APPLIED SCIENCE 279 LABORATORY #3

FATIGUE AND BRITTLE FRACTURE

Keywords: Fatigue, striations, beach marks, stress concentration, fatigue limit, S-N diagram, notch
toughness, fracture surface, shelf energy, impact test.
PURPOSE
This laboratory demonstrates fatigue failure resulting from dynamic fluctuating stresses and the
phenomenon of ductile-brittle transition. The materials used are steel and aluinum. The effect of a stress
concentration (in this case a machined notch) on fatigue life is also shown. Since flaws such as cracks can
dramatically alter the fracture characteristics of any material, several common nondestructive tests (NDT)
will be used to locate flaws within steel test specimens.

PROCEDURE
Fatigue test the smooth and notched specimens (cold rolled mild steel) and record the number of stress
cycles to failure. Note: the minimum daimeter (6.35 mm) is the same for both.
Determine the Charpy impact energy (Joules) for the 0.40%C steel specimens at the specified
temperatures. Examine the fracture surface for each test and estmate the % shear (ductile) failure.
Use the ballistic pendulum to determine the angular deflection for the 0.11% C steel specimens (BCC
structure) over the temperature range -196C to +20C. Perform the same test on aluminum specimens
(FCC structure) at -196C, +20C and one intermediate temperature.
Use ultrasonic, magnetic and die penetrant techniques to locate cracks within each of the steel test
specimens. Record the specimen number, the type of flaw detected (surface or internal) and the
position (distance from the numbered end in mm).
Examine the fracture characteristics of the various failed industrial components on display.

THE REPORT
A clean copy of the data sheets with all data and calculations must be included. The report should also
include responses to the following :
1. Use the data given in the handout to plot an S-N (stress vs log cycles) diagram for the mild steel.
Determine the fatigue limit in MPa and compare this to its UTS which is 700 MPa. Be sure to also
show your data on the plot.
Plotting the data of Stress Vs. Log cycles we get:

Log(11500) = 4.06 (the notched fatigue cycle limit)

The fatigue limit obvserved is about 300MPa, which is less than the UTS (700MPa).

2. Why is the data point for the notched specimen so far from the S-N curve? Use the S-N diagram to
determine the actual stress at the notch and calculate the stress concentration factor (defined as the
ratio of actual stress to calculated stress).
Actual stress at notch: around 525 MPa
Calculated stress: 445.47 MPa
Stress concentration factor = 525/445 = 1.18

3. In designing a structure subject to fluctuating stresses, how you would utilize the information derived
from an S-N diagram? If made from aluminum can this structure have an infinite service life?

To design a structure subject to fluctuating stress, we need to make sure that we do not apply
stress more than the fatigue limit from the S-N diagram. If material were made from aluminum,
this structure will still not going to gain infinite service life.
The graph below is the S-N graph for aluminum, we can see that the graph below

This image is taken from http://www.interfaceforce.com/technical-library/load-cell-fatigue.php

As we can see, there is no edurance limit for aluminum, so aluminum will not have infinite life.
4. List at least four factors which affect the in-service fatigue strength of metals.
1. Temperature
2. Geometry
3. Surface quality
4. Grain size (small grain size will give longer fatigue lives)

5. For the ballistic pendulum test, plot versus T for both the steel and aluminum. Calculate the DBTT
for each. Above the transition to brittle fracture, increases as temperature decreases. Explain why
including a sketch of the stress-strain curve at various temperatures to to support your answer.

the DBTT for steel is between -102 and -115 degree celcius (~ 109 degree celcius)
There is no DBTT for aluminum
Above the transition to brittle fracture (the ductile region), we see increase as temperature
decreases. increases mean more energy is absorbed by the material. As temperature
decreases, the yielding strength of the material increases, the area under the stress-strain
curves elastic region increases, so the material can absorb more energy. However, when the
yielding strength exceed certain point, the area under the stress-strain curves elastic region
start to decrease (that mean the slope angle is higher than 45 degree) and that is when the
transition between the ductile and brittle occur.

6. Based on the % shear values estimated during the lab, sketch the fracture surfaces for the Charpy
specimens. With increasing % shear does the energy absorbed in fracture increase or decrease?
Explain why.

The % shear increase the energy absorbed in the fracture increases because during shear, the
energy is absorbed to cause plastic deformation. If we look at the graph below, we will see that
the area under the stress strain curve is greater, which mean that the material is more tough, and
more tough means being able to absorb more energy.

