure
range
of
so
many bar. The sensitivity may then not be specified explicitly but can
be
evaluated
from the ratio xly. Many transducers are piezoelectric, producing
capacitance under shock response. The sensitivity of these is specified a change in
in terms of pC
per unit change in the parameter being measured. More about this later.
the number or the size of divisions of the full scale output which can be Resolution is
distinguished.
For completely analogue devices the resolution is generally expressed as infinite
(which
candidly ignores any noise present in the transducer).
Cross axis sensitivity is the maximum sensitivity to vibration in a direction
normal to
the vibration measurement. Some transducers include a marker to
identify this
direction (or the direction of minimum cross axis sensitivity). Transducers
also
produce a response to other external parameters for example, leading to
the vibration
response of a pressure transducer or variation in response of an accelerometer,
with
26.7
temperature. Figures for these are generally expressed as sensitivities or as worst case
percent full scale output for a specified range in parameter.
The conversion of the required physical parameter to electrical signal is nearly always
approximately linear. Deviations from this ideal linear relationship are normally
expressed as a worst case percent full scale output value.
Other points to bear in mind when selecting a transducer for shock measurement are
cost and any requirement for charge or voltage/current amplification and auxiliary
power. Under shock conditions mounting of the transducer will have a profound
effect on its performance. The mounting design should take into consideration the
effects on the transducer and the unit under test, ease of access for installation and the
significance of alignment accuracy.
3.2
Measurement Parameter
In many applications the parameter to be measured will be self evident but the means of
measurement may be less obvious. Suppose, for example, the response of a small
structure to the detonation of explosives was of interest. It makes sense to measure
the pressure field in the vicinity of the structure using pressure transducers but how
Transducers are available for the
should the structural response be measured?
strain and force. The choice of
displacement,
measurement of acceleration, velocity,
by the experimental objectives.
defined
measurement parameter may not be clearly
parameter are discussed
measurement
Some of the considerations for the selection of
below.
3.2.1
Acceleration
An acceleration measurement may be required as acceleration is often associated with
force. Accelerometers have high sensitivity at high frequencies (see the discussion of
the nomograph above). Some accelerometers are designed specifically for shock use
and are able to withstand high g levels without damage or degradation in performance.
Piezoelectric types, because of their low mass, particularly provide low loading on a
structure under test and mounting is both simple and repeatable, generally by screwing
into a tapped hole at a specified torque. The cables of piezoelectric types are
particularly susceptible to triboelectric noise problems (see below); Accelerometers are
available at a very wide price range.
3.2.2 Velocity
A velocity measurement may be required as this is often associated with kinetic energy.
Now this can be found by integration of accelerometer signals (but only after high pass
filtering) or by differentiation of displacement but velocity transducers (velocimeters)
also exist. They can be bulky and they have restricted bandwidth and dynamic range
and may not operate to d.c. They can easily measure relative motion. Doppler laser
systems are expensive but do not exhibit some of the problems associated with moving
magnet/coil systems.
3.2.3 Displacement
Displacement may be required, particularly if peak displacement following the shock is
important (for contact avoidance, for example). They are easily to calibrate at d.c. in
the field and have high sensitivity at low frequencies. They are used to measure
relative motion and can be very bulky with some parts which must not be subject to
shock.
26.8
3.2.4 Strain
Strain measurements may be required as strain is often associated with stress and may
be difficult to obtain from measurements of vibration in directions which are orthogonal
to the surface. Strain gauges are usually of low bandwidth and can be difficult to
mount on a structure, although several firms specialise in this field.
3.3
Signal Conditioning
The signal conditioning equipment provides the link betweenthe transducer and the
data collection system. This may be the tape recorder or computer in Figure 4 or it
may be some other transmission path, e.g., a radio link to a remote computer.' Any
component which modifies the transducer output before the data is stored for
processing can be considered to be part of the conditioning system. The conditioning
amplifier shown in Figure 4 may indeed be split into two units, a line driver or preamplifier at the transducer output and a receiving amplifier at the tape recorder end of
the transmission line.
APIIRFILTERADCOPJE
Figure 4 Simplified instrumentation system

Normally the signal level at the analgoue to digital converter or tape recorder is required
to be within a given range but the output from the transducer may well require
amplitude scaling, parameter conversion or even frequency compensation. For any
given experimental configuration a number of different transducers may be used, each
requiring different conditioning. Consider a particular example shown in Figure 5.
AM.7/
PASS
FILTER
Figure 5 PR accelerometer data channel
26.9
Piezo-resistive (PR) accelerometers generally have a high output signal level, low
do, however,
andis low
shows a
Figurean5 external
impedance
unit. require
output
conditioning
the signalThey
part of noise.
oftenintrinsic
which
power supply
simplified piezo-resistive accelerometer data channel. Piezo-resistive accelerometers
the
However,zero
(i.e., approaching
steady state acceleration
to piezeoelectric
accelerometers.
are useful because they will respond
for
the case
frequency) which is not
piezo-resistive accelerometer gauge factor is sensitive to temperature changes and this
a high passoffilter
amplitude scaling,integraton
can produce dc drift effects. Thus, in addition to
the
via
produced
be
to
iis
parameter
required
the
if
may be necessary to filter this low frequency drift. This may be particularly important
acceleroneter output.
3.4
Data Acuuisition
3.4.1
A" iaiairfitr
Assuming a suitable transducer has been chosen and all the other urements of signal
thisforpoint)
voltage atdata
(usually
satisfied, then
been measurement
input
have
conditioning
into numerical
conveted
to besignal
has the
physical
representing the
(ADC)
converer
to the computer. This is achieved by means of an analogue-to-megtal
which is preceded by an anti-aliasing filter. A typical configuration is shown in
Figure 6. There is one major consideration when choosing the bandwidth of the filter.
the
must be at least
that theinsampling
states
is placed
filter twice
Nyquist
The
fB and an fsanti-aliasing
the signalfrequency
contained
frequency
signalcriterion
highest
between the signal source and the ADO to ensure that frequencies above fB are
removed. However, no practical filter is perfect, and signal frequency attenuation
fB depends upon the frequency response roll-off rate provided by the filter (see
above
Figure 7). A typical roll-off rate may be 48 dB. Now, if frequencies above fB are
required to have, say, 48 dB attenuation, such that aliasing errors are 48 dB down from
Thisa
criterion.using
Nyquist clearly,
by thebecause,
not 2fB implied
fB computer
to be 4the
fs needs from
band, then
the
viewpoint
implications
important
has pass
48 dB/octave slope filter requires twice the data storage for a given time window that
criterion implies. Thus, if the filter roll-off rate can be increased, the
the Nyquist
computer storage requirements are reduced.
3.4.2 AnaloTue-to-digital converter (ADC)

