$IAMONDV#HAKRABARTY!

2ETROSPECTIVEON
9EARSOF"IOTECH0ATENTS
"Y$OUGLAS2OBINSONAND.INA-EDLOCK

!

PERSON WHO EATS CORNFLAKES AT BREAKFAST PUTS ON

A COTTON SHIRT OR TAKES A VITAMIN # SUPPLEMENT
TO WARD OFF A COLD ALMOST CERTAINLY BENEFITS FROM THE
53 3UPREME #OURTS  DECISION IN $IAMOND V
#HAKRABARTY )T HAS BEEN  YEARS SINCE THIS LANDMARK
DECISIONINWHICHTHE3UPREME#OURTHELDTHATALIVE
MAN MADE MICROORGANISM IS PATENTABLE SUBJECT MATTER
UNDER3ECTIONOFTHE530ATENT!CT
#HAKRABARTYISNOTWELLKNOWNOUTSIDETHEINTELLEC
TUALPROPERTYCOMMUNITY THEAVERAGEPERSONPROBABLY
HAS NEVER EVEN HEARD THE NAME9ET #HAKRABARTY HAS
AFFECTED THE LIVES OF VIRTUALLY EVERYONE IN THE 5NITED
3TATES HAVING CONTRIBUTED TO A REVOLUTION IN BIOTECH
NOLOGYTHATHASRESULTEDINTHEISSUANCEOFTHOUSANDSOF
PATENTSTHEFORMATIONOFHUNDREDSOFNEWCOMPANIES
AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THOUSANDS OF BIOENGINEERED
PLANTSANDFOODPRODUCTS
)N#HAKRABARTYTHE530ATENTAND4RADEMARK/FFICE
04/ REJECTEDCLAIMSTOAGENETICALLYENGINEEREDBAC
TERIUM ON THE GROUND THAT LIVING ORGANISMS ARE NOT
PATENTABLE4HE3UPREME#OURTDISAGREEDDECIDINGBY
A FIVE TO FOUR MAJORITY THAT A PATENT MAY BE OBTAINED
ONhANYTHINGUNDERTHESUNTHATISMADEBYMANv4HE
3UPREME#OURTDECISIONOPENEDTHEFLOODGATESFORPRO
TECTIONOFBIOTECHNOLOGY RELATEDINVENTIONSANDHELPED
SPARKTHEGROWTHOFANINDUSTRYTHATNOONEREGARDLESS
OFHISORHERMORALORPHILOSOPHICALVIEWSCANDENYIS
CAPABLEOFMODERN DAYMIRACLES

METABOLIZINGALLTHEDIFFERENTHYDROCARBONCOMPOUNDS
PRESENT IN CRUDE OIL HOWEVER PRIOR METHODS HAD TO
RELY ON A MIXTURE OF BACTERIAL STRAINS EACH OF WHICH
ACTED ON A DIFFERENT SET OF HYDROCARBON COMPONENTS
5NFORTUNATELYNOTALLTHEBACTERIALSTRAINSINTHEMIX
TURECOULDTHRIVEINTHEVARIOUSENVIRONMENTALCONDI
TIONSEXISTINGINTHEAREAOFANOILSPILLSOTHATWHENA
MIXTUREOFBACTERIALSTRAINSWASUSEDONLYSOMEOFTHE
BACTERIASURVIVEDLONGENOUGHTOATTACKTHESPILL
4HE KEY DISCOVERY IN #HAKRABARTYS RESEARCH WAS
THAThPLASMIDSv CONTROL THE OIL DEGRADATION ABILITIES OF
CERTAINBACTERIA0LASMIDSARETRANSMITTABLENON NUCLEAR
SEGMENTSOF$.!#HAKRABARTYDEVELOPEDAPROCESSBY
WHICHMULTIPLEPLASMIDSCAPABLEOFDEGRADINGDIFFERENT
HYDROCARBONCOMPONENTSCOULDBEINCORPORATEDWITHIN
APARTICULARLYhHARDYvSINGLEBACTERIUM4HISGENETICALLY
ENGINEERED BACTERIUM WAS CAPABLE OF BREAKING DOWN
OILSPILLSATAMUCHFASTERRATETHANNATURALLYOCCURRING
BACTERIA!SIMPORTANTLYITWASNOTAFFECTEDBYVARYING
ENVIRONMENTALCONDITIONS
#HAKRABARTYS  PATENT APPLICATION CONTAINED
THREEGROUPSOFCLAIMSDIRECTEDTO
 4HEMETHODOFPRODUCINGTHEBACTERIUM
 !NINOCULUMCOMPOSEDOFACARRIERMATERIALANDTHE
BACTERIUM
 4HEGENETICALLYENGINEEREDBACTERIUMITSELF

