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Medium Voltage Circuit Breaker Course

Student Manual

2.0

Chapter 2.0
Circuit Breaker Mechanical Components and Operation

CIRCUIT BREAKER COMPONENTS and OPERATION


Learning Objectives
This chapter will provide a general overview of the mechanical components of a
circuit breaker. A brief description of the components and their function will be
provided along with a contrast between manufactures where applicable.
As a result of this lesson you will be able to:
1. Describe different breaker closing methods
2. Be able to recognize and describe the function of breaker mechanical
components
3. Know the difference between the line and load side primary conductors
4. Understand how the breakers are inserted into the switchboard
5. Understand the difference between Primary and Secondary current carrying
components
6. Understand the difference between main and arcing contacts
7. Understand the function of a puffer
8. Understand the operating sequence of an operating mechanism

2.1

CIRCUIT BREAKER OPERATION


Medium voltage breakers are designed to be operated electrically by a closing
solenoid or a stored energy mechanism. Manual operation is used primarily for
breaker maintenance.
2.1.1 Manual operation
Only low voltage circuit breakers (600V and under) are designed with manual
operation as their primary method of closing and tripping.
2.1.1.1

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Manual breakers are closed by operating a handle on the front of


the breaker, which will prime a closing spring, which closes the
breaker contacts or may move the contacts to a closed position via
an operating linkage.
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Circuit Breaker Mechanical Components and Operation

2.1.1.2

Medium voltage breaker manual operation


Manual operation is primarily for maintenance and is performed
by compressing the closing spring with a manual closing spring
charging device, closing and tripping mechanisms are normally
dual operating and manual closing and tripping operation is
performed from the breaker front plate.

2.1.2 Electrical operation


2.1.2.1

Solenoid operated:
The first electrically operated breakers were closed by a
solenoid close coil. The coil pulled a solenoid slug, which
actuated the closing mechanism. Figures 2-1 and 2-2 show the
first generation Westinghouse DHP circuit breaker with a
solenoid-closing coil. Solenoid closing operation was replaced
by stored energy breakers.

2.1.2.2

Stored energy closing:


Stored energy design breakers utilize a charging motor to
charge a closing spring to a primed position ready to close. A
closing coil or manual close button unlatches the closing spring
holding latch, which discharges the spring closing the breaker
contacts.

2.2

MAIN CURRENT CARRYING COMPONENTS


The complete current carrying assembly is called a phase or pole. Medium
voltage breakers are primarily used in Alternating Current (AC) applications, but
there are some Direct Current (DC) applications.
Alternating current (AC) breakers have three phases and are normally
designated as A, B, and C phase, looking at the front of the breaker and going
left to right.

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Circuit Breaker Mechanical Components and Operation

Direct Current (DC) breakers are usually used in low voltage applications and
normally are two Pole design. There are also applications in the mining and rail
industries, which use single-pole DC breakers.
The phase or pole design in all breakers is essentially the same and will consist of
some or all of the following components.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Primary disconnects.
Primary conductors (Bushing)
Moving contact arm
Contacts
Puffer device

2.2.1 Primary Disconnects


The circuit breaker plugs into the switchboard compartment using a primary
disconnect (Main Current Carrying) and secondary disconnect (Control
Power).
The primary disconnects connect the breaker phase to the switchboard side
bus. The primary disconnects are a set of silver plated copper fingers held
together with springs and are permanently mounted to the breaker bushings
(Figure 2-3). On some breaker designs such as a GE Magne-Blast (Figure 24) the bushing is a silver plated copper stud and the primary disconnects are
permanently attached to the to switchboard side conductor.
The disconnect is designed to float, which means they are not rigidly
mounted, and allows for any minor misalignment of the breaker to cubicle.
The opening on the disconnect is wider on the outside and tapers smaller at
the point where the breaker is fully racked into the connected position.
The primary disconnect does not exert full spring tension on the bus when out
of the cubicle, only when inserted into the cubicle. The switchboard side
conductor expands the fingers and causes the springs to exert pressure on
both the breaker and cubicle pole.
As the breaker is racked into the cubicle the primary will be in line with the
switchboard side conductor and self aligns as the breaker is moving to the
connect position. The fingers of the primary disconnects are also coated with
a lubrication to allow for a smooth insertion and also to protect the silverplating from friction wear.

