The Faade of Leone Leoni's House in Milan, the Casa degli Omenoni: The Artist and the Public

Author(s): Michael P. Mezzatesta

Reviewed work(s):
Source: Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 44, No. 3 (Oct., 1985), pp. 233249
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The Fagade of Leone Leoni's House in

Milan, the Casa degli Omenoni:
The Artist and the Public
MICHAEL P. MEZZATESTA

LeoneLeoni'shousein Milan,theCasadegliOmenoni,is oneof the

architectural
It haslongearnedthe
landmarks.
city'smostdistinctive
attention
andadmiration
visitors,
of
particularly
for itsunusualfaade
decorated
withsix over-life-sized
barbarian
and two halfprisoners
the
central
lengthcaryatids
flanking
portal.Figuresof thiskindhad
neverbeenseenon a houseorpalace
here.
faCadebefore
theyappeared
Thisarticleanalyzesthesculptural
andarchitectural
sources
of these
sources
figuresas wellas thearchitectural
of thefacadeingeneral.The
CasadegliOmenoniis placedwithinthecontextof the threemajor
in ordertofurtherclarifyits innovative
facadetypesat mid-century,
is discussed,
withLeoni'sdedication
qualities.Finally,theiconology
of thehouseto MarcusAureliusseenin relationto thepopularity
of
twobookson theancientemperor
bythecourthistorian
of CharlesV,
Theprisoner
FrayAntoniodeGuevara.
motifis linkedto thePersian
and
the
a satyris
Portico,
famousfriezereliefshowinglionsattacking
relatedto a similardevicein Filarete's
palacefor thepseudonymous
architect
OnitoanNoliaver.It willbeseenthatLeonipresented
himself
to thepubliclessas an artistthanas a gentleman
in thesocialcamp
of theHapsburgs.
LEONE LEONI'S

housein Milan,the CasadegliOmenoni,is

one of the city's most distinctivearchitecturallandmarks.Locatedjust a few stepsnorth of the Duomo, it has long earned
the attentionand admirationof visitorsfor its unusualfacade
decoratedwith a friezereliefshowingtwo lionsattackinga satyr
andespeciallyfor the six over-life-sizedbarbarian
prisonersand
two half-lengthcaryatidsflankingthe centralportal(Figs.i, 2).1
Imposingfiguresof this sortneverhadbeen seenon a houseor

This articlewas developedfrom a chapterin my doctoraldissertation,

"ImperialThemesin the Sculptureof LeoneLeoni,"Instituteof Fine
Arts,New YorkUniversity,i980, done underthe supervisionof ProfessorIrvingLavin,The Institutefor AdvancedStudy.I would like to
thankProfessorLavinfor his kindnessin reviewingthe draftof this
essay.
i. Forthe literatureon the CasaOmenoni,see:Vasari-Milanesi,
vii,
dellapitturascultura
edarchidell'arte
540-541;G. P. Lomazzo,Trattato
tettura,Roma,1844, I, 363; 11,333, 339; 1i, 84; E. Plon, LesMaitres
Italiensau service
dela Maisond'Autriche.
LeoneLeoniSculpteur
deCharles

JSAH XLIV:233-249.OCTOBERr985

Kimbell Art Museum

beforethey appearedon the Casadegli Omenoni.

palace
facade
It is not surprising,therefore,that these captivesgave a new
nameto the streetthey face:the Via degli Omenoni,"streetof
the big men" in the Milanesedialect.2Yet in additionto the
place it occupiesin architecturalhistory, Leoni'shouse is of
interestfor the insight it providesinto the artist'spublicpersonality.This articleattemptsto analyzethat personality,to
identifythe innovativeaspectsof the facade,and to presenta
more comprehensiveexplicationof the house'siconology.In
so doing, the Casadegli Omenoniwill emergeas an example
of the Renaissance
artist'sstruggleto gainprofessionalandsocial
acceptance,a struggle in which his own home was a major
weapon.The Casadegli Omenonithus helpsus to understand
Leonias anartistanda man.As we will see, his homewasboth
a demonstrationof artisticingegnoand an avowalof a code of
honor which revealsthe artist'sself-perceptionand social aspirations.
In Mayof 566 GiorgioVasari,returningto ItalyfromFrance,
was LeoneLeoni'sguest in Milan.3Vasari'svisit, which lasted
15 days, must have been particularlypleasant,for he had the
chanceto enjoy the hospitalityof a fellow Aretineand to see
and courtyardof
proof of his friend'ssuccess-the new
facade
Leoni'shouse.Indeed,Vasariwas impressed
enoughto include

LeoniSculpteur
dePhilippeII, Paris,1887,
QuintetPompeo
186-191,314-

315; A. Brusconie Ugo Nebbia,LacasadiLeoneLeonidettadegliOmenoni

ai monumentidi Lombardia),
Milano,1913;EugeneJ.
(Soprintendenza
ArchiJohnson,"Studieson the Use of Hermsin Sixteenth-Century
tecture,"M.A. thesis, New York University,Instituteof Fine Arts,
1963, 35ff.;Ugo Nebbia,La casadegliOmenoniin Milan,Milan,1963;
New York, 1976,
VirginiaBush, ColossalSculpture
of theCinquecento,
266-267;MariaSerenaTronca,"Lacollezioned'artedi LeoneLeoni,"
Tesidi Laurea,UniversitadegliStudidi Pisa,1976-1977;NikkiLeopold,
"The Artist'sHouse in the SixteenthCentury,"Ph.D. diss.,Johns
HopkinsUniversity,1979,7-8, 182-226; MichaelMezzatesta,"Imperial
Themes in the Sculptureof Leone Leoni,"Ph.D. diss., New York
University,1980,172-242, especially172-173for full bibliography.
2. Plon, Leoni,1873. Vasari-Milanesi,
vII,35; Plon, Leoni,i88.

233

JSAH, XLIV:3, OCTOBER 1985

234

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Fig. i. LeoneLeoni,Casadegli Omenoni,Milan,1565-1566/67.View of the facade(Brogi).

MEZZATESTA: FACADE OF LEONI'S CASA DEGLI OMENONI

235

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Fig. 2. Casadegli Omenoni,two lions attackinga satyr,detailof centralsectionof the frieze(author).

a description of the Casa degli Omenoni in the 1567 edition of
the Vite. The passage is worth quoting at length:
talent
Leoni,in orderto show the greatnessof his spirit,the admirable
which he hadfromnature,andfortune'sfavor,constructed
at greatcost
andof mostbeautifularchitecture,
in the contradade'Moroni,a house
full of so manycapriciousinventionsthatthereis perhapsnothingelse
like it in all of Milan.At the divisionsof the facadethereare,uponthe
each,all carvedfrom stone andbepilasters,six prisoners,61/2braccia
tweenthem,in severalnichesmadein imitationof the antique,arelittle
terms,windows,and cornicesvery gracefuland distinctfrom those
with fineorderto those
normallyused.All the partsbelow correspond
of the artof
above;the friezesaredecoratedwith variousinstruments
oneentersacourtyard
design.Fromthemaindoorthrougha passageway
statueof Marcus
where,in the centeron fourcolumns,is the equestrian
Aureliusformedin gesso from the originalon the Campidoglio.By
thatstatueLeoniwantedto signalthathis houseis dedicatedto Marcus
Aurelius.Asto theprisoners,
thatfancyhasbeeninterpreted
bydifferent
peoplein differentways.Besidethathorse,as mentionedelsewhere,he
hasin his beautifulandverycommodioushouseplastercastsof asmany
worksof marbleorbronze,modernor ancient,ashe could
praiseworthy
procure.4