The ADC converts an analogue voltage into a digital word. The most important
characteristics required of an ADO arethe resolution of the ADC, i.e., the number of
bits used to represent the analogue voltage and the speed at which conversions from
analogue to digital can be performed. The ADC requires a stable voltage while the
conversion is being performed and for this reason the ADC is normally preceded by a
'sample and hold' amplifier. This amplifier tracks the voltage variations of the input
signal until an ADO conversion is required, whereupon a control signal (often from the
computer) causes the amplifier to freeze or hold the last amplitude monitored and gate
out the input signal. This value is stored until the ADC conversion is completed,
whereupon the amplifier continues tracking the input signal. For noisyenvironmentsit
is usual to handle signals which are scaled as large a value as possible, e.g., it is better
to use ADO with, say, a 10 V input range than one with a 1 V input range, to
improv the einput signal-to-noise ratio.
o
3.4.3 Dynamic rane
Dynamic range is the difference between the largest signal that can be handled without
undue distortion and the smallest signal that can be identified above the system
may
Squiescent noise. The dynamic range of the elements of a data acquisition system
of
range
dynamic
a
have
will
differ greatly, e.g., an instrumentation recorder
26 .10
Fi LTDIP.
P"
cOMPUTER,
Cad TROL
Figure 6 Single channel data acquisition
Io0m7-
JKmmi
10IKH7Z
-20
-40
b OC-rAV9
acreC
-60
Figure 7 Antialiasing filter response
26.11
approximately 50 dB while the ADC may well have a dynamic range exceeding
100 dB. These differences of dynamic range may well not only restrict the system
performance but may also determine the system configuration.
An ideal transducer has a linear conversion relationship between physical parameter and
output signal over an infinitely wide bandwidth and produces large or useful output
signal amplitudes. However, all transducers exhibit some form of self-resonance and
it is normal practice to operate these transducers only over a bandwidth which is well
away from any resonant points; e.g., a commercially available accelerometer has a
quoted upper frequency response of 50 kHz, but the mounted resonant frequency is
250 kHz. Unfortunately, with some transducers, e.g., seismic velocimeters, the
resonant frequency may be at low frequency and fall within the signal bandwidth.
This will produce amplitude and phase distortion which can be compensated by digital
processing. Unfortunately, the filtering effect of the transducer may restnict the
dynamic range to an extent which prevents any digital compensation.
Many transducers generate low output signals which require amplification before
application to the data acquisition system. Signals at high amplitude are less likely to
be contaminated with noise than signals at low amplitudes. -It is therefore good
practice to amplify signals as close to the transducer as possible. Indeed, some
transducers are supplied with integral amplifiers. This is particularly important if
signals have to be transmitted over long signal lines to the data acquisition system.
Because of the difficult environmental conditions at the transducer location, it may be
necessary to split the required gain between two amplifiers, one possibly with fixed
gain at the transducer and a second with variable gain at the data acquisition position.
3.5
Noise
All practical systems suffer from the effects of noise which can originate at any point in
the system configuration. Care is taken in the manufacture of transducers to reduce
sensitivity to noise, but different types of transducers are susceptible to different types
of noise. Most noise introduced into a system is of the following types:
3.5.1
Electronic noise
Electronic noise is generated within amplifiers, filters, etc;- If the transducer produces
a large signal with good SIN ratio, electronic noise will probably not be a problem, but
if the transducer has a low sensitivity, high gains will be required and the noise
performance of the electronics will be more critical.
3.5.2
Capacitively counled noise

The Presence of a varying electric field between two conductors coupled electrically by
some stray capacitance will inject noise into a system. This can be particularly
troublesome in piezoelectric systems using charge amplifiers because the amplifier
responds to changes in its charge input. Capacitively coupled noise can be reduced by
shielding all the signal cables, i.e., using good quality coaxial cables when using PE
accelerometers and grounding the screen of the coaxial cable at input common of the
input amplifier.
3.5.3
Magneticallv coupled noise

Any varying magnetic field in the vicinity of the signal lines will induce noise in those
signal lines. The magnetic field can be caused by power transformers, solenoids or
cables carrying high alternating currents such as mains supplies. Magnetically induced
noise can be difficult to remove especially mains induced noise at 50 Hz. Normally,
care is taken to ensure, wherever possible, that signal lines are placed away from power
2 6 .121
supply cables. Good attenuation can be achieved by twisting

the signal wires such that
signals induced in the two signal wires cancel.
3.5.4 Ground noise
If signal current and current from other extraneous sources
the extraneous current can generate a noise signal. Earth share a common path, then
or ground loops cause the
system to oscillate at mains frequency possibly saturating
any
amplifiers. The problem
is reduced if the equipment under test is earth bonded.
The
screen
of the cable linking
the transducer to the amplifier should be connected to ground
at
one
end only. Between
subsequent equipment this is not normally possible (because
of the widespread use of
500 bnc) but it helps to use physically close mains
sockets
instrumentation. The earth lead should never be disconnected to power all other
in a mains lead to
eliminate ground loops. Alternatively, depending upon
the
transducer
type, the ground
loop can be broken by using a balanced input amplifier.
This has the added advantage
of reducing any common mode signal from whatever source.
3.5.5 Triboelectric noise
As the cable of a piezoelectric transducer vibrates, capacity
the conductor and shield generate tribo-electric noise. Thisand charge changes between
is particularly troublesome
under shock conditions where any cable motion will
follow
The problem is reduced by use of (expensive) graphited the structural vibration.
accelerometer cable with
carefully assembled connectors (normally "microdot"
10/32 UNF) and by fixing the
cable to minimise any motion.
3.6
Calibration
Calibration often causes a great deal of confusion. There
calibration calculation: The transducer sensitivity and the are generally two parts in the
instrumentation gain.
Transducer sensitivity figures are generally found experimentally
by the transducer
manufacturer using laboratory standard equipment.
The instrumentation may offer fixed calibrated gain
(eg xl, xlO0, x200, x500) or
continuously variable gain. For systems using fixed
gain
will be related directly to the manufacturer's figure the final calibration factor
With
continuously variable gain it is often more convenient to (or its reciprocal).
relate a IV output to a physical
unit input. This generally involves dialling up the manufacturer's
figure on a ten turn
pot on the instrumentation.
Instrumentation often features a calibration facility producing
a 1OOmV square wave at
1 kHz or similar. This can only be used to calibrate
the
instrumentation system
downstream and can only be as accurate as the calibration
signal. Example:
Recording a IV (rms) IkHz sinewave on all channels
of a tape recorder can only be
used to calibrate the recorder record/playblack. It
will not calibrate in any way
instrumentation subsequently connected to the recorder.
Incidentally care should
always be taken to distinguish between peak to peak
, zero to peak and rms signal
levels.
3.7
Shock TestinE
Here we give an indication of good practice and an outline
some of the pitfalls.
Safety is of fundamental importance. Safe practice must
in pyrotechnic shock (where safe procedures are carefullyalways be observed whether
controlled) or drop testing
(where they are not). Alarms should be used before detonation
of explosives, release
26 .13
"\
of compressed gases and operation of large shock tables. Everyone should be aware
of guidelines for the treatment of casualties and an operational telephone or radio should
be available at remote sites. No-one should work alone.
It is desirable at the outset to have a clear idea of the aim of the test. It is often helpful.
for everyone to be advised about the objectives and technical staff are more likely to be
able head off/resolve any difficulties if they are involved from the outset.
Time should be taken to set-up equipment properly and to establish in advance what the
signal levels are likely to be. Cable lengths should be kept short and connectors to a
minimum. The recommended torque should be used to tighten transducers. The
signal path from every transducer to the recorder should be traced carefully and a
'scope may be used to look at the output from each transducer and verify the correct
output for dc coupled devices. Is the signal at the correct level? Does it drift? Is
there ground loop noise?
It is essential to maintain a log book. As much information as possible should be
written down. Too much is preferable to too little. For each transducer the serial
number, manufacturer's sensitivity figure, all amplifier/filter/recorder settings should
be recorded. For repeated tests it may be helpful to supplement the log book with preprinted tables. Record precisely the location/orientation of any part of any structure
which is moved between any shock tests. Avoid the use of non std abbs (can cause
confusion later). Record details of all expected or unexpected damage to the equipment
under test and/or measurement system. Replace defective equipment.
Record detailed shock test identification data on the voice track of the tape if analogue
tape is used. The tape signals from one test to the next are likely to be very similar and
if the number of captured tests on tape does not tie up exactly with the the number of
tests carried out it can be very difficult to determine which recording relates to which
test.
If a recording reaches 95% of the input range than suspect that the signal has saturated
the input range of the tape and attenuate the signal for subsequent tests. On playback it
can be very difficult to determine whether an input range was exceeded during
recording because the signal does not appear sharply clipped as with over-range digital
recording.
Identify the tape footage zero marker after at least 20 turns of the tape spool. Using the
same tape speed that will be used for the shock recordings, record on the voice track
Tape counter set to zero now and simultaneously reset the tape counter. Footage
readings from this reference datum can be recorded in the experimental log book (see
later) and recorded on the tape.
Allow any start-up transients to decay and the tape to reach calibrated speed (a tach
lamp will light) before recording or playback commences. It may be worthwhile
munning the tape for 10 seconds before recording/playback.
It should be possible to carry out some preliminary data analysis on site - a portable
transient recorder and/or digital storage scope will be useful for this. The recorded
signal should be symmetrical about the time axis and must not be clipped - over range
on the analogue-to-digital conventer. Calculate back from the peak signal level to
ensure that neither transducer nor instrumentation has been driven over range. Any
quasi-exponential trend in the signal should be thoroughly investigated and is
commonly caused by recovery from over range excitation (possibly outside the
bandwidth of the measurement instrumentation).
Finally, take as much time as necessary to prepare for each shock properly and to
record the outcome adequately.
26.14
4.
BLAST WAVE SIMULATOR
It is common experience that the experimental shock response of a structure