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Circuit Breaker Mechanical Components and Operation

2.2.2 Primary Conductor


The primary conductor, also referred to as a bushing, is a solid copper
bus with silver-plating on both ends. Some manufactures also braise a
thin silver coating at the moving contact pivot or connection surface for
better conductivity. Each conductor is covered with or encased in an
insulating material to isolate it from the breaker frame.
Each phase will have a Line side and a Load side bushing. The load
Side bushing is normally attached to the moving contact arm and the line
side is normally the stationary contact. An exception to this is a Bus Tie
Breaker, which can feed from both bushings depending on which side of
the switchboard it, is feeding.

2.2.3 Moving Contact Arm


The moving contact arm is silver plated copper and connects to the
primary bushing at a pivot point on the load side primary conductor. The
arms are held by a bolt and nut assembly, which exerts a set tension on a
spring or springs to provide pressure for a good electrical connection.
The moving contacts are attached to one end of the contact arm and the
other end is connected to an insulated push link that connects the moving
arm to the operating mechanism.

2.2.4 Contacts

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Air Circuit Breakers (ACB): The contact assembly of most medium


voltage ACBs consists of two contact types: main contacts and arcing
contacts.
o Arcing Contacts: During the close operation of the breaker, the arc
contact touches first and when tripped (opened) break last. The
arcing contacts are designed to be strong enough to withstand the
heat of the arc, and are normally a silver tungsten alloy. Arc
contacts are considered sacrificial and it is not unusual to have
minor burning and arcing damage. The silver provides some
current carrying characteristics, but the tungsten is not a good
conductor. Therefore, arc contacts cannot carry the normal breaker
loads.
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Circuit Breaker Mechanical Components and Operation

o Main Contacts: The main contacts carry the breaker load. Air circuit
breaker main contacts are normally a silver plated copper body with a
silver cadmium oxide contact material attached at the connection point
of the moving and the stationary contacts.
Pure silver or silver plated copper could not withstand the force of
opening and closing the breaker, and therefore the contact tip is a
silver alloy; silver cadmium oxide is commonly used for this application
because it is a good conductor and adds enough strength to minimize
the wear from the opening and closing impact.
The contact surfaces of the arcing and main contacts are not silverplated. The plating deposited during the plating process is removed, as
it would burn off during arcing.

Vacuum Breakers: There are only main contacts within a vacuum bottle.
The commonly used materials for vacuum breakers are either copperbismuth or copper-chrome alloys. The shape is also important and two
basic shapes are used cupped axial magnetic design and a slotted
design. Figure 2-5 shows the slotted design.

SF6 Gas Breakers: Have a main and arcing contact design similar to
ACBs.

2.2.5 Puffer Device


A puffer device is used in most medium voltage air breakers to help
accelerate the arc into the arc chute. The puffer will have a tube positioned
under the stationary contacts and uses the movement of the mechanism or
contact arm to displace air from a chamber on the breaker into the arc path.

2.3

CLOSING SHAFT AND CONNECTING LINKS


The closing shaft is the device that connects the operating mechanism to the
insulated links that operate the moving contacts. The closing shaft has different
names depending on the breaker manufacturer:

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General Electric refers to it as crank shaft and Jack shaft,


Westinghouse/Cutler Hammer a Pole Operating Shaft, (See Figure 1-2, Item 2)
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Circuit Breaker Mechanical Components and Operation

ABB calls it a Jack shaft and the on the new vacuum breakers it is called a
Main Shaft. (See Figure 2- 6, Item 12)

The closing shaft has three-connection pivot points where the phase insulated
links are connected. The operating mechanism driving link is also connected to
the operating shaft under the center phase.
2.4

OPERATING MECHANISM
All stored energy breakers operate on the same principle. Before discussing the
operating mechanism the following are common terms used for mechanism
components:

Closing arms/lever or closing cranks: The arms attached to the closing shaft.

Trip Latch: The latch, which rests on the trip latch roller when the breaker is
closed. Trips the breaker when closed.

Trip Latch Roller: Roller that rests on the trip latch.

Closing Roller: The roller on the mechanism linkage. The closing roller rides
on the closing cam during the close operation.

Closing Cam: The closing cam is a drop cam shape design and pushes the
breaker linkage to the close position.

Prop Latch (DHP = Tripping cam): Latch used to hold the mechanism in the
closed position after closing to allow the mechanism to recharge.

2.4.1 Breaker operating sequence:


See Figure 2-7 and 2-8 for mechanism position.