4. Vasari-Milanesi,vII, 540-54I, author'stranslation.The Italiantext

reads:
Il quale Lione, per mostrare la grandezza del suo animo, il bello
ingegno che ha avuto dalla natura,ed il favore della fortuna, ha con
molta spesa condotto di bellissima architetturaun casotto nella contrada de' Moroni, pieno in modo di capricciose invenzioni, che non
n'&forse un altro simile in tutto Milano. Nel partimento della facciata
sono sopra a pilastri sei prigioni di braccia sei l'uno, tutti di pietra
viva; e fra essi, in alcune nicchie fatte a imitazione degli antichi, con
terminetti, finestre, e cornici tutte varie da quel che s'usa, e molto
graziose; a tutte le parti di sotto corrispondono con bell' ordine a
quelle di sopra;le fregiature sono tutte di vari strumenti dell'arte del
disegno. Dalla porta principale, mediante un andito, si entra in un
cortile, dove nel mezzo sopraquattrocolonne &il cavallo con la statua

Leoni'sdesireto demonstratehis greatnessof spiritwas unbut his decisionto do so throughthe decoration

derstandable,
of his own home-though not unprecedented
in the i6th cenunusual.
The
tury-was, nonetheless,
impetusfor the project
musthavebeenLeoni'ssuccessfulsojournatthe courtin Madrid
where he completeda groupof bronzeportraitstatuesbegun
with 2,000
15 yearsearlierandforwhichhe wasrichlyrewarded
scudi.5
gold
The renovationof the CasadegliOmenonithereforeoccurred
at a high point of Leoni'scareer.It was, however,a moment
that hadbeen a long time coming.Leonihadenteredimperial
service24yearsbefore,in 1542,as masterof the mintin Milan,6
but it was not until late 1547 or early1548 that opportunities
for majorsculpturalcommissionsopenedwhen he was invited
to visit EmperorCharlesV at the imperialcourtin Brusselsin

di MarcoAurelio,formatodi gessoda quel proprioche e in Campidoglio.Dallaqualestatuaha volutoche quellasuacasasiadedicata

a MarcoAurelio;e, quantoai prigioni,quel suo capriccioda diversi
t diversamenteinterpretato.Oltreal qualcavallo,comein altroluogo
s'e detto,ha in quellasuabellae comodissimaabitazioneformatedi
gesso quant'operelodatedi sculturao di getto ha potuto avere,o
moderneo antiche.
5. Sincethe publicationof Plon'smonographit has been assumed
thatLeonineverwentto Spain.Plonshowedconvincinglythat,contrary
to the assertionof CaenBermudez,Leonidid not accompanyCharles
V to Spainin i556; Plon, Leoni,128ff. Moreover,Leonidid not heed
Philip'sdirectiveto go to Spainissuedon 20January'559; Plon,Leoni,
14xff.However,Vasarireports:"Nel tornareLionedi Spagnase ne porto
due milascudicontanti,oltrea molti altridoni e favoriche gli furono
fatti in quellacorte";Vasari-Milanesi,
vII,538. As Vasariwas Leoni's
houseguestin Mayof 1566,thereis everyreasonto believehis informationis correct.
6. Plon,Leoni,i8.

236

JSAH, XLIV:3, OCTOBER 1985

917

i',iL

...

di Milano,1737
Descrizione
of the Casadegli Omenoni,Milan.Engravingfrom Lattuada's
Fig. 3. FaCade
courtesyClubinoDaddi).
(photograph

orderto discussLeoni'sproposalfor a bronzeequestrian

portrait
of the Emperor.Soon afterthe artist'sarrivalat the imperial
court,CharlesV andhis sisterMary,regentof the Low Countries,entrustedLeoniwith a seriesof importantcommissions,
his first sculpturalprojects.He appearsto have been no less
successfulin winning the Emperor'spersonalfavor. Charles
installedthe sculptorin a palaceapartmentdirectlybelow his
own so that he could watch Leoniat work, and he delighted
in conversingwith him for hours.7The depthof Charles'sgood
will wassuchthaton 2 November1549Leoniwasmadea noble
andwas knighted,honorsnot lightly bestowedon artists."
The projectshe wasaboutto undertakeandthe favorhe then
enjoyedpromptedLeonito requestfromthe Emperorthe grant
of a confiscatedhousein Milanlocatedin the centerof the city
just northof the Duomo,a certain"casadel prato."The request
fromBrusmusthavebeenapprovedpriorto Leoni'sdeparture
sels late in 1549, becauseby i55o he had alreadyset up his
studio.9No furtherreferencesare known until a documentof
July 1565in which Leonipetitionedthe Senateof Milanto fix
the house,which was then in a dangerousstateof disrepair.1o

mustdate,thatis,
It is fromthis periodthatthe reconstruction
and
betweenmid-1565 1566/1567As it standstoday, the facadeof the Casadegli Omenoni
remainsessentiallythe sameas it appearedin the i6th century.
DeComparisonswith engravingsof the facadein Lattuada's
scrizionedi Milanoof 1738 and MarcAntoniodal Re's Palazzi
Milaneseof 1745 do revealsome modifications(Figs. I, 3, 4).
Mostnoticeableis a thirdstoryabovethe cornice,a19th-century
addition.The groundfloorremainsunchangedwith the exception of the lateralniches,which havebeenmadeinto windows.
On the secondstory,seminudefemalehermsthat flankedthe
centralportalas well as the framingpedimentand stone balustradehave been removed.In addition,the windows of the
secondandsixthbayshavebeenmadeinto doorsopeningonto
narrowbalconieswith the consequentlossof the originalmoldings andpediments.1
Palazzo
The faqadebelongsto thetypeinitiatedbyBramante's
floor
as
in
Rome-a
rusticated
serving a base
ground
Caprini

7. Ibid.,44-45.
8. C. Dell'Acqua,"Del luogo di nascitadi LeoneLeonie del MonStorico
umentoMediceoda lui eseguitoin Milano,"Archivio
dell'Arte,
2
(1889),fasc. Ii, 78-81. He was also granteda pension,see C. Casati,
scultore
e Giov.PaoloLomazzo
LeoneLeonid'Arezzo
Milan,
pittoremilanese,
1884,64.
9. Casati,LeoneLeoni,27 n. i. For a completediscussionof the cirthe grantof the house,see Mezzatesta,"Imcumstancessurrounding
perialThemes,"174ff.
Io. Casati,LeoneLeoni,24-25.

Deii. Neither of the engravingsis completelyaccurate.Lattuada,

scrizione
di Milano,v, Milan,1738, 443, impliesthat the prisonersare
caryatids,simplifiesthe enframementsof the blind windowson the
pianonobile,anddoes not show the satyrfallingout of the frieze.He
the fagade
alsocompresses
unduly.MarcAntoniodalRe doesnot show
the prisonersas caryatidsbut representsthem nude with their arms
foldedacrosstheir chestsso that they no longerappearas barbarians.
on the groundflooranderredin depicting
He eliminatedthe rustication
the satyrin the frieze.He alsoelongatedthe proportionsof the piano
nobile.