4HE0ROCEEDINGSBEFORETHE04/AND
THE,OWER#OURT
#HAKRABARTY BEGAN WITH A PATENT APPLICATION FILED
IN  BY MICROBIOLOGIST!NANDA #HAKRABARTY ON AN
INVENTIONFORTREATINGOILSPILLS3CIENTISTSINTHEPETRO
CHEMICALINDUSTRYHADLONGBEENAWAREOFTHEPOTENTIAL
OFCERTAINSTRAINSOFBACTERIATOMETABOLIZEANDDEGRADE
HYDROCARBON COMPOUNDS INTO SIMPLER HARMLESS SUB
STANCES THAT COULD SERVE AS A FOOD SOURCE FOR AQUATIC
LIFE"ECAUSENOSINGLESTRAINOFBACTERIAWASCAPABLEOF

4HE PATENT EXAMINER ALLOWED THE FIRST TWO GROUPS

BUT REJECTED THE CLAIMS DIRECTED TO THE BACTERIUM AS
UNPATENTABLEUNDER53#e/NAPPEALATTHE
04/THE"OARDOF0ATENT!PPEALSAND)NTERFERENCESAF
FIRMEDTHEEXAMINERSREJECTION4HE#OURTOF#USTOMS
AND0ATENT!PPEALSREVERSEDTHE"OARDSDECISIONHOW
EVERRULINGTHATLIVINGORGANISMSAREPATENTABLESUBJECT
MATTER4HE04/THENFILEDAPETITIONFORWRITOFCER
TIORARITOTHE3UPREME#OURT

$OUGLAS2OBINSONAND.INA-EDLOCKARESHAREHOLDERSINTHE
7ASHINGTON$#OFFICEOF"ANNER7ITCOFF,TDANDCANBEREACHED
ATDROBINSON BANNERWITCOFFCOM ANDNMEDLOCK BANNERWITCOFF
COMRESPECTIVELY4HEVIEWSEXPRESSEDINTHISARTICLEARETHE
AUTHORSOWN3PECIALTHANKSGOTO*OSLYN"ARRITTFORHERASSISTANCEIN
PREPARINGTHISARTICLE

4HE3UPREME#OURT$ECISION
4HE 3UPREME #OURT HEARD THE #HAKRABARTY CASE
IN -ARCH  $EPUTY 3OLICITOR 'ENERAL ,AWRENCE
7ALLACEARGUEDONBEHALFOFTHE04/%DWARD-C+IE
7ILLIAM 3CHUYLER AND $ALE (OSCHEIT OF 3CHUYLER