USNRC

A charging motor or manual charge handle operates the charging


crank and pushes a ratchet wheel to compress the closing spring.
When the breaker reaches the charged position and the closing latch
is holding the closing spring in a fully compressed position (Figure 2-8
Item 2 and 5).

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2.5

Chapter 2.0
Circuit Breaker Mechanical Components and Operation

The trip latch will now be in a position to hold the mechanism in a closed
position when the close operation is initiated. (Figure 2-6b Item 10 and 18)

When the close latch is moved the closing spring will drive a closing cam
and engages the closing mechanism linkage, the mechanism linkage is
attached to the operating shaft, which in turn is attached to the moving
contacts, and the breaker will close. (Figure 2-7c)

For the breaker to remain in the closed position the linkage has to be held
in a closed position by the trip latch.

To allow the breaker to recharge and remain closed the breaker will use a
prop latch (DHP = Tripping Cam) in conjunction with the trip latch to hold
the mechanism in a closed position. This will allow the mechanism to
recharge. (Figure 2-8d)

To trip the breaker the trip latch is moved allowing the mechanism toggles
to collapse.

BREAKER SPRINGS
2.5.1 Closing Spring
The closing spring provide the energy to close the contacts and is the largest
spring on any stored energy breaker. It is sized according to the continuous
amperage and interrupting amperage of the breaker. There can be one or
two closing springs depending on the type and size of the breaker.
2.5.2 Opening springs
The opening spring or springs open the breaker during a trip operation. The
quantity and size of the opening springs will depend on the interrupting
requirements of the circuit breaker. Opening springs are normally located on
the outside phases and are attached to the closing shaft.
The springs are compressed or stretched during the close operation and
remain stretched until a close signal is given to the breaker. Most breakers
have two large springs but some breakers will have more.

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Circuit Breaker Mechanical Components and Operation

2.5.3 Contact Springs


The contact springs (Arcing and Main) provide the pressure required to give a
tight connection between the moving and stationary contacts. The main
contact springs are normally located on the stationary main contacts and are
compressed when the contacts are closed. The arcing contact springs can
be on the stationary or moving contacts and also are compressed when the
contacts are closed.
2.5.4 Mechanism Springs
The operating mechanism has several springs associated with latch actuation
and resetting operations. Significant springs normally found in all
mechanisms are:

2.6

Trip Latch Spring: Resets and holds trip latch in position.


Close Latch Spring: Resets and holds close latch in position.
Prop Latch Spring: Pulls the prop on to latch.

RACKING MECHANISM
A racking mechanism or levering system is used to insert and remove the circuit
breaker from the circuit breaker compartment.
Most breakers use a mechanism mounted on the breaker and rack the breaker into
position horizontally. The GE Magna-Blast Model AM is the only breaker that has
its racking mechanism in the switchboard cubicle and racks the breaker into
position vertically.

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Circuit Breaker Mechanical Components and Operation

Figure 2-1 Solenoid operated DHP Breaker

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Chapter 2.0
Circuit Breaker Mechanical Components and Operation

Figure 2-2 Sketch Solenoid operated DHP Breaker

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Chapter 2.0
Circuit Breaker Mechanical Components and Operation

Figure 2-3 HK Primary

Figure 2-4 Magne-Blast Primary

Figure 2-5 vacuum bottle contacts / slotted design

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Chapter 2.0
Circuit Breaker Mechanical Components and Operation

Figure 2-6 / ABB Vacuum breaker Operating Mechanism

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Chapter 2.0
Circuit Breaker Mechanical Components and Operation

Figure 2-7 DHP Operating Mechanism sequence

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Chapter 2.0
Circuit Breaker Mechanical Components and Operation

Figure 2-8 DHP Operating Mechanism spring charged

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SLAC-169
UC -38

VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKER FOR


POWER SYSTEM APPLICATION*

ALEXANDER

AN-SHENG TSENG

STANFORD LINEAR ACCELERATOR

CENTER

STANFORD UNIVERSITY
Stanford,

California

94305

PREPARED FOR THE U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY


COMMISSION UNDER CONTRACT NO. AT (04-3) -515

March 1974

Available from National Technical


Printed in the United States of America.
Service, U.S. Department of Commerce, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield
Virgiriia 22151. Price: Printed Copy $4.00; Microfiche $1.45.
* Engineer,

Electrical

Engineering

thesis.

ABSTRACT

The application
switching
of

on-off

short

better

circuit

and

breaker

of

system

thesis

Vacuum Circuit

is

and/or

Temperature

Rise

circuit

constants

to

the

Development,
such

Voltage

vs.