from apparently relevant theoretical predictions for all but the simplest and differs
carefully
constructed models.
It follows that much of the effort required to produce an
elaborate theoretical response time history may be wasted and that approximate
methods
yielding the main features of interest would be more appropriate.
We discuss below an
economical method for the prediction of an upper bound for the envelope
of the
response curve which is an upper bound for the structural response and an experimental
programme involving a blast wave simulator to produce structural responses
to
distributed excitation.
4.1
SingEle inp~ut system

Davies [9] has shown how an envelope/Hilbert transform technique could
be used to
find an upper bound for the envelope of the response of a general linear band
single input system. The key result of this analysis is given below together limited
with an
example. The. system response envelope satisfies an inequality involving
the
envelopes of the input and the system impulse response and hence produces
an
upper
bound for the system response. This technique is extended consider systems
with
distributed loading which cannot be reduced to single inputtosystems
and
is
used
to
predict the response of a simple structure in a blast wave.
Consider again the general band limited time invariant system sketched schematically
in
Figure 1. The system response y(t) to an input x(t) is given by the convolution
of
the
input and the system impulse response function h(t). That is
t
y(t)
f hQt
lxtdi
0
or, more concisely,
y(t)
x(t)*h(t)
.It can be shown [9,10] that the envelopes of the input Ax~t) and
output Ay(t) are related
by an inequality
1
Ay(t) S 2 AX(t)*Ah(t)
Davies uses a precise definition for the envelope as the modulus of the (complex)
analytic signal comprising the signal and the Hilbert transform of this multiplied
by
V-71. The convolution on the right hand side provides an upper bound for the envelope
for the response of the system; hence an upper bound for the response of a system can
be predicted from a knowledge of only the envelope of the input and the envelope of the
impulse response function. The example below illustrates these ideas.
We show an application of this inequality to produce an upper bound for the tip
response of a cantilever with attached payload and subject to an impact
force
(Figure 8).
26.15
oc
aceeome
Figure 8 Cantilever beam with attached payload subject to impact force input
The beam response is recorded using an accelerometer mounted on the free end of a
cantilever. The force input is recorded using a force transducer attached to the impact
device. A Fourier approach is then used to find the impulse response function h(t) of
the beam. The experiment is repeated giving a new response function y(t) for which
an upper bound is to be found using only a recording of the new force input x(t) and
h(t). The envelopes of x(t) and h(t) are calculated applying the analysis above and
from these the convolution -on the right hand side of the inequality is found. This is
shown in Figure 9 as the upper bound for Ay(t) together with the envelope Ay(t)
obtained directly from y(t). It can be seen that the upper bound always exceeds the
response envelope. Thus we have been able -to predict an upper bound for the
response of a structure with a single input using only the envelope of the system input
and the envelope of the impulse response of the system.
A- -. up
bo ndresponse envelope
-10
M1)
'-4
C1)
C-).
time (ms)
Figure 9 Cantilever tip acceleration envelope and upper bound
26.16
4.2
Distributed Input Systems

An area of current research involves prediction of the response of continuous systems
to distributed excitation. The experimental programme involves measurements of the
response of structures to air blast in a blast wave simulator (Figure ). It is a simple
matter to extend these ideas for systems with multiple discrete inputs. Linearity has
been assumed and so superposition may be applied to combine the effects of each
input. Note, however, that the phase information is not retained in the signal to
envelope transformation, so that whereas the sum of two signals of near equal
amplitude but opposite phase results in a small signal, the addition of the envelopes
produces a larger envelope.
A blast environment however is still more complicated. The input (blast wave) to the
distributed system (structure) is continuous and may vary over one or more spatial
variables in addition to time dependence. The pressure on a plate mounted in a blast
wave, for example, may vary with location on the plate (specified by two position
vectors) and time. The envelope analysis above may be extended to distributed loading
although again linearity must be assumed. Consider the general distributed system
sketched schematically in Figure 10. The response at a point with position vector r is
denoted y(t,r) when the system is subject to input x(ts) over the domain of points with
position vector s. The transfer function relating the output to the input is denoted
x(t,r,s). Thus
y(t,r) =
Jsx(t,s)*h(t,r,s)ds
response:
input:
x(ts)
y(t, r)
system:
h(t,r,s)
Figure 10 Distributed system