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
It is clearly useful to detect flaws and fatigue cracks in parts before sudden failure occurs. For this purpose
a number of non-destructive techniques can be used, including dye penetrants, magnetic particles, x-rays
and ultrasonic testing.

Dye Penetrants (Surface Flaws)

In this technique, a coloured or fluorescent dye, dissolved in carrier liquid of low surface tension, is applied
to the surface. The dye then penetrates surface cracks. The part is then washed to remove excess dye and
a blotting agent (developer) is applied to draw the dye from within the cracks to the surface giving a
visible indication of location. With fluorescent penetrants a black light is used to highlight flaws.
Magnetic Particle Method (Surface Flaws)
This is applicable to steels and cast iron and will detect defects at or just below the surface. The part to be
examined is placed in a magnetic field (or a high current is passed through the part to induce a magnetic
field) and sprinkled with coloured iron (or magnetic iron oxide) powder (sometimes suspended in a liquid).
Surface cracks distort the applied north-south pole creating a localized south-north field. This leakage of
magnetic flux attracts the powder to give a visual indication of flaws.

Leakage Flux
Fe Powder

Penetrating Radiation (Internal and Surface Flaws)

Like light, X-rays and gamma rays are sources of electromagnetic radiation. However, the wavelengths of
x-rays and gamma rays are much smaller and are able to penetrate solid materials.
X-rays are produced by driving electrons against a metallic target. This can be done in a vacuum tube by
using a white-hot filament as the source of the electrons, and an electrical potential (up to 3 million volts)
to force the electrons against the target. The energy in the x-rays (i.e. their penetrating ability) is largely
determined by the voltage.
Certain isotopes emit gamma rays during radioactive decay. A small piece of such a substance provides the
source of radiation. Sources are rated according to the energy of the radiation, intensity or number of
radioactive disintegrations occurring per second.
The method of inspection involves placing the part under a beam of x-rays or gamma rays. A film (in a
light-tight envelope) is taped on the part at the opposite side from the radiation source. The amount of
radiation which reaches the film depends on exposure time, distance from source to metal part, and the
thickness of metal penetrated. More radiation penetrates internal defects so defects are visible on the
developed film.

Ultrasonic Inspection (Internal and Surface Flaws)

This method is based on the fact that dense substances (such as metals) propagate sound waves or highfrequency vibrations more readily than low-density substances such as air, oil, or water. Ultrasonic (1 to 2
million Hz) waves generated by a piezoelectric crystal are passed through the part to be inspected. As
shown in the figure below, the waves are reflected at cracks and flaws (as well as the surface of the
material). A liquid couplant such as oil or water is used aid transmission of the waves into the part. The
position of defects, which appear on the oscilloscope out as shown in the figure, indicated by the time
required for the signal to reach the defect relative to the time for the waves to penetrate the specimen.

Oscilloscpope
readout

DATA SHEET- Fatigue and Brittle Fracture

Charpy Impact Test Results
Temperature

Fracture Energy (J)

% Shear

100 oC

93

88

21 oC

30

-190oC

Fatigue Test Results

Specimen

Cycles to Failure

Smooth

25500

Notched

11500

Diameter d 6.35 mm
Load 11 lbs 48.9 N
M 229mm x Load 11198.1
32 M
Stress Amplitude @ Surface S
445.47
d3
Moment

N - mm
MPa

Non Destructive Testing Results

Specimen #

Flaw Type
(Surface or Internal)

Location
(mm from #-end)

Detected By*
(method)

Surface

15

DPF, US

Internal

US, MP

11

None

US, DP

*DP=Dye Penetrant

DPF=Fluorescent Dye Penetrant

MP=Magnetic Particle

US=Ultrasonic

Ballistic Pendulum Results

Steel
Temperature
(oC)

Aluminum

(degrees)

Temperature
(oC)

(degrees)

24.6

4.4

24.7

1.8

-182

2.2

-187.2

2.4

-165.2

2.6

-151.8

2.5

-134

2.5

-94.2

5.4

-115

2.6

-102

5.6

Fatigue Test Data

Load
(lbs)
7.5
8.0
8.5
8.5
9.0
9.5
10.0
11.0
11.0
11.5
12.0
12.0
13.0
14.0
15.0

(N)
33.4
35.6
37.8
37.8
40.0
42.3
44.5
48.9
48.9
51.1
53.4
53.4
57.8
62.3
66.7

Cycles
> 108
> 108
15,725,000
5,870,000
2,700,000
758,000
397,000
192,000
127,000
173,500
18,200
37,000
13,000
4,500
3,320