Field

Pressure

Current

Chopping

of

Properties

of

the

Vacuum

is

requires

arcs,

need
a

electrode

phenom-

vacuum

circuit

fol

lowing

areas:

I)

History

of

2)

Major

circuit

coordinated
Reasonable

corrective

these

in

3)

Contact

4)

suit

care

Time

and

Vacuum

Periods,

Switching

Materials,

the

by the

Operating
Large

volt

Physical

Physical

of

High

Experiences

Solid

Fina I design

Contact

Emission,

in

Understanding

567KW 4160

used
the

must

breakers.
measures

Field

Influenced

Better

I 5kv

Cold

vs.

State

and the
solid

of

Power
selection

state

power

paper.

breakers
to

is

Levels

Pump Action

Long

5.8MW.
six

this

Pressure,

How it

Characteristics

Voltage

Over

Initia

l.5MW to
for

Electric

Vacuum

I,

5) The

breaker

presented

when applying
simple

the

the

Used on Eight

from

circuit

and

Materia

and

Breakers

Ranging

Vacuum

perform.

Contact

Arcs,

Vacuum Circuit

well

plus

for

which

Maintained

Mechanism

are

supply

system

under

Emission,

Characteristics,

supplies

power

breaker

vacuum

Vacuum

Voltage

vacuum

the

power

as Spark-over

and Recovery

of

to

same circuit

high-current

devoted

from

Vacuum

Supplies

a large

by the

Breaker

Spark-over

Current

breaker

the

Breaker

Vacuum Circuit

Switches,

circuit

applied.

This

Spacing,

load

protection

power
is

vacuum

a large

understanding

enon

of

of

duties
be taken

Such
are

at

that
under

applications

proposed.

iii

Stanford

Linear
a circuit
certain
are

Accelerator
breaker

Center
must

circumstances
identified

and

CONTENTS

I.

INTRODUCTION
A.

Search

for

B.

Technologies

Ideal

Electric

needed

Circuit

for

Breaker

Vacuum Circuit

Breaker

Development

Programs

II.

a)

Insu I ating

b)

Method

c)

Contact

THEORETICAL

of

I Vacuum Sea I

Envel ope-to-Meta
Gas Removal

Material

UNDERSTANDING OF VACUUM INSULATION

AND ELECTRODE

PERFORMANCES

III.

A.

Breakdown

Strength

B.

Spark-over

Voltage

Level

C.

Spark-over

Voltage

vs.

D.

Cold

E.

Temperature

F.

Vacuum

Field

of

vs.

Contact

Vacuum

Level

Spacing

Emission
Rise

from

Pump Action

HIGH-CURRENT

Insulation

in

Field

Emission

Vacuum Switch

VACUUM ARCS

A.

Observations

of

6.

High

Vacuum Arcs

Current

Vacuum Arcs
Stabilized

by Magnetically-Induced

Field
C.
IV.

Critical

Axial

VACUUM CIRCUIT
Operating

B.

Typical

C.

Vacuum Circuit

CONCLUSION

VI.

REFERENCES

Flux

Density

to

BREAKERS USED ON REPETITIVE

A.

V.

Magnetic

Stabilize

the

LOAD SWITCHING

Experience
Construction
Breaker

of

a Vacuum Circuit
Specification

iv

Breaker

and its

Application

Arcs

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author
and

wishes

encouragement

Emeritus
Spicer
optical

of

Professor
gave

him to

properties
Research,

the
under

Atomic

Energy

Stanford

to

his

express

adviser

his

appreciation

for

and supervisory

committee

Hugh H. Shilling;

the

help

better

the

electronic,

understand

of

solids

actual

field

Commission

Linear

and

undertake

performance
in

Accelerator

connection
Center

the

Professor

the

Contract

chairman,
William

magnetic

review

and testing
with

assistance

of

E.
and

this

thesis.

was supported

work
No.

being

performed

AT(04-31515.

by

I.

A.

SEARCH FCR IDEAL


After

tame

more

a plasma

technical
from

of

designing

the

debate

not

dousing
of

an electric

As the
KV to

and

problem

is

too

quickly.

the

arc

contacts,

at

current

are

operation.

the

as it

at
for
which

twice

applied

the

arc

products

problem
and

In

an oil

hydrogen
cool

oil.

which

is

magnitude

the

other

until

cycle.