It can be shown [8] that the envelope relation becomes
Ay(t,r)
fJAx(t,s)*Ah(t,r,s)ds
2 S
That is, the response envelope Ay(t,r) is bounded by a function obtained from the
envelope of the input Ax(t,s) and the envelope of the impulse response function
Ah(t,r,s) integrated over the domain of influence of the input. Again an example
provides clarification.
26.17
The objective is to be able to find an upper bound for the peak displacement response at
the tip of a uniform cantilever subject to a convecting pressure field at grazing incidence
and ultimately to compare this with the response curve, see Figure 11.
convecting pressure field
-
cantilever
bafl
transducer
U
pressure
transducer
Figure I11 Schematic cantilever subject to grazing incidence blast wave
4.3
The Blast Wave Simulato
A means of generating a repeatable and controllable pressure wave excitation with

similar characteristics to gunfire was required for verification of the analysis discussed
above. We describe a blast wave simulator, or shock tube,. which has been
manufactured by the University of Southampton.
4.3.1 Design
A design drawing of the shock tube is reproduced in Figure 12. The tube is
approximately 8.5 m long and consists of three sections: The cylindrical driver
section has an internal diameter of 200 mm and is mounted on a trolley so that it may
be moved along the centre line of the simulator. The shock tube may be operated with
inserts inside the driver section which provide limited control for the blast wave
parameters (peak rise, decay rates, suction phase duration, etc.) Wooden inserts
used initially were unable to withstand the pressure wave transients and the design now
incorporates a solid aluminium insert producing a conical driver section. The driver
section is separated from the conical expansion section by an aluminium diaphragm.
Nitrogen at high pressure is introduced into the driver section from large nearby*
storage bottles through a servo valve controlled remotely. The high pressure distorts
and ultimately muptures the diaphragm causing the high pressure nitrogen to travel into
the rest of the tube initially at atmospheric conditions and preceded by a pressure shock
wave. The shock wave and driven gases then enter the cylindrical end section of tube
which is also supported on a trolley. Following operation of the shock tube the high
pressure gases are released into the atmosphere through a second servo controlled
valve. An unusual feature of this shock tube is the conical expansion section which
enables spherical blast waves to be simulated. The three main sections of the tube are
joined together with conventional bolts through flanges and have synthetic rubber 0
ring seals. The flange at the narrow end of the expansion section is supported by a
large steel framework embedded within reinforced concrete. The construction cost of
the shock tube and ancillary equipment was approximately 20,000.
have
Safe operation of the simulator has been given a high priority: All the valvesdriver
exhaust
to
made
been
has
auxiliary hand operated bypass systems and provision
gases remotely in the event that a diaphragm does not rupture; An audible waning
precedes each operation of the tube and access to the site is available only to authorised
26.18
cu
IFig.
LO.
a'
12
Co
Marchwood Blast
co
Wave Simulator
UU
0
ca
E
0)
I0
CL
01
E
26.19
personnel.
The shock tube, all ancillary equipment and controlling hardware is
protected from environmental conditions inside portable buildings.

4.3.2 Instrumentation
Structures may be mounted inside the shock tube and subject to the simulated blast
wave. Provision has been made for instrumentation cables to terminate at bulkhead
connectors in the inside end of the tube so that further instrumentation cables may be
attached on the outside. Ten pressure transducers are mounted along the sidewall of
the tube at approximately 0.5 m intervals and enable the simulated blast wave character
to be determined.
The nature of the pressure signals and measurement transducer response signals impose
severe requirements upon the data capture system: The shock pressure rise time is of
the order of 1 gs and corresponding high frequencies are required for the response of
structures subject to this pressure rise. Accordingly the digital data capture equipment
has a very high bandwidth and is capable of operation to a sample rate of one million
samples per second. A schematic of the data capture equipment is given in Figure 13.
F
Fiu le
3e2citation
rns,uce rs .,!ad
:aeelerom~ers!,
> irodot
sceened
s u
14 way screened
les
ur,.'.s
re
0lifier
, ...
-.gauges
.....
;-Csse
,strain.
bnc cables
IIEEE
rf-. 1-rd ombutrevft' ntio 11 ed ant

alias, filteis
T(16 channels)'
Sbnc cables
Multitrap-saml
IIEEE
od~ad.
RS 232
Figure 13 Data capture system
26.20
Signal conditioning equipment consists of especially wide

bandwidth Fylde charge
amplifiers for the Bruel and'Kjaer type 8309 shock accelerometers
amplifiers for excitation and conditioning of the sidewall Maywood and Entran bridge
pressure transducer
signals and internal Kulite XCQ series miniature pressure
transducer
signals. Bnc
trunks convey these signals 5 m to the control portakabin
equipment.
A PC system
controls sixteen channel Kemo 48 dB/octave Butterworth
anti-alias
filters and a
Datalabs Multitrap I MHz transient recorder with nine channels.
Signals
from the bnc
trunks are amplified by the transient recorder buffer amplifiers
and
then
filtered
prior to
sampling and digitisation. Each Multitrap channel stores
up
to
65,536
of
the
twelve
bit samples. The recordings are pre-triggered: Signals
are
continuously
sampled
and
stored in memory until the memory buffers are full.
Subsequent samples then
overwrite the memory as if it were a continuous tape loop.
Following a triggering
event such as a sudden rise in pressure caused by the
simulated
blast wave, a
predetermined number (< 65,536) of further samples are
taken.
The
memory
thereby
retains some samples before the triggering event and the
pre-determined
number
of
samples subsequently. Data are transferred from the Multitrap
to the PC through an
IEEE parallel data and control line.
4.3
Pressure Curves
Probes enable grazing incidence measurements to be
made
Recordings from these probes were subject to noise although inside the shock tube.
the level of contamination
was less than for measurements taken from sidewall transducers.
All the pressure curves have similar characteristics: The
arrival of the shock front
causes an almost instantaneous rise in pressure from atmospheric
pressure to a peak
over-pressure with a maximum of about 1.5 bar at the test
section
(wide end of the
conical expansion section). The pressure then falls almost
exponentially reaching zero
gauge pressure after about 4 ms (minimum) and continues
a minimum is reached followed by a gradual rise. There to fall more gradually until
pressure when the simulated blast wave is reflected back follows a sudden increase in
from the
series of pressure fluctuations caused by subsequent reflections end wall and then a
of the wave. The
magnitude of the first reflection is magnified by the diverging
section,
which behave as
a converging section for waves travelling in the reverse direction.
The
delay between
the initial and reflected pressure rises is a function of location
within
the
tube
and of the
magnitude of the blast wave. At the end wall the blast
overpressure is amplified by
reflection effects, where the peak instantaneous overpressure
incident overpressure. A typical pressure measurement, can reach 3 to 4 times the
driver section is given on Figure 14. Note that the trigger recorded using a conical
channel for this recording
was upstream of the displayed trace and the initial rise therefore
occurs after t = 0.
1Z
10
20
30
Une (ins)
Figure 14 Typical pressure time history
26.21
40
4.3.4 Diap~hraems
The diaphragms are made from aluminium which is scored to facilitate petalling and to
provide control for the burst pressure. Early failure of diaphragms to petal properly
was attributed to the use of alloy materi 'als rather than pure aluminium and to inadequate
scoring. The first diaphragms were scared on a milling machine by drawing a cold
forming wheel across the metal surface and forming a groove; regrettably the wheel
was slightly eccentric leading to score depth variation. A new scoring machine was
designed and built using a compressed air cylinder to drive a scoring mechanism with a
vernier depth gauge across the diaphragm surface. This improved method has enabled
accurate and repeatable scored lines to be produced so that diaphragms always petal
properly.
Experiments have shown that the useful range for score depths is 15% to 40% of
diaphragm thickness. The lower limit ensures that the diaphragm petals only along
scored lines and not along arbitrary lines as with an unscored diaphragm. The upper
limit is due to the requirement for the petals to open fully for a shock front to form near
the diaphragm - at the low burst pressures from deeply scored diaphragms the petals
are not fully opened.
4.4
Final Remarks
An experimental programme to validate the extension of the approximate methods
theory has been described. The programme is not yet complete and to date the theory
validation has only been possible through computer simulations. The more intractable
problems which illustrate the kinds of difficulties which may be encountered with
practical shock work have included:
* Noise due to the vibration sensitivity of the sidewall mounted pressure transducers.
Ideally these would be repalced with superior reduced vibration sensitivity devices
but signal analysis (notch filtering and least squares curve fitting) has led to*
satisfactory results from these transducers.
* Difficulty in rigidly mounting structures in the shock tube. The theoretical
predictions have assumed a stationary rigid mounting for the units under test. This
can be very difficult to achieve in practice because all possible fixing points are
measured by the diaphragm rupture/blast wave, Flexible attachments (e.g., use of
bungees and/or long cantilevers) reduces the significance of 'fixed point' vibration.
* Provision of instrumentation cable access from transducers inside the shock tube to
signal conditioning equipment outside. Bulkhead connectors were used but
vibration of these at the critical time as the blast wave passes generates noise which
is correlated with the signal from the unit under test. Good quality (invariably
expensive) connectors help to reduce this problem.
* Protection of instrumentation cables in the shock tube which are subject to the blast
wave. This generates triboielectric noise at best and severs cables at worst. The
solution was to tape down all exposed cables for their entire lengths. This used alot
of tape and makes relocation of the transducers more difficult but it is absolutely
essential to do this to eliminate the problem.
* Ground loop noise. This was finally eliminated by rigorously adopting the
requirement for cable screen isolation at the transducer end and by earth bonding all
the shock tube components.
26.22
REFERENCES
1. J.T. BROCH
measurement.
Br/lel and Kjaer Publications.
Mechanical vibration and shock
2.
C.M. HARRIS (Ed.) 1988 The Shock and Vibration Handbook. McGraw Hill Book
Co.
3.
D. CHILDERS and A. DURLING 1975 DigitalFilteringand Signal Processing.