MEZZATESTA:

FACADE OF LEONI'S

CASA DEGLI OMENONI

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237

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Fig. 4. Fagadeof the Casadegli Omenoni,Milan.EngravingfromMarcAntoniodalRe, PalazziMilanesi,

1745 (photograph
courtesyClubinoDaddi).

for an articulatedpianonobile.Individualelements,of course,

differconsiderably,most notably,the recessedcolumnsplaced
in narrowslotscutintothewall,theblindwindowswith spindle
andthe layeringof the wall surface,all of which
enframements,
derivefromthe ricetto
of Michelangelo'sLaurentian
Library.12
Leoni'sonly earlierarchitectural
experiencewas the design
de'Medici'stombin theDuomoof Milan(1560of Giangiacomo
buthe hadobviouslystudiedarchitecture
in somedetail.
3
i563),
Vasarinotedthat Leonidevisedniches,termini,windows,and
cornices"tuttevarieda quel che s'usa,"14 and,in fact, his de-

tailingis quite distinctive,with sourcesrangingfrom the enframementson the ancientPortaBorsariin Veronato the chimeraeon GaleazzoAlessi'sVilla Cambiaso,Genoa(i548).15
AlthoughLeoni selectedhis architectural
vocabularyeclecthe
overall
tically,
impressionimpartedby the facadeis remarkablein its unity, order,and decorativerestraint.Yet one

15. Vasarialludesto an antiquesourcein his description,"e fraessi

[theprisoners],in alcunenicchiefattaa imitazionedegli antichi,sono
terminetti,finestre,e cornicitutta varie da quel che s'usa,e motto
graziose."This type was used earlieron the facadeof the Palazzo
Cancelleria
in Rome,whereLeonialsocouldhaveobservedthe refined
use of rusticationon the groundfloorand the continuouszone artic12. Forthe Laurentian
Library,seeJamesAckerman,TheArchitecture ulatingthe basesof the pilastersandwindowsof thepianonobile,a motif
Leoniusedon the facadeandin the courtyard.
The articulation
London,1961, 33-44, Figs.16,17,18a.Leonistoppedin
of the
ofMichelangelo,
Florencein 156o on his way backto Milanfrom Rome.While there
courtyardnichesseemsto derivefromthe windowsof the pianonobile
he certainlysaw the Laurentian
on the Cancelleria.ForAlessi'schimerae,see GaleazzoAlessie l'archiLibrary.
tettura
delcinquecento
di studi,Genova,
13. Forwhich, see Plon,Leoni,I50ff.
(Attidel convegnointernazionale
14. See n. 4.
16-20oAprile1974), Genoa,1975, 435, Figs.281, 282.

JSAH, XLIV:3, OCTOBER 1985

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(author).
Fig. 5. Casadegli Omenoni,barbarian
prisoneron the faCade

prisoneron the facade(author).

Fig. 6. Casadegli Omenoni,barbarian

cannot escape the conclusion that, though much thought went

into the architectural design, Leoni approached the task as a
sculptor, for the most obvious features of the Casa degli Omenoni are the six prisonersdecorating the pilastersof the ground
floor (Figs. 5-7, 10-12) and the two supporting figures flanking
the entryway (Figs. 8, 9). The prisoners are identified by an
inscription at the top of each pilaster reading, from the left:
SVEVVS, QVADVS, ADIABENVS, PARTHVS, SARMATA,
MARCOMANVS.
Lomazzo reported in i585 that Antonio Abondio had carved
the figures of the fagade,16undoubtedly from models supplied
by Leoni. They are powerfully expressive sculpturesinspiredby
ancient Roman statuesof barbariansand are among Leoni's most
impressive achievements.17Each prisoner is varied in the treatment of dress, physiognomic type, and placement of the hands,
and each possesses a bulk which separately presents a potent

confrontation with the viewer. Collectively, these dramatic

sculpturesdominate the facade.
These prisoners have frequently been called caryatidsbut, in
fact, they do not possess any architectonic function. Their heads
arepositioned below the entablatureand actuallylean away from
the wall surface. It has been noted that they represent a combination of Michelangelo's herms on the Julius Tomb and barbarianprisonersof the type found on the Arch of Constantine."8
This is correct, although they neither grow organically out of
the herm shaft at waist level, as do most herms, nor are they
placed neatly atop the shaft as on the Julius Tomb. Rather, they
overhang it, being brusquely truncatedbelow the knees so that
they appearsuspendedon the pilaster.19In fact, the captives may
be read as "applied herms," for the tapered herm shaft overlays
the Doric pilaster, its base literally embedded in the pilaster's
base molding (e.g., Fig. 5)-

(i973), 361; also reportedby Paolo Morigia,

i6. Lomazzo,Trattato
La Nobilitadi Milano,Milan,1595, 472, and CarloTorre,II Ritrattodi
Milano,Milan,1674,276.
17. They were also stronglyinfluencedby the sculptureof Baccio
Bandinelli;see Mezzatesta,"ImperialThemes,"i86ff.

andBaroqueSculpture,
i8. Pope-Hennessy,ItalianHigh Renaissance
London,1970, 86.
19. Ibid.

FACADEOF LEONI'SCASADEGLIOMENONI
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Fig.7. Casadegli Omenoni,barbarian

prisoneron the facade(author).

Fig. 8. Casadegli Omenoni,half-lengthfigureflankingthe central

portal(author).

The use of herms on palace fagadeswas unusual.Around midcentury they had been employed only by Alessi on the Palazzo
Marino (i555) and in 1562 by Vincenzo Seregni at the Palazzo
dei Giureconsulti in Milan.20 Their abundantdisposition on the
Palazzo Marino represented the first appearance of herms in

Milan, and their debut must have been particularlyimpressive

and effective in calling attention to the palace's owner and architect.2z This example may well have influenced Leoni.22However, his responsewas very different. Both Alessi's and Seregni's
herms are only "herm heads";they are smaller in scale, function
architectonically, and have a subordinate position within the
overall decorative program. Leoni created a dramaticnew type:
monumental, three-quarter-length,nontectonic barbarianherms
that were the focus of the facade.
The half-length, nude male figures that flank the doorway
are also novel (see Figs. 8, 9). They may also relate generally
to Michelangelo's herms on the Julius Tomb, but Leoni enlarged, undressed, and moved them out from the wall so that
they sit on a small platform supported by a corbel decorated
with a lion's head, an emblem of the artist. In placing these

20. Johnson, "Herms," 30ff. See this study on the use of herms in
the i6th century. The first tectonic use of herms in a Renaissancevilla
was by Giulio Romano in the courtyard of the Grotta of the Palazzo
del TU (c. 1530) and later at the Villa Giulia where they articulate the
area around the loggia and nympheum. Even as late as the 1570s the
use of herms was limited to only a few villas in and around Rome. In
Lombardy,however, they proliferated largely through the influence of
Alessi and Tibaldi; see Johnson, "Herms," 28-34.
Leoni undoubtedly knew the colossal Pan caryatids that decorated
the garden facade of the loggia of the Casino of Pius IV, for work was
far advancedby 1560; see Graham Smith, The CasinoofPius IV, Princeton, 1977, ioff.
The Palazzo di Giustizia in Mantua is decoratedwith 12 giant tritonhead herms on the upper story. This palace, long attributed to Giulio
Romano, is now dated to the x7th century and is given to Anton Maria

Viani.Forthe currentbibliography,see G. Fusconi,"Il repertoriode-

corativo nelle architetturamilanese dell'Alessi," Galeazzo Alessi e l'architetturadel cinquecento,

488, 491 nn. 8-12.

21. Johnson, "Herms," 32.

AuroraScotti in "Per un profilo dell'architetturamilanese (15351565)," Omaggioa Tiziano, Milan, 1977, 104, suggested that Alessi and
Marino may have been encouragedby Leoni to decoratePalazzo Marino
so richly.
22.