)NTELLECTUAL0ROPERTY4ECHNOLOGY,AW*OURNAL

6OLUMEs .UMBERs/CTOBER

"IRCH-C+IE"ECKETTREPRESENTED#HAKRABARTY
4HE QUESTION BEFORE THE #OURT WAS WHETHER THE
CLAIMEDMICROORGANISMCONSTITUTEDAhMANUFACTUREvOR
hCOMPOSITIONOFMATTERvWITHINTHEMEANINGOFTHE53
0ATENT!CT 2EVIEWING THE BROAD CONGRESSIONAL MAN
DATE REGARDING PATENTABLE SUBJECT MATTER THE 3UPREME
#OURTCONCLUDEDTHATITDIDANDASSERTEDTHEPRINCIPLE
FOR WHICH #HAKRABARTY IS BEST KNOWN THAThANYTHING
UNDERTHESUNTHATISMADEBYMANvISELIGIBLEFORPAT
ENTING
4HE)MMEDIATE!FTERMATH
4HE#HAKRABARTYPATENTWASNOTTHEFIRST53PATENT
TO ISSUE ON A LIVING ORGANISM4HE 04/ HAD GRANTED
PATENTS ON SINGLE CELL ORGANISMS ON SEVERAL OCCASIONS
DATING BACK TO  WHEN ,OUIS 0ASTEUR OBTAINED A
PATENT 53 0ATENT .O  ON A PURIFIED YEAST
CELL )T WAS ONLY AFTER #HAKRABARTY HOWEVER THAT THE
04/CLARIFIEDWHATHADBEENANINCONSISTENTAPPROACH
TO PATENTING LIVING ORGANISMS4HIS CLARIFICATION CAME
IN%X0ARTE!LLENWHENTHE"OARDOF0ATENT!PPEALS
AND )NTERFERENCES REVERSED THE EXAMINERS REJECTION OF
CLAIMS FOR GENETICALLY ENGINEERED OYSTERS AS UNPATENT
ABLE BECAUSE IT FOUNDhNO EVIDENCE THAT THE CLAIMED
POLYPLOIDOYSTERSOCCURNATURALLYWITHOUTTHEINTERVEN
TIONOFMANv
3HORTLY AFTER %X 0ARTE!LLEN WAS DECIDED THE 04/
ISSUED A STATEMENT ON!PRIL  ANNOUNCING THAT
h;T=HE 0ATENT AND 4RADEMARK /FFICE NOW CONSID
ERS NON NATURALLY OCCURRING NON HUMAN MULTICELLULAR
LIVING ORGANISMS INCLUDING ANIMALS TO BE PATENTABLE
SUBJECT MATTER WITHIN THE SCOPE OF  53# v
!LMOST EXACTLY ONE YEAR LATER ON!PRIL   THE
04/ ISSUED THE FIRST PATENT FOR A TRANSGENIC ANIMAL
COMMONLYKNOWNASTHEh(ARVARD-OUSEv530ATENT
.O 
4HE0OST #HAKRABARTY7ORLD
!T THE TIME #HAKRABARTY WAS DECIDED BIOTECHNOL
OGYWASANEWLYDEVELOPINGFIELD.OONECOULDHAVE
FORESEEN IN  THE PHENOMENAL PACE AT WHICH NEW
BIOTECHNOLOGYADVANCESWOULDDEVELOP.EITHERCOULD
ANYONE HAVE PREDICTED THE EXPONENTIAL GROWTH IN THE
NUMBER OF PATENT APPLICATIONS AND ISSUED PATENTS ON
BIOTECHNOLOGY RELATED INVENTIONS THAT WOULD OCCUR
OVERTHENEXTYEARS
"YVIRTUALLYEVERYMEASURABLEFACTORTHEBIOTECHNOL
OGYINDUSTRYHASLITERALLYEXPLODEDINTHEYEARSSINCE
#HAKRABARTY!CCORDING TO DATA COMPILED BY %RNST 
9OUNG
s !SOF$ECEMBERTHEREWEREBIOTECH
NOLOGYCOMPANIESINTHE5NITED3TATESTHE53BIO
6OLUMEs .UMBERs/CTOBER