West
Publishing Co.
4.
Institute of Sound and Vibration Research, University of Southampton. Course Notes.

Applications of time series analysis.
5.
W.H. DUNN and W.M. CUMMINGS 1977 Proc. of Conference on The Application
Time Series Analysis, Southampton. On the use of Prony series algorithm for of
the
determination of modal information from structural response data.
6.
E.O. DOEBLIN 1966 Applications and Design. McGraw Hill Book Co.
7.
D. HUDSON Shock and Vibration Bulletin
8.
S.J.C. DYNE and J.K. HAMMOND

1988 Proc. of 59th Shock and Vibration
Symposium, Albuquerque. Envelope models for finding the response of structures
in
blast waves.
9.
P. DAVIES 1985 Ph.D. Thesis, University of Southampton. The analysis of vibration

(and acoustic) data using time domain methods.
10. J.K. HAMMOND and P. DAVIES 1987 Proc. of 5th InternationalModal

Analysis
Conference, Vol. 1. Envelope models for the characterisation of coupled systems.
26.23
APPENDIX 1
The Relationship between the Shock and Fourier Spectra
Assuming the damping Cis zero, then the differential equation becomes
S+
and writing 0(t) = -y for convenience, we can write

t
z(t) =
1 0sin
wo0(t - tl)8(tl)dtl.
Suppose the shock terminates at time t = T, then the total energy (kinetic plus
potential) at t = T is equal to the maximum potential energy (with kinetic energy = 0)
for t > T. Let zma. denote the maximum spring compression so
1 22
.2.r + 22rr2
2+ 0 max*
0
w)zi(1,-=
-z
Using the solution for z(t) above, we can show that Zma = (00 I(wo)l where
(wo
0)
is the Fourier transform of 0(t) evaluated at frequency wnj2it Hz. We require Rmax
which is imax and from the differential equation this is Xmax = o01E(o0)I. Thus, if
0(t) [= -Y] is the shock and 6(f) is its Fourier transform, then the shock spectrum is
2nflOIf)l.
26.24
16th WEGEMT SCHOOL
DAY
SESSION
CHAPTER
SATURDAY
Shock
7. SHOCK
INVITED LECTURE
(Course Closure)
by
TEACHER
COMPANY
COUNTRY
Gian Luigi VALDENAZZI

UNIVERSITA' DI GENOVA
Ingegneria Navale
Via Montallegro, 1
16145 GENOVA
ITALY
TEACHER'S BIOGRAPHY
Valdenazzi, Luigi Giovanni, Prof. Dr. Ing.- Fellow, the Royal
Institution of Naval Architects, Life Member of the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, Member of the American Institute
of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Member of the New York Academy
of Sciences, Member of WEGEMT Executive Committee.
Graduated in Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering from the
University of Genova, he is Professor of Marine Propulsion Plants
at the same University. He has served in the Italian Navy and,
before choosing full time professorship, has been for a dozen
years with the Firm Ansaldo, Mechanical Division, which he left
as Head of the Turbomachinery Research Dept. He is Consultant to
the Italian Navy in the field of Vibration, Noise and Shock in
Ships, and has been Co-Author of many NATO Standards on the same
subject.
Invited Lecture
SHOCK DESIGN ANALYSIS

OF
SHIPBOARD EQUIPMENT
An Overview
by
Prof. L.G. VALDENAZZI, Dr.Ing.
27.1
The University of Genoa (Italy)
1.- Introduction - The necessity of protecting shipboard equipment against

the shock forces generated by non-contact underwater explosions was
dramatically demonstrated at the onset of the Second World War when the
machinery of both Merchant and Naval British vessels suffered heavy
damage from magnetic mines laid by German submarines on the sea floor
of estuaries in the British Isles.
Similar problems, posed by the conditions of the undersea warfare,
attempts had*
had already presented themselves in the past and
been made by various Navies to solve them. Only, their importance had
*not been fully realized and, in any case, the records of the work done
1
had rarely reached open publications. An important research effort was
therefore haunched on part of both the British and the U.S. Navies to
obtain insight into the phenomenology of the underwater explosions, as
designing. -shock resistant ship structures and
well as guidance in
equipment. A special Committee, named UNDEX, was created for exchanging
-various
information on the work done in both Countries.