JSAH, XLIV:3, OCTOBER 1985

240

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figureflankingthe central
Fig.9. CasadegliOmenoni,half-length
portal(author).

onthefacade
barbarian
(author).
prisoner
Fig.io. CasadegliOmenoni,

figureson a platformawayfrom the wall surface,Leoni may

have been inspiredby one of the triumphalarcheshe saw in
Antwerperectedfor the entryof PhilipII (Fig.13).2 Herepairs
of femalehalf-lengthcaryatidswereplacedon eithersideof the
portalat the level of the springingof the arch.Unlike these
women and Michelangelo'sherms,who carrythe entablature
on theirheads,Leoni'smenarebentforward,wearilysupporting
the balcony'sweight on the upperback.
The prisonerson the facadeof the Casadegli Omenoniwere
boundto attractattention,especiallyin Milanwherethe facades
of patricianhouses were, for the most part, simple and unadorned.24Only Bramante's
CasaFontana(late149os),with its
fourmonumentalfrescoedfictivebronzestatueson the second

story,provideda prototypeof similarscaleand programmatic

complexity.25
Althoughthe decorationof Leoni'shousewas unusual,the
practiceof embellishingfacadeswas in itselfnot uncommonin
Italyandthe Casadegli Omenonishouldbe seenin the context
of thattradition.Fromthe lateMiddleAges,stucco,or graffito,
was employedto cover facadeswith incisedornamentalgeometricpatterns.At the beginningof the 16th century,there
arosea new tendencytowardfiguralcompositionsbasedon
antiqueartisticand literarysourceswhich quicklysuperseded
the decorativegeometricmotifsof the earlierperiod.26

Ph.D. diss.,JohnsHopkinsUniverin LateQuattrocentoLombardy,"

sity, 1980, 4-47.
to havebeenthe source
archesalsoappear
25. For a discussionof the CasaFontanaand references,see Mez23. Northern
triumphal
forthe strangecreatures
zatesta,"ImperialThemes,"x9xff.
flankingthe Nativityreliefon the tombof
da Caravaggio,
Polidoro
26. Forthe earliertypes,see:A. Marabottini,
of Milan;see Plon,Leoni,
de'Mediciin the Cathedral
Giangiacomo
FassadenRome,1969, Io4ff.;Gunterund ChristelThiem, Toskanische
150.
undFresko14. bis17.Jahrhundert,
in Sgraffito
Munich,1964,
the Dekoration
24. From1466privatepalaceswereerectedthatincorporated
on
formsandutilizeda greater
latestarchitectural
27ff.On the developmentof the new tradition,see LodovicoFoscari,
degreeof decoration
Esternia Venezia,Milan, 1936, 23; Thiem, Toskanische,
as the CasadegliOmenoni. Affreschi
thefagade,thoughnothingso elaborate
42;
in VeFassadenmalerei
tradition
of palacearchitec- Marabottini,
Fora consideration
of theearlierLombard
Polidoro,
104; GunterSchweikhart,
andPalaceBuilding ronavom14.biszum20. Jahrhundert,
Munich,1973, 30.
"TheCasaMarliani
ture,seeSusanL. Caroselli,

MEZZATESTA: FACADE OF LEONI'S CASA DEGLI OMENONI

241

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rm

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Fig. ii. CasadegliOmenoni,barbarian

prisoneron the facade(author).

(author).
Fig.12. CasadegliOmenoni,barbarian
prisoneron the fagade

This development was characterizedby two majortrends:the

frescoed facade decorated with military scenes inspired by classical authors and painted in imitation of ancient sculpture, a
type popularized by Polidoro da Caravaggio in Rome in the
decoratedwith all'anticasculpearly 520os(Fig. I4); and
facades
ture in stucco or stone, such as Sanmicheli's Palazzo Bevilacqua
in Verona, which is embellished with busts of Roman emperors
on the keystones and winged victories in the spandrels (1530s;
Fig. 15).
Although differing in their individual characteristics,these
types are united by their return to ancient art as a source;
facade
by their frequent intention to re-create an ancient edifice in
terms of ornament and/or structure;and by the classical subject
matterof the decorations,which invariablyrefersto the concept
of ancient Roman virtus with the suggestion that it was an
attribute of the owner of the house.27Indeed, it is this latter
aspect of the facades that is perhaps most significant, for the

artisticand ethical values of ancient Rome had become a touchstone of contemporaryculture. The new intellectual criteriaof
Renaissance society placed a premium on the moral examples
supplied by the virtuous ancients. For those who had the resources, the decoration of their houses' facades was both an
aesthetic choice and a social statement, a declarationplacing the
owner in the forefront of the revival of Roman virtus.
Leoni, of course, was well aware of the artistic and social
prestige associatedwith the antique. In Rome in i56o he demonstrated his intense interest in ancient art by obtaining Pope
Paul IV's permission to make plaster casts of several important
ancient statues, among them the Capitoline equestrianportrait
of Marcus Aurelius; at great expense he had the statues laboriously transported by mule to Milan.28 Whether Leoni had
alreadybeen contemplating the restoration of his house at this
point is unknown. But, as we have seen, within a few years the
Marcus Aurelius statue had not only been installed as the cen-

27. Fora morecompletediscussionof thesepointswith referenceto

specificpalaces,see Mezzatesta,"ImperialThemes,"I90-204.

28. Celio Malespini,DucentoNovelle,Venetia,1609,228;Lomazzo,

Trattato,
III,84.

JSAH, XLIV:3, OCTOBER 1985

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?-

of
of the facadedecoration
archcreated
to greetPrincePhilipII on hisentry Fig.14. PolidorodaCaravaggio,
drawing
Fig.13.Triumphal
fromCornelius
La tresad- ahouseonPiazzideiCaprettari,
intoAntwerp,
Rome,I52os(Biblioteca
Reale,Torino).
Scribonius,
1549.Engraving
et triumphante
Prince
entriedu treshaultet trespvissant
mirable,tresmagnifique

Philipes..., 1550 (author).

terpieceof the cortilebut also providedthe centraltheme of

the house'sprogram.29
Indeed,the importanceof the MarcusAureliuscastwashighlightedby the basecomposedof fourcolumnsthatLeonidevised
for it, anarrangement
partiallyvisiblethroughthe house'smain
in
Antonio
Marc
dal Re's engravingof c. 1745 (see Fig.
portal
The
four-columned
basewas an attemptat archaeological
4).30
exactitude,for in the late i2th or early13th centuryMagister

urbisthat the
Gregoriusrelatedin the Narraciode mirabilibus
set
on
bronze
columns
beforethe
was
four
statueoriginally
gilt
altarof Jupiteron the CapitolineHill.31Leoni'sallusionto this
forits archaeological
won admiration
arrangement
undoubtedly
identification
by
Similarly,
accuracy.
inscriptionof the six prisonerson the fagadeas tribesconqueredby MarcusAurelius,an
associationevidentto those peoplefamiliarwith the life of the
Emperorin Julius Capitolinus'spopularHistoriaAugusta,was

See abovep. 235 andn. 4.

Vasarinotedthatit was,"sopraquattrocolonne";seen. 4. Carlo
as follows:"a rimTorrein II Ritratto,
276, describedthe arrangement
di dietroveggevasisopraun Ballatoio
pettoallaPortanell'Apartamento
l'Aurelioa Cavallo."

aswellasa consideration
of thestatue's
31. Forthisearlytradition
duringtheMiddleAges,seePhilippFehl,"ThePlacement
placement
of theEquestrian
ofMarcus
intheMiddle
Statue
Aurelius
Ages,"Journal
andCourtauld
Institutes,
oftheWarburg
37 (x974),362-367,esp.366n.

29.
30.

21.

MEZZATESTA:

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--

FACADE OF LEONI'S

CASA DEGLI OMENONI

243

of MarcusAureliusin the courtyard,andthe dedicationof the

housewerepublicstatementswhichnotonlyproclaimedLeoni's
presentimperialties but also garneredthe prestigeassociated
with the monumentsand glory of ancientRome.
These facts alone, however, neither fully accountfor the
dedicationnor do they explainall the implicationsand visual
of the program.The questionsremainwhy Leoni
ramifications
choseto dedicatethe Casadegli Omenonito MarcusAurelius,
and
prisonersto decoratethe
why he selectedbarbarian
facade,
what is the completenatureof the program.
MarcusAureliusis perhapsbest known as the philosopherthe popularcollection
emperorand authorof the Meditations,
on
the
Stoic
of philosophicapothegms
way of life. However,
the appealof the Meditations
maybe tracedlessto the i6th than
to the I7th century.In fact,in the cinquecento,MarcusAurelius'srenownwas primarilythe resultof one man, the court
of CharlesV, FrayAntoniode Guevara(1480?historiographer
I545).33

-?