TECHNOLOGY INDUSTRY EMPLOYED  PEOPLE AND

THE53REVENUESFORTHEBIOTECHNOLOGYINDUSTRYHAD
INCREASEDFROMBILLIONINTOBILLION
s )NALONETHE53BIOTECHNOLOGYINDUSTRYSPENT
BILLIONONRESEARCHANDDEVELOPMENT
s !S OF MID -ARCH  THE TOTAL VALUE OR MARKET
CAPITALIZATIONOFTHEPUBLICLYHELDBIOTECHNOLOGY
COMPANIESHADRISENTOBILLIONASCOMPAREDTO
BILLIONIN
4HE NUMBER OF PATENT APPLICATIONS AND ISSUED
PATENTS ON BIOTECHNOLOGY RELATED INVENTIONS ALSO HAS
RISEN DRAMATICALLY SINCE #HAKRABARTY $ATA COMPLIED
BYTHE"IOTECHNOLOGY)NDUSTRY/RGANIZATIONBASEDIN
7ASHINGTON $# SHOWS THAT THE NUMBER OF BIOTECH
NOLOGYPATENTSGRANTEDBYTHE04/ROSEFROMIN
TOIN3INCETHATTOTALHASAVER
AGEDOVERPATENTSEACHYEAR
4HE BIOTECHNOLOGY PATENTS ISSUED OVER THE LAST 
YEARS HAVE COVERED A WIDE RANGE OF TECHNOLOGIES AND
PRODUCTS FROM MEDICINE AND DIAGNOSTICS FOR TREATING
DISEASESTOAGRICULTUREANDENVIRONMENTALPRODUCTSFOR
FEEDINGTHEWORLDSGROWINGPOPULATIONANDSAFEGUARD
INGTHEENVIRONMENT3OMEOFTHESIGNIFICANTBIOTECH
NOLOGYPATENTSTOISSUESINCETHE#HAKRABARTYDECISION
AREDISCUSSEDBELOW
4HE(ARVARD-OUSE
!MONG THE MOST FASCINATING DEVELOPMENTS IN THE
POST #HAKRABARTY WORLD IS THEh(ARVARD -OUSEv DE
VELOPED BY (ARVARD 5NIVERSITY RESEARCHERS 0HILLIP
,EDERAND4IMOTHY3TEWART530ATENT.O
RECEIVED A GREAT DEAL OF ATTENTION WHEN IT WAS ISSUED
IN !PRIL  BECAUSE IT WAS THE FIRST 53 PATENT TO
ISSUEFORATRANSGENICANIMALIEANANIMALCREATEDBY
INJECTING GENES FROM ANOTHER SPECIES INTO A FERTILIZED
ANIMALEGGANDTHENSURGICALLYIMPLANTINGTHEEGGINTO
THE MOTHER 4HE INJECTED GENES WERE ONCOGENES THAT
TRIGGERED CANCER GROWTH MAKING THEhONCOMOUSEv A
PARTICULARLYVALUABLETOOLFORTESTINGTHEEFFECTSOFCAN
CER FIGHTINGDRUGSANDSUSPECTEDCARCINOGENS
SINCETHE(ARVARD-OUSEPATENTWASISSUEDIN
HUNDREDS OF OTHER PATENTS PERTAINING TO TRANSGENIC
ANIMALSHAVEBEENISSUEDINTHE5NITED3TATESINCLUD
ING PATENTS TO CHICKENS 53 0ATENT .O  
COWS530ATENT.O DOGS530ATENT.O
  MICE 53 0ATENT .O   MON
KEYS 53 0ATENT .O   PIGS 53 0ATENT .O
  RABBITS 53 0ATENT .O   RATS
530ATENT.O ANDSHEEP530ATENT.O
 