In the same years another huge research effort was under way in
the United States, namely the one eventually responsible for the
development of the atom bomb. Many research subjects, such as the
explosion process, the propagation of shock waves in continua, &tc, were
common to both enterprises. As a result of this, at the end of the war a
vast amount of basic research, both theoretical and experimental, had
been carried out and its results had been made available in the form of
I To make but an example, tbe italian Navy carried out, between the two world wars, an important research
Program on the effects of underwater explosions against ship structures by using models In scale. All the
testing was however restricted to contact or near contact explosions.
27.2
reports, especially an concerns the generation of the underwater explosion

shock waves and their propagation in a free field. In fact, the completeness
and extent of the information gained on thin particular subject
could still
be considered as adequate for most today's practical needs.
A part of the written material produced by the underwater explosion
research in wartime and in the late Forties (representing an
estimated
10 to 20%. of the total quantity of material known to exist) forms
the
contents of a Compendium published in 1950 by the American Office
of
Naval Research, Department of the Navy. The size of this Compendium
more than 3000 pages - gives a fair idea of the extent of the
work done
on the subject.
2.- From the very beginning of this research effort it had become
however
apparent that the problem of the interaction: underwater shock
wave ship structure was much more difficult to tackle than that of
the free-field
propagation of the shock waves in the liquid, mainly because
of the
difficulties involved in the solution of the mathematical models
of the
phenomena investigated, represented by sets of strongly coupled
partial
differential equations, many of which non-linear. Another difficulty
was
posed by the sheer complexity of the ship structures. For these
reasons,.
while the research effort made it possible from the beginning
to gather
important information on the basic interaction mechanism (such
as the
phenomena of the shock wave reflection, diffraction, cavitation,.
afterfiow
reloading, &tc) it was soon realized that the practical needs of
the shock
design of ship structures and shipboard equipment could be
effectively
satisfied only by some simpler and more direct approach, involving
experimental explosion
testing against actual ship, structures for
accumulating information on the shock forces.
3.- Empirical Shock Analyses. General concepts - As concerns specifically

the needs of the shock design of shipboard equipment, the recourse
to
experience had a fundamental advantage, namely that of obtaining direct
information on the shock forces acting at the interface between a piece
of shipboard equipment and its "environment" (that is, the ship structure,
or "foundation", to which it is secured), rather than trying and calculating
them by means of a "global analysis", namely a full analysis of the response
of the ship structure to the forces generated by the impact on the hull
of the pressure wave of an underwater explosion.
27.3
Now, since the shock forces acting on a piece of equipment are a

may be
consequence of the motion of the ship structure, a "shock"
conveniently defined, by this approach, in kinematic terms, namely as the
impulsive motion of the equipment foundation generated by a non-contact
underwater explosion. By this approach, therefore, the problem of checking
by calculation the shock resistance of a piece of equipment is split into
shock motion of the
two separate ones, namely that of describing the
foundation and that of working out the ensuing motion of the piece of
equipment. The motion of the foundation may therefore be considered as
the "excitation" of the piece of equipment and the equipment shock motion
as the"response" to this excitation. The problem is plainly one of Structural
Dynamics.
4.- Empirical Shock Analyses. Shock and its determination - The task of
collecting information on shock, as said above, was left by this approach
to systematic explosion testing, to be carried out against de-commissioned
naval vessels. From the very beginning of this testing activity it was
clear that the severity of the shock motion experienced by a piece of
shipboard equipment depended on a wealth of different factors, and that
in order to keep within reasonable limits the amount of experimental data
to be collected, drastic simplifications had to be made in ordering these
factors into typical classes and subclasses.
The most significant basic factors for the shock
eventually found to be the following:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
The
the
the
the
the
excitation were
geometry -and severity of the- explosion;

type of vessel;
location on board;
mass of equipment;
direction of shock.
Some comment on these factors is in order.

Item a): As concerns this item a further simplification proved to be
possible. It is in fact self-evident that the severity of the shock experienced
by a given piece of equipment must decrease with the increase of the
distance of the latter from the point were the charge is exploded. However,
what really matters here is the severest shock experienced by this piece
of equipment for a given explosion severity (as given by the weight of
the charge and its distance from the hull). Therefore, the most unfavourable
27.4
attack geometry must be assumed in describing shock;

by doing this, the
'factor listed under a) reduces to the explosion severity.
As it is well
known, a single quantity (the so-called Shock Factor) has
been found to
describe satisfactorily this variable.
Item b): The simplest subdivision into vessel types that
may be adopted
considers surface vessels and submarines, further dividing
surface vessels
into light and heavy vessels. The inclusion of special
hull forms and that
of special materials would asks however for further sub-classes.
Item c): Owing to the great influence of the equipment
location on both
the shock form and severity, its subdivision into classes
must of necessity
be rather articulate. A typical subdivision could be the
following: submerged
hull plating (skin), submerged hull structure (except
plating), hull
structure above water level, bulkheads, lower and
upper decks and
superstructures.
Item d): Experience has shown that the shock motion of
a piece of equipment
rigidly secured to a ship structure is mitigated both
by the equipment
own mass and by that of nearby equipment. In order
to cater for this
factor two approaches have been considered, namely the
one assuming as
the variable the local mean mass of the ship structure
(inclusive of*
equipment) per unit area and the one which takes into
consideration but
the mass of the piece of equipment. While the latter
approach clearly
appears to be the less rational of the_ two, it. haseventually.
been selected
because of its simplicity.
Item e): Three direction aire currently considered for
the shock motion,
namely vertical, transversal (i.e. athwarthship) and
longitudinal (iLe:
5.- Empirical Shock Analyses. General characteristics and

shortcomings Prom the foregoing it is clear that the price to pay for obtaining
information
on shock by experiment is a costly effort in terms of both
time and money,
2
The shock description Includes shocks in the transversal and
in the longitudinal direction because the
shock motion of equipment has been observed to hav. non-zero
acceleration component. In the., directions.
In .ost cases then components are caused by differences in the
vertical displacements of the various point
of the foundation. For silplicityls sake, however, the Practical
totality of the sobck descriptions aSsume equal
vertical movements of all Points of the foundation. In this case it
is therefore expedient to aBssue ractituos
transversal and longitudinal shock motions of the foundation.
27.5
involving the collection of a vast amount of data. However, this is what

has been actually done (and is still being done) by the most important
Navies.
The sheer bulk of the experimental measurements to be carried out
is not the only difficulty posed by this approach to the problem of the
shock design of shipboard equipment. Another one concerns the reliability
in terms of the shock motion of the
of the description of the shock
foundation. The point is a delicate one that must be discussed in some
detail.
Let us assume, for simplicity's sake, that a piece of equipment may
be modelled in first approximation as a simple mass-spring oscillator. On
the basis of the approach discussed here, shock is but a -motion of the
foundation of this oscillator, described by a known function of the time
alone. The response, namely the mass motion, is then easily calculated.
Since the foundation motion has been assumed to be a known function of
the time alone, the oscillator mass motion has no effect on it. Now, the
forces which the oscillating mass may exert on the foundation through
the spring (that is, the "dynamic reaction" of the oscillator on its
foundation) may be important, as when the mass is made to resonate by
the foundation motion. The fact that the foundation motion is independent
of this dynamic reaction is expressed by stating that the oscillating system
is a "fixed-base" one. However, the flexibility of actual ship structures
do not allow this requirement to be verified in practice. In practice, the
shock motion of a piece of equipment does influence the motion of the
foundation; again, we are faced by a coupling of the motion of two
oscillating systems, the foundation- and* the piece of equipment.
Now, the only information on the mechanical structure of a piece of
equipment included in the list, given above, of the factors influencing
the shock is the equipment mass. The dynamic reaction in this case is
but an inertial one. The conclusion is that a shock measured on the
foundation of a piece of equipment may be correctly correlated to the
equipment mass only if the latter may be considered as rigid and rigidly
connected to the foundation; if one of this requirements is not fulfilled,
the measured shock is in principle valid only for the piece of equipment
under which it has been measured.
27.6
The way out of this difficulty is that of restricting the measurement