41

IA

Verona,
fagadeof PalazzoBevilacqua,
Fig. 15. MicheleSanmicheli,
(Brogi).
1530S

no less effectivein calling attentionto Leoni'sclassicalerudition.32

Thesecaptivebarbarians
appearastrophaicemblemsof Marcus Aureliusandhis virtus.They exist as proofof the greatness
of the Emperorand the grandeurof empire,pastandpresent.
The connectionsbetween the RomanEmpireand the Holy
RomanEmpirewere well knownandwere a popularequation
in the EmperorCharlesV's imperialpanegyrics.Leoni,as imperialsculptorknightedby CharlesV, naturallyoccupieda place
in that equation.The prisonerson the facade,the plastercast
as anything
32. None of the earlysourcesidentifiesthe barbarians
otherthanprisoners.Plon recordsthe inscriptionsbut doesnot discuss
them further.Nebbiain La casadegliOmenoniin Milano,9, 21ff., refers
to the captivesonly as tribesonce dominatedby Rome.Johnsonin
"Herms"connectsonly the QuadiandSamartiwith MarcusAurelius.
Pope-Hennessyappearsto have been the first scholarto link all six
86.
prisonerswith tribessubduedby the Emperor;seeHighRenaissance,
In fact,five arementionedin the mostfamousancientbiographyof
life of the Emperorin theHistoria
MarcusAurelius,JuliusCapitolinus's
Augusta,an editionof which, editedby Erasmus,appearedin 1518:the
Suebi,Quadi,Samarti,Marcomani(all Germanictribes),andthe Parthians.The Adiabeniwerevassalsof the Parthiankingdomandas such
werealmostalwaysinvolvedin its warswith Rome.The tribeis menlife of SeptimusSeverusin relationto his
tionedin JuliusCapitolinus's
ParthianwarsandLeonimayhavemadethe connectionhere.

Guevarawrote and dedicatedto CharlesV two books:the

LibroAureode MarcoAurelioand the Reloxde Principes.The
formerappearedin 1528and purportedto be a translationof
In fact,it is a moreor
the Greekmanuscriptof the Meditations.
Historia
less imaginarybiographybasedon JuliusCapitolinus's
life
with
entire
the
Aureo
reviews
The
Libro
Emperor's
Augusta.
his
to
devoted
attention
outstandingvirtues,especially
special
his senseof justiceandclemencyandhis continualconcernfor
the well-being of the state. The book was conceivedin the
traditionof the Speculum
(Mirrorfor Princes),eduPrincipum
cativetractsdesignedto producegood rulers,but it also presenteda richlydrawnportraitof MarcusAureliusnot only as
an emperorbut also as a man with personalproblems,a fact
thatcontributedto the book'spopularity.34
is threetimesaslong asthe LibroAureo
The ReloxdePrincipes
but actuallyincorporatesalmostall of its chaptersinto a considerablebodyof new material.Likethe LibroAureo,the Relox
is a moral,didactictreatisein the traditionof the Mirror
for
Princes.The book is a comprehensive
presentationof Guevara's
politicalidealswhereinMarcusAureliusis heldupasanexample
for any manwho aspiresto a virtuousChristianlife.35
Both books were enormouslypopularthroughoutEurope
duringthe i6th century.In Italyalone from 1542 to i6oo, an
editionof the LibroAureoor the Reloxwas publishedat a rate

33. The influenceof Guevaraand his bookshas been discussedin

detailby the authorin "MarcusAurelius,FrayAntoniode Guevara,
andthe Idealof the PerfectPrincein the SixteenthCentury,"TheArt
Bulletin,66 (I985),620-633.
34. AugustinRedondo,AntoniodeGuevara
(i48o?-i545) etl'Espagne
oeuvres
aux
deson Temps,de la carridre
Geneva,
politico-morales,
officielle
life andwork.
studyof Guevara's
1976,489. This is the fundamental
35. Redondo,Guevara,
3o6ff., 532ff.

244

JSAH, XLIV:3, OCTOBER 1985

diatelyrecognizableand highly esteemedamong the nobility

of Milan.
The dedicationto MarcusAureliuswas also reflectedby the
barbarian
prisonerson the facade,tribesvanquishedby the EmThe
peror.37 captivesformedthe preludeto the equestriancenterpieceand establishedthe publictenor of the program.Barbarianprisonershad appearedearlieron the frescoedpalace
faqadesof PolidorodaCaravaggio.However,theyusuallystood
alone,orwhen groupedwereplacedin pairsbeforea trophaeum,
as on the facadeof the houseat Piazzadei Caprettari(see Fig.
. ~*\
.c
14).38 Their use on the Casadegli Omenonirecalledthe triumphal monumentsof ancientRome, such as the Arch of Constantine,where four prisonersstood in seriesin the attic zone
of eachface.But Leoniseemsto havebeeninspiredby a different
[
source,Daniele da Barbaro's1556illustratededition of Vitruvius'sDe architectura.39
The text describedthe PersianPortico
erectedby the Lacedaemonians
aftertheirvictoryoverthe Persians:"in quel portico posero i simularchide i prigioni con
l'ornamentoBarbarodelvestire,che sostenevanoil tetto."40The
accompanyingengravingshows a portionof the porticowith
two caryatidsof the familiarRomantype (Fig. 16).The typological relationshipto Leoni'sprisonersis evident (cf. Fig. i).
he eliminatedtheirsupportiverole, Leonialsojoined
Although
Daniele
da
reconstruction
of
the
Persian
Portico.
EnBarbaro,
Fig.i6.
his
from
da
Barbaro's
of
De
edition
Vitruvius's
architectura
1556
graving
captivesto the building,unlikethe prisonersof the Archof
Ransom
Humanities
Research
of Texas Constantinewho standbefore the architecture.In addition,
Center,TheUniversity
(Harry
atAustin).
when barbarianstatueswere used on triumphalarchesthey
usuallydecoratedthe atticzone. Similarly,when frescoedbarThe vastdiffusion bariansorhermsappeared
on palacefaqades,asatPalazzoMarino
equivalentto one almosteveryi8 months.36
of these works is a measureof the wide appealof Guevara's
political-moraltreatises.
37. See abovep. 238.
The LibroAureoand the Reloxde Principesgave a new di38. See abovep. 241. In the Sala Grandeof the PalazzoDoria in
mensionto the personalityof MarcusAurelius,popularizingthe
Genoa two under-life-sizedsculptedbarbariancaryatidssupportthe
x, i, Fig. 374.
Emperoras the idealprince.As the bestof all the paganRoman mantelof the fireplace;see Venturi,Storiadell'arte,
An antiquebarbarian
statuemay havebeen placedon the facadeof
the
of
virtus.
he
ancient
emperors represented supremeexample
in Rome;see Hiilsen,DasSkizzenbuch
desGioPalazzoValle-Capranica
His life and writings providedan elevatedstandardof comDosioimStaatlichen
vannantonio
Berlin,Berlin,1933,
Kupferstichkabinettzu
portmentnot only for the rulerbut alsofor all men who sought 5, no. 17a,f. 6v. However,thisfigurewasarmedandwasnot a prisoner.
267. However,Bush adducesthe 1567
39. Bush, ColossalSculpture,
to lead a Christianlife.
edition.The fagadewas well underway or completedby thatdate.
It seems likely that the Casa degli Omenoni standsas an
da
di M. Vitruviotradotti
et commentati
40. I diecilibridell'architettura
Barbaro,
Vinegia,1556,zi. The entireentryreads:
Monsignor
exampleof that new popularity,for in dedicatinghis houseto
MarcusAurelius,Leoniprobablyreferredto the imageof Marcus
Similmentei Lacedemonij
sottoPausania
figliuolod'Egisipolide
dopo
il fattod'armidi Plateahavendocon pocagentesuperatoil numeroso
Aureliuspopularizedby Guevara.In so doing, he associated
essercitode' Persiani,& con gloriatrionfato;de i denaritrattidelle
himself with this most virtuousof ancientemperors.At the
spoglie,& della predain luogo di trofeo dellavittoria1 posterifasametime,becausebothbookswerededicatedto CharlesV and
dellalode, & dellavirti~de
bricaranoil porticoPersianodimostratore
becauseof Leoni'spositionas imperialsculptor,the artistenCittadini,& in quel porticoposeroi simularchride i prigionicon
l'ornamentoBarbarodel vestire,che sostenevanoil tetto, havendo
joyed a secondflatteringassociation.Leoni'spublicprofession
con meritatecontumeliela lor superbiacastigato.A fine che i nimici
of a personalcode of honorandvirtuemust havebeen immehavesserodi temere effettidellafortezzaloro,& i Cittadini
-P ERPS AE

CA -'P TIV

I.