)NTELLECTUAL0ROPERTY4ECHNOLOGY,AW*OURNAL

4HE(ARVARD-OUSEISALSOPATENTEDIN%UROPEAND
*APAN(OWEVERNOTALLCOUNTRIESHAVEBEENWILLINGTO
JOINTHE5NITED3TATESINALLOWINGPATENTSONHIGHERLIFE
FORMS#ANADAFOREXAMPLEHASREFUSEDTOPATENTTRANS
GENICANIMALS4HE3UPREME#OURTOF#ANADARULEDIN
$ECEMBERTHATTHE(ARVARD-OUSEISNOTPATENT
ABLE SUBJECT MATTER WITHIN THE SCOPE OF THE #ANADIAN
0ATENT!CT
4HE0OLYMERASE#HAIN2EACTION
4HEPOLYMERASECHAINREACTION0#2 THESUBJECT
OF530ATENT.OSAND
ISSUEDINAND HASBEENHAILEDASONEOFTHE
MOSTIMPORTANTSCIENTIFICTECHNOLOGIESTOBEDEVELOPED
IN THE LAST HUNDRED YEARS %UPHEMISTICALLY REFERRED TO
AS A COPYING MACHINE FOR $.! 0#2 IS A TECHNIQUE
FORAMPLIFYINGDETECTINGANDCLONING$.!SEQUENCES
5SINGTHISPROCESSSCIENTISTSCANTAKEATINYFRAGMENTOF
$.!ANDGENERATEANUNLIMITEDNUMBEROFCOPIESIN
JUSTAFEWHOURS
)N THE SHORT TIME SINCE ITS INVENTION 0#2 HAS
REVOLUTIONIZED DRUG RESEARCH AND MEDICAL DIAGNOS
TICSAIDINGSCIENTISTSINDETECTINGHEREDITARYDISEASES
IDENTIFYINGVIRUSESANDMAPPINGTHEHUMANGENOME
4HE PROCESS HAS BECOME CRITICAL IN THE FORENSIC SCI
ENCEOFGENETICFINGERPRINTINGWHEREINITIALSAMPLES
OFTENARETOOSMALLTOTEST0#2HASEVENBEENUSED
SUCCESSFULLY TO ANALYZE ANCIENT $.! FROM SOURCES
RANGING FROM %GYPTIAN MUMMIES TO A  YEAR
OLDMAMMOTH
'ENETICALLY%NGINEERED#ROPS
53 0ATENT .OS  AND  ARE TWO
KEYPATENTSINTHEAREAOFGENETICALLYENGINEEREDCROPS
)SSUEDTO$ILIP3HAHOFTHE-ONSANTO#OMPANYON*ULY
AND&EBRUARYTHESEPATENTSAREDI
RECTEDTOATECHNIQUEFORGENETICALLYALTERINGPLANTSEEDS
SOTHATTHEPLANTSARERESISTANTTOGLYPHOSATE CONTAINING
HERBICIDES4HESEHERBICIDESCANTHENBESAFELYAPPLIED
INCROPFIELDSTOSELECTIVELYKILLANDCONTROLWEEDSWITH
OUTALSOKILLINGTHECROPS
/THERGENE ALTERINGTECHNIQUESALSOAREINUSETODAY
TO INCREASE THE NUTRITIONAL CONTENT OF SOME FOODS AND
THERESISTANCEOFCROPSTOPARTICULARINSECTS
4HANKS TO BIOTECHNOLOGY THE FUTURE HAS LITERALLY
COME TO THE DINNER TABLE "Y SOME ESTIMATES MORE
THANPERCENTOFPROCESSEDFOODSSOLDINTHE5NITED
3TATES TODAY CONTAIN SOME BIOTECHNOLOGY PRODUCTS )N
THE53$EPARTMENTOF!GRICULTUREREPORTEDTHAT
GENETICALLY ALTERED SOYBEANS ACCOUNTED FOR  PERCENT
OFTHESOYBEANSGROWNINTHISCOUNTRYANDTHATGENETI
CALLYALTEREDCORNACCOUNTEDFORPERCENTOFTHE53
CORNCROP
)NTELLECTUAL0ROPERTY4ECHNOLOGY,AW*OURNAL