of the foundation shock motion to equipment which may be legitimately
considered as rigid and rigidly secured to the foundations. This however
does not solve the problem of choosing the shock to be used for the
dynamic analysis of a piece of equipment which is either non-rigid
or
non-rigidly attached to the ship foundation (for example, a resiliently
mounted piece of equipment). Different solutions to this problem have
been proposed, all of them based on more or less empirical considerations.
6.- Another difficulty associated to the description of the shock on

the
basis of. experimental tests concerns the experimental data treament
and
presentation.
Having defined shock in terms of motion, the measurements concern
kinematic quantities. The first instruments used have been seismic
mass
velocimeters, to which in the course of time accelerometers have
been
added. Both sensors have their problems, which time. has however
helped
to solve. The aspect of these measurements which is here of interests
is
however another one.
If a shock teat is carried out by installing sensors in different points.
of the foundation of a piece of equipment, chances are that their records
appear at a first glance to be utterly different; not only, but they appear
to be the superposition of a maze.- of oscillatory,. components . .having
frequencies varying in a wide range. This is specially true for accelerometer
records.
The reason of this complexity is that the ship structure may vibrate
in an infinity of oscillating modes (usually lightly damped and most of
which of a very local nature) excited by the impact against the hull of.
the underwater pressure wave which acts as a wide band excitation.
Moreover, it must be appreciated that the description of the motion in
terms. of velocity (or worse still, in terms of acceleration) instead of
displacement puts in evidence what could be called the "fine grain" of
this motion, emphasizing motion components that are hardly important as
far as the shock excitation of equipment is concerned. In other terms,
measurements yield in most cases an excess of information.
27.7
The correct treatment of these recordings for eliminating useless

information is a quite delicate task, even with today's sophisticated
instrumentation and techniques, if only because it is difficult to decide
what useless information is. Reliable data processing asks for judgment
and experience. In the past, this difficulty has caused the experimental
results to be dealt with rather summarily, leading to crude presentations
of the shock data.
7.- Empirical Shack Analyses. Types of Shock Description - With the

panning of years, both the measurement and the data processing techniques
have significantly improved. This improvement has resulted in a greater
reliability of the measurements (for example by eliminating the zero drift
of the early piezoelectric sensors, by removing excess information through
both mechanical and electric filtering of the signals, &tc) and in a more
scientific approach to the processing of signals (for example by the
extensive use of the Fourier analysis and of other mathematical
manipulations). Because of this, not only the reliability of the measured
shock data has improved appreciably, but the shock presentations have
become with time less sketchy and richer in information contents.
To better illustrate this point, it must be remembered that if the*
shock is to be described as a motion, a complete description in the time
domain may only be yielded by the correlation value-time of a convenient
kinematic quantity, for example the velocity *or the acceleration. On the
basis of what has been said above, this correlation should not be one
actually measured in a point of the foundation, but rather one worked
out by the signal processing procedure (usually on the basis of more
than one-actual recording). If a frequency domain description, rather
than a time domain one, is looked for, then a convenient functional
transform (such as, for example, a Fourier one) must be used (in which
case, since its values are complex quantities, their shock description must
include modulus and phase angle as a function of the frequency).
8.- The first descriptions of shock were rather simple, limiting themselves
to correlate the maximum values (positive and negative) of the shock
velocity (and/or acceleration) to the equipment mass, for the various
factors listed above. Fig. Al shows a typical presentation; in many cases
instead of a curve the correlation tooks the shape, in log scales, of a
polygonal composed of two or three segments of straight line. According
to the method chosen for verifying the response of equipment to shock,
27.8
this information could be supplemented by some other

data, such as, for
example, the shock motion frequency of the foundation
under the piece
of equipment.
In the course of time, shock descriptions in terms
of Shock Response
Spectra have become available. As it is well known,
this description, which
yields the peak response of a one-degree-of
freedom oscillator to the
shock motion of its foundation as a function
of the oscillator frequency,
bears a certain resemblance to a Fourier spectrum
but the similitude ends
here, because, if only for the lack of phase information,
a Shock Response
Spectrum is an incomplete description of the
shock motion and, as such,
allows only approximate analyses of the equipment
motion to be carried
out.
Shock Response Spectra have the advantage, over
a more rigorous
description of the shock, to require a minimum
of information to draw a
simplified form of them, consisting of two or three
straight line segments
(fig. A2) in log scales.
Since a couple of decades, finally, complete shock
descriptions in the
time domain have joined the existing presentations.
A typical acceleration
idealized time-history is represented in fig.3.
8.- Empirical Shock Analyses. The calculation. of

the equipment response
Passing now to examine the Structural Dynamic
Analysis problem
represented by the calculation of the response
of equipment to the
impulsive motion of its foundation, it is clear that
its sophistication and
accuracy is heavily influenced by the excitation
description.
When shock is described in terms of a maximum (positive
or negative)
acceleration as a function of the equipment weight,
the only analysis
method available is the one known as "g" method.
As it is well known,
this method simply consists in assuming a fictitious
weight of the piece
of equipment equal to P - A - M. where M is the
equipment mass and A
the design acceleration expressed in g's. The internal
stresses due to the
action of this fictitious weight are then calculated.
The stresses due to
the non-vertical shock components are treated in the
same way, calculating
the value and direction of fictitious weight force
on the basis of the
pertinent shock acceleration component.
27.9
FIG. Atf
06
NM
27-1
#12
A description of the shock in terms of Shock Response Spectra allows

the use of more sophisticated Dynamic Analyses, such as the Modal
Analysis,
which works out the equipment response by superposition
of modal
contributions.3 Since the description of the excitation is incomplete,
the
calculation results must however be considered as approximate, irrespective
of the degree of sophistication of the modelling of equipment into
a finite
dimensional oscillating system.
The description of the shock in terms of a function in the time
domain
is finally the one, as said above, that grants the most accurate
results
compatibly with the assumed modelling of the piece of equipment.'
9.- Empirical Shock Analyses. Concluding remarks - All the

calculation
methods briefly illustrated above have been used, and are
still being
used, for designing or checking shipboard equipment for
shock. It may
now be wondered what can possibly justify the use of calculation
methods
so different in complexity and accuracy. The answer is that
in designing
for shock the first requirement is that of making su re that
no component
part of the piece of equipment is lacking structural strength,
and this
requirement may be checked with relatively simple means.
The main task
then remains to make sure that all the design details, which
may be quite
numerous, do not represent weak points in the case of a
shock loading.
This is a much more difficult task, asking for insight and experience.
If
the designer is endowed with these qualities. then a minimum of
calculation
is usually sufficient to design for shock. Refined calculation
may compensate, up to a certain point, for the lack of the aforementioned
qualities
and is in any case necessary for building up confidence in dubious
cases
or when mare information on the shock motion of equipment
is needed.
An example of the latter instance is the calculation of accurate displacements
under shock, in which case a full blown analysis in the time
domain is
mandatory.
10.- Global Analyses.
- The development of Shock Motion Design Analyses