36. Fora listingof the Italianeditions,see P. LinoG. Canedo,"Las

Obrasde Fr. Antoniode Guevara,"ArchivoIbero-Americano,
6, no. 44
(1946),467-472, 493-497.

cagione
gli
guardandoin quelloesempiodi virt-idellagloriasollevatialladifesa
la dovene i seguentiannimolti
dellaPatrias'eccitassero
grandemente,
cominciaroa porrele statuePersianeche sostenevanogli archi,& i
loro ornamenti,& indi trasseroargomentodi accrescerenell'opere
varietadi maniere,di simigliantiIstoriealtrene sono,
maravigliosa
delle qualibisognache L'Architettone sia ben informato.

MEZZATESTA: FA(ADE OF LEONI'S CASA DEGLI OMENONI

245

~ ? ~?-?ri 14;?
AS.x'g
1??.??:
N

d'

IAP

n;?

,lp

ISM

'hli

'lot

Fig. 17. Anonymous,courtball in the greathall at Binche, c. 1545 (courtesyof Christie,Mansonand

Woods Ltd.).

or Palazzodei Giureconsultiin Milan,they were restrictedto

the upperstories.This reflecteda tendencyof Italianpalace
decorationthatviewed the secondstoryas the placeto receive
figuraldecoration.By arranginghis seriesof prisonerson the
groundfloor and by presentingthem on a monumentalscale,
Leoni introduceda new patternof sculpturaldisposition,one
which deriveddirectlyfrom the PersianPortico.
But the PersianPorticodoes not accountfor the most remarkableaspectof Leoni'sprisoners:their brutalamputation
belowthe knees.This fragmentary
qualityandthe factthatthey
seem to be suspendedon their shaftsrecall the classicaltrophaeum,the battlefieldtrophy wherein the spoils of warbreastplates,
weapons,helmets,andshields-were hungon lances
as an anthropomorphic
emblemof the vanquished,a symbolof
This
had
been
artists
victory.
type
adoptedearlierby Renaissance
in palacedecoration,though on a much smallerscale and as
frescoedor stuccoedelementswithin a largerdecorativewhole.

The monumentalsizeandtrophaicqualitysetLeoni'smenapart
and suggestone sourcein particular.
JacquesDuBroeucq,the
architectof MaryQueenof Hungary'spalaceat Binche,introducedtrophieson the windowwall of the greathall (c. 1545).4
In an anonymousdrawingof the x6th century,trophaeums
composedof a cuirass,shields,swords,and a helmet with a
mask-likeface are visible flanking each window (Fig. r7).
DuBroeucq'strophiesdiffersignificantlyfrom earlierRenaissanceexamples.They were isolatedfromthe overalldecorative
41. The palaceat BinchewasbuiltunderDuBroeucqbetweeni545
von
and 1549. For this project,see RobertHedicke,JacquesDuBroeucq
desitalienischen
Meister
ausderFruhzeit
Mons.Einniederlandischer
Einflusses,
Strasbourg,
1904,i6off. Forthe anonymousdrawing,seeAlbertVande
Put, "Two Drawingsof the Fetesat Binchefor CharlesV andPhilip
andCourtauld
II in 1549,"Journal
Institutes,
3 (1939-1940),
oftheWarburg
du
at
see alsoChristianeLoriaux,Jacques
For
the
Binche,
palace
49-55.
Broeucq
(1505-1584),Gembloux,197x,19ff.

246

JSAH, XLIV:3, OCTOBER 1985

contextin whichthe precedingtypeswerefoundandweremade

the dominant feature; they were presented in series; they were
colossal; and they were placed on herm shafts rather than on
crossbarsor stakes.

Leoni,who visitedBinche late in 1549, must have been influenced by these unusual herms, particularly their dominant
setting, serial arrangement, huge scale, and fragmentary form.
In fact, Leoni combined these elements and their placement on
hermshaftswith the barbarian
prisonertypeof Vitruvius'sPersian Portico, although eliminating the latter's supportive role.
In so doing he created a new type: monumental, living, nontectonic, barbarianherm-trophaeums.

and their
Through the form of the barbarian-trophaeums
to
the
Persian
Leoni
a
Portico,
conveyed message.
relationship
As Vitruviuswrote, the PersianPorticowas erectedwith the
spoilsof victoryandstoodas a symbol"of the honorandof the
virtueof the citizens";the barbarians
represented"pridecastigated"anda warning"thatenemiesmight have reasonto fear
the effects of their [the Greeks']strength."42
As the Persian
were
a
of
andthe "glothe
"virtu"
prisoners
publicexpression
so
on
ria"of the Greeks, the captives the Casadegli Omenoni
expressedthe virtue and glory of Leoni no less than a mute
warningto his enemies. The downcastglancesand pathetic
signal their absolute
expressionsof the vanquishedbarbarians
a
mandated
the
defeat
defeat,
by
superior"virtu"of their adthe
versary.Similarly, half-lengthcaryatidsflankingthe central
portal,with theirlinksto triumphalarches,were equallyeffective in establishinga triumphanttone (see Figs. 8, 9, 13).
ThatLeonichosea militarymetaphorforthe programis itself
highly revealing.One cannothelp but sensein the martialand
admonitorytone of the facadea reflectionof Leoni'sview of
life asa continuousbattle.43
Indeed,throughouthis career,Leoni
was readilyproneto violence,his outburstsfueledby a chronic
insecurityengenderedby the povertyof his youth. Leoni'slife
is markedby numerousconflicts,the earliestof which can be
tracedto 1536 when, while workingin the mint at Ferrara,he
was accusedof counterfeitingandwas forcedto flee andto seek
the protectionof his influentialrelativePietroAretino.Two
yearslater,Leoniwasin Romeservingat the PapalCourtwhere
he andBenvenutoCellini developedinto bitterenemies,their
animosityfinallyexplodingin a publicshoutingmatchin the
CameraApostolica.The grudgereacheda climaxwhen Leoni
unsuccessfullyattemptedto poisonCellini while the latterwas
imprisonedin the Castel Sant'Angelo.New chargesof counterfeitingleveled againstLeoni in 1540 by the papaljeweler
Pellegrinodi Leuti resultedin Leoni attackingand horribly
disfiguringthe manwith a dagger,an attackfor which he was
sentencedto have his right handcut off. Only the last-minute
42. See n. 40 for the Italiantext.
43. Plon, Leoni,191.