0RIMATE%MBRYONIC3TEM#ELLS
53 0ATENT .O  WAS ISSUED ON -ARCH 
TO5NIVERSITYOF7ISCONSINS*AMES4HOMSONFOR
HISMETHODOFISOLATINGANDSUSTAININGEMBRYONICSTEM
CELLSINCULTURESOTHATTHECELLLINESCONTINUETOPROLIF
ERATEINANUNDIFFERENTIATEDSTATE%MBRYONICSTEMCELLS
UNLIKEOTHERCELLTYPESAREhPLURIPOTENTvMEANINGTHAT
THEYCANDEVELOPINTOANYORGANORTISSUETYPE
4HOMSONS INVENTION ELECTRIFIED DEVELOPMENTAL BI
OLOGISTSWHOSAWTHEPOTENTIALFORDIRECTINGCELLDIFFER
ENTIATIONTOGENERATEANYORGANORTISSUETYPEDESIRED
)TALSOCREATEDCONSIDERABLECONTROVERSYASDEBATESRAGED
REGARDING THE HARVESTING OF STEM CELLS FROM ABORTED
EMBRYOS3WAYEDBYTHETREMENDOUSPROMISETHATSTEM
CELL RESEARCH HOLDS FOR THE TREATMENT OF SUCH TRAGIC
DISEASES AS 0ARKINSONS AND!LZHEIMERS THE 53 (OUSE
OF 2EPRESENTATIVES PASSED (2  ON -AY  
EXPANDINGFEDERALFUNDINGFOREMBRYONICSTEMCELLRE
SEARCH4HE"USH!DMINISTRATIONISOPPOSEDTOTHEBILL
BUTLAWMAKERSARECONFIDENTTHATTHEREWILLBESUFFICIENT
VOTESTOOVERCOMEANY0RESIDENTIALVETO
#ONCLUSION
)T IS IMPOSSIBLE TO KNOW WHETHER BIOTECHNOLOGY
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT WOULD HAVE BEEN STUNTED
HAD THE 3UPREME #OURT RULED AGAINST THE INVENTOR IN
#HAKRABARTY9ET THE DECISION IN #HAKRABARTY SURELY
PROVIDED COMPANIES IN THE NASCENT BIOTECHNOLOGY IN
DUSTRYWITHTHENEEDEDINCENTIVESTOINVESTINTHEPRO
DUCTIONOFNEWMEDICALTREATMENTSANDDRUGTHERAPIES
NEWANDBETTERDIAGNOSTICTOOLSANDSTRONGERANDMORE
DISEASE RESISTANTCROPS)TALSOEMBOLDENEDTHEINDUSTRY
TOSEEKPATENTPROTECTIONONANEVER BROADENINGRANGE
OF TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES!S BIOTECHNOLOGY HAS PRO
GRESSEDFROMTHEGENETICMANIPULATIONOFMICROORGAN
ISMSTOTRANSGENICANIMALSANDHUMANGENESEQUENCES
SOMERELIGIOUSANDPUBLICINTERESTGROUPSWHOOPPOSE
THEPATENTINGOFANIMALLIFEFORMSONMORALANDETHICAL
GROUNDSHAVERAISEDOBJECTIONS9ETTHESEISSUESHAVELESS
TODOWITHPATENTLAWTHANWITHDEFININGTHEAPPROPRI
ATEETHICALLIMITSONSCIENTIFICDEVELOPMENT!SSTATEDBY
#HAKRABARTYSCOUNSEL$ALE(OSCHEIT
4HEISSUEDECIDEDIN#HAKRABARTYWASANARROWONE
BUT IT LED TO THE REMOVAL OF BARRIERS TO PATENTS FOR A
WIDEVARIETYOFBIOTECHNOLOGICALINNOVATIONS4HEPAT
ENTSFORTHESEINNOVATIONSARELIMITEDONLYBYTHESKILL
OF THE INDIVIDUALS DRAFTING THE CLAIMS!LTHOUGH THERE
AREMORALANDETHICALISSUESINVOLVEDINTHEMANUFACTURE
OFLIVINGTHINGSPATENTSTHEMSELVESARENOTDESIGNEDTO
ADDRESSSUCHISSUES4HEROLEOFTHE0ATENT/FFICEISTO
DETERMINENOVELTYANDNONOBVIOUSNESSISSUESOFMORAL
ITYANDETHICSAREBESTLEFTTOOTHERORGANIZATIONSSPECIFI
CALLYTASKEDTODEALWITHTHOSEISSUES
6OLUMEs .UMBERs/CTOBER

.OTES











$IAMONDV#HAKRABARTY53 
53#e
#HAKRABARTYSUPRANAT
!PPLICATIONOF#HAKRABARTY&D##0! AFF D
ONREHG&D##0! 
3CHUYLER "IRCH -C+IE  "ECKETT IS A PREDECESSOR FIRM TO
THEAUTHORSFIRM
%X0ARTE!LLEN5301D&ED#IR 
)D
53 0ATENT AND 4RADEMARK /FFICE .OTICE h!NIMALS
0ATENTABILITYv  /'  !PR   EMPHASIS
ADDED 
%RNST9OUNG,,0!NNUAL"IOTECHNOLOGY)NDUSTRY2EPORTS
n

6OLUMEs .UMBERs/CTOBER

h"IOTECHNOLOGY )NDUSTRY &ACTSv *UNE   AVAILABLE AT

WWWBIOORGSPEECHESPUBSERSTATISTICSASP
4HEPATENTISCOMMONLYREFERREDTOASTHEhONCOMOUSEvPAT
ENTBUTTHEPATENTCLAIMSCOVERANYhTRANSGENICNONHUMAN
MAMMALvWHOSEGERMANDSOMATICCELLSCONTAINARECOMBI
NANTACTIVATEDONCOGENESEQUENCEINTRODUCEDINTOTHEMAM
MALORANANCESTOROFTHEMAMMALATANEMBRYONICSTAGE
0RESIDENT  &ELLOWS OF (ARVARD #OLLEGE V #ANADA
#OMMISSIONEROF0ATENTS ;=3##
'LENDA$7EBBERh)NSECT 2ESISTANT#ROPSTHROUGH'ENETIC
%NGINEERINGv 5NIVERSITY OF -ISSOURI #OLUMBIA *UNE 
 AVAILABLE AT WWWMUEXTENSIONMISSOURIEDUEXPLOREREG
PUBSNCR

)NTELLECTUAL0ROPERTY4ECHNOLOGY,AW*OURNAL