based on an experimental shock description has not prevented the
studies
aimed at describing in a mathematically rigorous way the motion
of a ship
structure under the impact of an underwater explosion shock wave
from
The DDAJI (Dynamic Design Analysis Method) used by the U.Ss~wvy 1*.a
well known Instance of an analysis
of this kind. A simplified dynamic analysis used by the Italian Navy (ADS)
Is based too an the use of Shock
Response spectra but with a simpler modelling of equipment as an oscillatin~g
system.
4 Descriptions of Shock In terms of Input Waveforms are used by the Italian,
British, and Dutch Mavies.
27.11
being pursued. On the contrary, after the war years, in addition to the
work done by the Scientist of the Western Countries also that originated
in the Soviet Union was made available. An important part of this work,
which is of a very high level, concerns the Hydrodynamics of Explosions,
the Propagation of Waves, the Interaction of Acoustic Shock Waves with
Elastic Structures, &tc.
All these studies try and solve the various problems in the classical
mathematical way, i.e. by working out analytic solutions, possibly in closed
form. The fundamental difficulty of this approach, which implies the
integration of systems of Partial Differential Equations, strongly coupled
and often strongly non-linear, has in all cases asked for drastic simplifications, mainly as concerns the geometry of the structure impacted
upon by the underwater shock wave. For this reason, while this work
has greatly contributed to throw light on the basics of the interaction
phenomena, the practical problem of working out the motion of a real ship
structure impacted upon by the pressure wave of an underwater explosion
has been left unsolved by -t.
The recents decades have however witnessed two major breakthroughs,
both of them fostered by the rapid development of the electronic
computation, which have contributed to change this situation. The first
of them is the introduction of the Finite Element Method, by which it is
possible to treat the dynamics of continua by transforming them into
oscillating systems having a finite number of degrees of freedom. This
method, in addition to the development of high speed computers, has
consented to deal with complex mechanical systems, such as the ship
structure and the structure of most-shipboard equipment, routinely and
automatically.
The second breakthrough, even more far-reaching, has been the rapid
development of the numerical methods for solving partial differential
equations by means of finite differences schemes. The importance of the
subject deserves a little comment.
The numerical integration of differential equations by substituting
derivatives with finite differences is known of old: the first proposal to
this effect was made by Euler in the 18th century. This approach has
proved to be rather successful as far as ordinary equations are concerned,
and schemes of increasing sophistication and accuracy have been made
available starting from the end of last century.
27'.12
The application of these techniques to partial differential equations

has however proved from the beginning to be much less succesful,
in the
first place in terms of accuracy and convergence, but above
all because
the great majority of the finite difference schemes that may be
proposed
for the solution of a given equation prove as a rule to be
unstable namely, to yield values for the solution that grow uncontrollably
with the
progress of the computation.
The rapid
impetus to the
of the finite
equations, the
the Sixties.
progress of the electronic computers has given a great

research effort in the field of the convergence and stability
difference schemes for integrating partial differential
results of which have been made available beginning from
The availability of improved numerical integration methods

has
consented to attack for the first time the problem of solving the
fundamental
partial equations of continuum mechanics, thus allowing the calculation
of
the non-linear, large amplitude responses of structures, fluid
bodies and
solid media including both mechanical and thermal effects. The
first codes
were developed in the late Sixties and have been since applied
in many
categories of application, among which materials research,
structural
response, power reactors design and safety analysis, ordnance
effects.
and in general. for solving problems heretofore intractable
even by
experiment.
11.- The methods now discussed have made it possible, for the
first time,
to carry out global analyses of the the shock motion of ship structures
and of shipboard equipment, without resorting to the simplifications
asked
for by the rigorous approach. Not only, but they allow to
calculate
non-linear, large amplitude responses of these structures,
including
permanent deformations and rupture.
A shortcoming of these methods is the time expenditure required
by
their implementation by means of computer codes, which prevents
them
from being yet used for the current needs of the shock design. The
study
of the problem of the interaction pressure wave-ship structure,
has
however pointed out at simplifications that with a small cost in accuracy
allow to treat the problem in a quicker and simpler way. Often
the
importance of a ship
example the fact of being the lead ship of a
class of naval vessels
such as to justify the effort of simulating its
-for
-is
27.13
structure, complete with equipment, as a large number of degrees-offreedom oscillating system, using the procedures of the Finite Elements
Analysis. The availability of such a model together with that of codes
the interaction problem, allows many problems of structural
dynamics to be tackled with unprecedented efficiency and accuracy. One
of these problems is the shock response analysis of ship structures and
handling
shipboard equipment. For the first time information hereto impossible to

obtain or obtainable only at a heavy cost may be worked out at the design
stage of a ship. The continuing progress of the electronic computers in
terms of speed and memory capacity seems to point out to a stage where
these methods will be used in a routinely way.
27.14

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West

CENTRO PER GLI STUDI DI TECNICA NA VALE

SIXTEENTH GRADUATE SCHOOL

UNIVERSITY OF GENOA - ITALY

23rd + 28th MARCH 1992

ORGANISED BY CETENA and

AIMS OF THE COURSE

PROGRAMME OF THE SCHOOL

- Presentation of the course

Tuesday, 24 March 1992

2.Main Noise and Vibration Sources

Wednesday, 25 March 1992

17.00 3.2. Description of Structure - borne Sound Transmission in Ship Structures

Anders C.NILSSON - The Royal Inst. of Technology (S)

Thursday, 26 March 1992

- "Concepts to reduce power flow in structures"

Annie BLANCHET - Chantiers de I'Atlantique (F)

3.3. Noise radiation: into air and into water

Jean Louis GUYADER - INSA - Lyon (F)

14.30 - 15.30 4.Working Spaces and Accommodations

Friday, 27 March 1992

- "Instrumentation, measurement techniques"

Annie BLANCHET - Chantiers de rAtlantique (F)

Kai A.ABRAHAMSEN/Einar BRUBAKK - DNV (N)

Kai A. ABRAHAMSEN/Einar BRUBAKK - ONV (N)

Saturday, 28 March 1992

- "Introduction to and general overview of shock phenomena"

Gian Luigi VALDENAZZI - University of Genoa (I)

16th WEGEMT SCHOOL

Jean Michel MONOOT

Chris J.D. PICKERING ()

() Deputy UK Member for European Affairs

School Scientific Assistant:

Tel. +39-10- 20921

WEGEMT EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE: CONTACT ADDRESSES

Marinus J.AM. DE REGT

Jean Louis GUYADER

16th WEGEMT SCHOOL

Tel. +39-10- 20921

Gian Luigi VALDENAZZI (')

V ) School Scientific Assistant

SESSION : Noise and Vibration

CHAPTER : 4. WORKING SPACES AND ACCOMMODATIONS

Noise and Vibration

extensive biographies of both teachers will be found

Acoustics can be considered a young

affects man both physically,

a) Time domain (see fig.2.l.a)

b) Space domain (fig.2.L.bl:

again two variables:

the two variables are:

Frequency f, the inverse of the Period (l/T),

Speaking in a general way it can be said that a wave is

1.2.2 The physical quantities commonly

used to describe waves

In this context, when talking about waves in a fluid and

Fig. 1.2 /1/

nd power of K' warts.

The ntetaq of the sound 3* all

If the sound source is directional, the intensity will vary

Sound intensity is difficult to be measured directly, but,

velocity of shear wave

ILI. VeIhiC=l vCraziln -rtOIl. J~ rockang Inc