interventionof powerfulfriendssparedLeoni,althoughthe new

sentencemight havebeen consideredeven worse:an indefinite
periodchainedto an oarasa galleyslavein the papalfleet.Even
afterhe wasreleasedandhadestablishedhimselfin Milan,Leoni
remaineddefensiveand belligerent,hiring an assassinin 1545
to kill anassistantwho refusedto returnwith him fromVenice.
Yet, perhapseven more shockingwas the knife attackin 1559
on his house guest, OrazioVecelli, the son of his close friend
Titian. The violent and suddenassaultoccurredat dinnerand
seemsto havebeen motivatedby angerover Orazio'scontacts
with Leoni'sMilaneseclients.In his willingnessto resortto the
sword,Leonirevealeda temperament
jealousof personalgain,
one that was readyto defendhonor and privilegeagainstany
threat,realor imagined.44
Yet in choosingcaptivebarbarians,
Leoni signaledthat the
battlewas over, the enemy defeatedand humbled,with peace
and artreigningwithin his house.In a sense,Leoni'spersonal
strugglefor securityand recognitionwas over. Frompoverty
anda termas a galleyslave,he hadbeen knightedby the Holy
RomanEmperor,given a home, and been publiclyassociated
with the greatestemperorsof ancientandmoderntimes,Marcus
Aureliusand CharlesV. The Casadegli Omenoni thus stood
virtutis.Leonihadcreatedhis own Persian
as a kindof templum
Porticoin Milan.
One morefeatureof the CasadegliOmenoni'sfacaderemains
to be considered:the frieze decoratingthe secondstory (Figs.
2, 18). In the center, Leoni had carvedtwo lions attackinga
satyrwho fallsbackwardout of the relief plane,his headdangling in the pedimentof the window below, his left armdesperatelyclutchingthe entablature(seeFig. 2). The lions, eponymousemblemsof LeoneLeoni,attackthe satyr,a beastat once
evil andvicious.The conceptalludesto the triumphof virtue
over vice, a familiartheme in Renaissanceart and literature.
Here virtue'svictorytakeson a chilling finalityas the attack
upon the satyr'sgenitalsis not simply a horriblepunishment
but the ultimatedefenseagainstthe satyr'sprocreationof maAntoniode Guevaraclaimedthatthe greatest
liciousprogeny.45
thief was one who robbeda man'sreputation,for "areputation
The reliefthusstandsasa dreadful
attackedis foreversullied."46
who might considersuch a
a
cave
to
those
leonem,
warning,
felony.
Leoni may have had a specificprototypein mind when he
designedthe satyr relief. In Filarete'sTreatiseon Architecture
(x461-1464),the facadeof the magnificentpalaceof the pseudonymousarchitectOnitoan Noliaver was decoratedwith a
relief over the main portalshowing the allegoricalfigure of
44. Theseepisodesarerecountedin Plon,Leoni,4-5, IIff., 30ff.,3536, 143ff.
45. Plon, Leoni,i9i.
46. "Il tagliodellafamanon si salderamaiin tuttala vita";Guevara,
de'Principi,Vinegia,i562, 2V.
Librodi MarcoAurelioconl'horologio

MEZZATESTA: FACADE OF LEONI'S CASA DEGLI OMENONI

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247

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WR.
:

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Virtue (a winged man standing on a diamond and holding a

laurel and date tree) with Vice in the form of a nude satyr
beneath him. A portrait bust of the architect was also present
along with an inscription detailing Onitoan Noliaver's achievements.47
Leoni may have been inspiredby Filarete'soverdoor.48Instead
of the unwieldy armed warrior, however, Leoni selected lions,
thereby combining two partsof Filarete'sprogramin one device.
As the lion is a symbol of virtue, he referredto virtue's victory
over vice (satyr), and he replaced the bust of Onitoan Noliaver
with a punning self-reference based on his personal emblems.

/Ik1:

::

5 ::::i
1 ::m

~:38i6~

a?t

?::
iQ
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ih:

:i?~?:

i::

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5:

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:~t

?::~iC(i!
:??l?ilii~s~?r
5sji:s.-,~
I:lii L
-?iP~?:i?.-S~
??';r~~-1.

~
k:

?:?r

:~:
?:

?:?~~?I
:::'

:'TbE~itdlk~i~:

::
:k

:i
-?-- ~

?,;

I?

:.

?: .~x?e:::

:: :?:?:?
:R-?
~?:?
??r?;:n?~o
:;::. ~Sj
~?sq
8:~n
n
:o ?`

:I
I?

I"i

I~
:b:r:

rlepLqp~;~:

Fig. 19. LeoneLeoni'scoatof armsappearingin his grantof nobility

and knighthood (ArchivioStoricodell'Arte,2, fasc. 1I [1889], 81).

47. The ideaof virtuewas centralin Filarete'streatise.It was alsoa

innovationrepresenting
the firsttime in the Renmajoriconographical
aissancethat Virtuswasrepresented
by a singleallegoricalfigure,a fact
of which Filaretewas particularly
Treatise
on Arproud;see Filarete's
chitecture.
knownasFilarete,
BeingtheTreatise
byAntoniodi PieroAverlino,
trans.with an introductionandnotesbyJohn R. Spencer,2 vols., New
HavenandLondon,1965,I, 246-247, n. i. The figureappearedfirstat
the summitof the Templeof Virtue.It alsoappeared
threemoretimes:
on the Houseof Virtuewhereit was placedabovethe Gateof Virtue;
of OnitoanNoliaver's
atop the Theatreof Virtue;and on the fagade
is describedin the
Treatise,, 246ff.The faCade
palace;Spencer,Filarete's
followingmanner:"ItsforwardfaCadelookedlike this. Those on the
sides followed the sameorder.There were many ornamentson the
faqade.Amongothersover the doorwas Virtuewith Vice beneathit
just asthey weredepictedin theirown house.This waspermittedhim
onlybecausehe hadinventedthis figureof virtue.His portraitbustwas
carvedtherewith his namewrittenbelowit togetherwith otherwords
that relatedthe contentof these two verses:how he built the house,
the Theatreof Virtue,andhow he hadbeen the inventorof the two
Houseof Virtue
figurescarvedhere."Vicewasalsodepictedon Filarete's
abovethe PortaChachiaas Virtue'scounterpart
in the formof a nude
Treatise,
246.
satyrseatedon the rim of a wheel;Spencer,Filarete's
forhe madeextensive
48. Vasariwasfamiliarwith Filarete'sTrattato
useof it in the Lives.It seemslikelythatLeonialsowouldhaveknown
the text either from the originalversion(now lost) or throughthe
manuscriptin the Sforzacollection.This exampleappearsalwaysto
havebeen in Milan.It was destroyedduringWorld War II; Spencer,
xvii.
Filarete's
Treatise,

But the influence of Filarete's idea extends beyond a mere

quotation. It embraces the notion that both artists were abundantly endowed with virtue, a fact that permitted the construction of such palatial residences and which in turn signaled the
exalted statusof the artist.49Like Onitoan Noliaver's palace, the
Casa degli Omenoni was a triumphal edifice, a true House of
Virtue.
The program continues along the frieze to the left and right.
In the first, third, fifth, and seventh bays Leoni depicted eagles
flanking the chimerae and a lion with its paw atop a wheel or
globe. In the second and sixth bays an eagle supports garlands
(see Fig. x8). The lions, wheel, and eagles derive from Leoni's
coat of arms granted by Charles V in 1549 with the diploma of
nobility and knighthood (Fig. 19).50 Leoni paid homage to the

49. Vasari,in a letterwrittenfromMilanon 9 May1566to Vincenzo

Borghini,commented:"Mess.Leone... ci ha fatto e fa cose che se
e vedessicomesi vive diriache l'artel'hafatto
Michelagnoloresuscitassi
tenersi raro,fussidiventataun'altra,perchenel veroquestimaestrinon
sono pid filosofima principi..."; Vasari-Milanesi,
viii, 405.
by C. Dell'Acqua,"Del Luogodi Nascita
5o. The text is reproduced
di LeoneLeoni,"loc. cit.

248

JSAH, XLIV:3, OCTOBER1985

imperial grant, for the "half eagles" on each side of the chimera,
when read together, may be seen as an allusion to the doubleheaded Hapsburg eagle.51It has been observed that the wheel
of the frieze is the wheel of Fortune which the lions revolve.52
The identification is correct but the action is not. Rolling the
wheel would only hasten the moment when Leoni would be
cast down from his favored position. Medieval and Renaissance
illustrations of Fortune turning her wheel clearly depict the
neverending game she plays as the favored fall to be replaced
by someone new.53 In the frieze of the Casa degli Omenoni the
lion stops the wheel of Fortune and the movement of Fortuna's
globe just as the lions on Leoni's stemma hold it immobile (see

plasterscreateda privategalleryof the mostfamousmonuments

andstudyof Leoni's
of art,worksavailablefor the appreciation
friendsand students.56This in itself was a novelty, for never
beforehad an artistgone to the troubleand expenseof assembling and displayingsuch a seriesof plastercastsfor his own
use.56These caststogetherwith Leoni'sfamousart collection,
which includedworksby Michelangelo,Leonardo,Titian,Correggio, Tintoretto,andParmigianino,amongothers,formeda
collectionhailedin 1619as the firstprivategalleryin Milan.57
His galleryrivaled,if it did not surpass,those of many Italian
nobles, obtainingfor Leoni prestigeusuallyreservedfor the

Fig. i8).
The facade of the Casa degli Omenoni was expensive and
permanent and, as such, was a declaration of social, political,
and economic security and self-confidence. The mere fact that
Leoni had created so lavish a facade was proof of his triumph
over Fortune. In placing its paw on the wheel, the lion-virtue
in the frieze of the Casa degli Omenoni has overcome Fortune's
vicissitudes, arresting its circular course at this the moment of
Leoni's greatest personal glory.
The facade of the Casa degli Omenoni provided the passing
pedestrianample evidence of Leoni's success.Were this observer
to walk into the cortile, he would see yet other indications,
more personal in tone, of Leoni's character.The courtyardprovided the setting for the plaster cast of the Marcus Aurelius
statue as well as for a plaster cast of Michelangelo's Pietd in St.
Peter's and casts of other unidentified statues which were displayed under the arcadeand in niches on the pianonobile.54These

The cortilewas adornedalsowith a seriesof decoratedmetopes of which only ten have survived.They representvarious
attributesof the arts,includingsculpture,goldsmithwork,architecture,andmusic,aswell asothermoreenigmaticemblems
referring,perhaps,to artisticinspirationandfortune.59Together, thesemetopesalludeto the worldof the artsandthe factors
essentialfor its sustenanceandprosperity.60
The acquisitionof a home in the center of Milan and its
subsequentlavishdecorationwere significantaccomplishments
for a manwho only a few yearsearlierhadbeen chainedto an
oarin a papalgalley.Leoni'sachievementswere madepossible
by his successasan artist.It is, therefore,interestingto compare
brieflythe Casadegli Omenonito other artists'homes in the
i6th century.61In almost every case where the artist-owner

51. Leopold,"Artist'sHouse,"197.
87.
HighRenaissance,
52. Pope-Hennessy,
of Fortunein the MiddleAges andRen53. Forthe representation
aissance,see A. Doren,"Fortunaim Mittelalterund der Renaissance,"
derBibliothek
Warburg,
Vortriige
I (1922-1923), 71-144,esp. 84ff.
ItwasPetrarchwho revivedtheclassicalconceptof virtueasananswer
of Fortune;see R. Wittkower,"Chance,Time,
to the unpredictability
andCourtauld
andVirtue,"Journal
Institutes,
oftheWarburg
I (1937-1938),
was a favoriteRenaissance
3x6. The oppositionof VirtueandFortune
theme,one thatpenetratedall levelsof society,a pointdiscussedby G.
Da Danteal
Paparelli,"Virtuie FortunadalMedioEvo al Machiavelli,"
Salerno,1977, 116.Numerousexamplesof the theme maybe
Seicento,
foundin the x5thandx6thcenturies.Leonihimselfdevelopedthe idea
on the reverseof a medal for BernardoSpinawhich depictsVirtue
mountedon horsebacktramplinga recumbentFortunawith the motto:
SVPERATOMNIA VIRTVS.Vasariutilizeda similarprogramfor a
paintedceilingin his houseat Arezzo.HereVirtuesubduesEnvyas she
seizesFortuneby the forelock,therebycontrollingheruncertaincourse;
Wittkower,"Chance,"320ff.
54. Vasarireferredto Leoni'scollectionof plastercastsnoting that
he had "formatedi gessoquant'opera
lodatedi sculturao di moderne
o antiche";Vasari-Milanesi,
vIII,541.As notedabove,Leonimadethe
castof the MarcusAureliuswhile in Rome in 1560,and accordingto
Malespinihe madea cast of Michelangelo'sMinervaChrist"et altre
diverserareet maraviglioseantichiti";C. Malespini,DucentoNovelle,
228ff.CarloTorre,in IIRitrattodi Milano,276, notedthe placementof
Michelangelo'sPietdin the courtyard,and Lomazzo,Trattato,
III, 84,

aristocracy.58

recordedthe castof anantiqueVenus.The Pietdanda castof theLaocoin

were donatedto the Ambrosiana
by one of Leoni'sheirsand can still
be seen today on the firstlandingof the main staircase.For a fuller
discussionof the plastercasts,seeMezzatesta,"Imperial
Themes,"237ff.
Vasaricommentedon the collection'svalue for study;Vasari55.
Milanesi,
vi, 1o7.
56. The use of plastercastsby artistswas, of course,not unprecedented.During the mid-i5th centurySquarcioneis reportedto have
assembledcastsof ancientstatuesandreliefs(Vasari-Milanesi,
III,385),
It would
while Bandinelliis knownto havehadcastsin his "academy."
appear,however,that privatecollectorsformedthe most important
prototypefor Leoni.By the i6th century,collectorssuch as Cardinal
LudovicoGonzagaandMarioBenavideshadbegunto addcaststo their
collectionof ancientsculpture;see B. Candida,I calchirinascimentali,
Padua,1967,66. Morerecently,Leonihadthe exampleof Primaticcio,
who took castsof manyof Rome'smostfamousancientstatuesin 1540
I. Leoniattemptedto purchasethese moldswhile in Paris
for FranCois
in 1549 for MaryQueen of Hungaryand laterfor FerranteGonzaga;
see Plon, Leoni,49.
57. Morigia,LaNobiltddiMilano,with prefaceby GirolamoBorsieri,
Milan,16x9, 67.
58. Leoni'sartcollectionis the subjectof a futurestudy.Fora brief
discussionandreferences,seeMezzatesta,"ImperialThemes,"237-242.
59. The courtyardmetopeswere describedby Lomazzoas "istromentidell'artesua,come staffe,martelli,vasi, sigilli, stecchi,e simili,
il chepubservirperesempiodi quantosopraquestopotreidire";Trattato,
II, 333.
60. See Mezzatesta,"ImperialThemes,"2x8,for furtherdiscussion
andillustrations.
61. On thistopic,seemostrecentlythedissertation
by NikkiLeopold,
"The Artist'sHousein the SixteenthCentury."

MEZZATESTA:

decorated the faqade-Giorgione's house in Venice, Giulio Romano's Casa Pippo in Mantua, and the projected faCadeof Vasari's house in Arezzo-reference was made to the arts and to
the owner's status as artist.62The fact that Leoni's profession is

arediscussed
in Mezzatesta,
62. All theseexamples
Themes,"
"Imperial
233ff.A notableexceptionis the facadethatLelioOrsidesignedfor his
house in ReggioEmilia;see Detlef Heikamp,"Florencela maisonde
Vasari,"L'Oeil, 137 (1966), 42.

FACADE

OF LEONI'S

CASA DEGLI OMENONI

249

proclaimedonly in the courtyardis significant.Leoni'spublic

personality,as definedon the facade,transcendedthe role of
artistto becomethe equalof the aristocracy.
At the Casadegli
Omenonihe finallyattainedthe statusof nobility,a rankgranted
him i6 yearsearlier.That Leoniachievedhis successas a result
of hisartis undeniable,butit is discernibleonlyin the courtyard.
The sources,program,and decorationof the Casadegli Omenoni demonstratedto the cognoscentithe wide range of his
talentandintellectwhile proclaimingto the worldhis position
as a gentlemanin the socialworld of the Hapsburgimperium.