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gap is

the

instant

beneath

the

and is

oil,

the

current

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I force
of

interruption
vacuum

to
of

example,

current

once

in

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capable

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arc

by an
to

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cool

contac-ls,so
of

does

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current

across

quenched

itself

bridged

quickly

of
passes

current
of

impressed
for

of

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at

alternating

breaker,

that

the

the

the

circuit

arc

principle

speed.

medium

momentarily

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therefore

which

vicinity

an insulating

the

devices.

interrupters
the

and

contactors

amount

hand,

factors;

high

contact

overloads

mechanica
a great

through

a relatively

quickly

separating

a common fundamental

contacts

from

are

inrush,

considerable

these

then

The interruption

extinguishing
on the

of

quickly

switches,

many electric

by the

into

broken.

involves

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both

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each

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voltages

of

closed

arc

region

arc.

there

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interruption--and

for

current,

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and then

minimizes

of

electric

system.

a subject

intensified

on electric

voltage,

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mechanically

off

high

way to

735 KV, the

starting

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speed,

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part.

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when the

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contacts

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remains

recently

interrupt

severe

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circuit

breaker

load

devices.

interrupted

and

forms

normal

as the

parted

used

The answer

usually

are

voltage

how to

that

protective

energy

engineering
breaker

circuit

circuits--places

formed

of

BREAKER

550 KV and most

a reliable

current--under

short

of

in

CIRCUIT

continues.

The
but

70 years

arc

230

ELECTRIC

than

debate.

risen

INTRODUCTION

the

arc

trans-

withstanding
it

by the

burns

by a strong

power

within
cross-

When the
with

a high

Dr.

Langmuir

arc

of

gas in

charged

ions

the

about

times

four

re-enters

the

plasma
years

50,OOOK

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is

in

an insulator

front

heat

within

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needed

to

high

past
because

at

of

as some metals.

convert

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as it

very

reactions,

as high

a few microseconds

times

cone

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study

ionized.

positively

seven

to

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plasma

nose

character

fusion

interrupter
transfer

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late

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describe

numbers

corona

in

under

atoms

circuit

of

in

thermonuclear
the

to

as 50,OOOK.

suns

similar

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all

rate

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heated

is

controlled

a power

rapid

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which

equal

fil

by the

The temperature

of

is

Laboratory

may be as high

air

contacts

introduced

Research

electrons.

temperature

practically

plasma

into

for

first

the

approximately

interrupters
the

between

a term

are

atmosphere.

temperature

A very

there

of which

temperature

space

Genera I Electric

and negative
circuit

the

plasma,

which

some power

the

formed

temperature

ionized

several

is

the

such

a conductor

natural

current

zero.
As power
distance

of

devices

have

for

needs

the

have
the

been

systems

become
of

in

which

might

both

the

also

ment

and small
by a simple

present

breaker

in

is

It

them

California

as a result
gram

arc

years

of

was initiated

for

the

of

existing

than

hazard
against

with

successful
quenched
Professor

Sorenson

of

Technology

disclosed

power

the

purpose

circuit

the

General

the

work,
Electric
2

have

inter-

long

life

equipment.
to

its

It

surrounding

research
of

of

and

and

a power

develop-

circuit

H. E. Mendenhal

experiments

evaluating

interrupters.

Sorensons

require-

vacuum.

ago,

for

the

interrupter,

liary

construction
in

some of

devices,

background

performing

and a quieter

and be insensitive
this

of

quest.

rapid

no auxi

themselves
engineers

circuit

this

currents

prepare

means

moment,

and

protective

switchgear

an ideal

goal

to

better

a more

is

Professor
in

of

mechanism

colleagues

ambient

order

shou Id effect

the

Institute

and their

switching

for

the

Thirty-five
the

is

required

which

for

voltage,

on circuit

future,

new and

ultimate

no fire

condition.

work

the

capacity,

In

and the
for

of

placed

severe.

specification

interrupter

large

terms

Consider,

be considered

be operated

ambient

present

searching

functional

of

should

and more

the

in

requirements

functions.

An ideal

and

more

continuously

ments

grown,

the

transmission,

interrupting

ruption

have

an extensive
Company

and

made by

vacuum

Shortly

of

as a

afterwards,

development
Jenning

pro-

Company

here

in

San Jose.

technical

However,

breakthroughs

problems

before

encountered

success

could

TECHNOLOGIES NEEDED FOR VACUUM CIRCUTT

8.

The

vacuum

fields

of

have

provided

points

that

vacuum

circuit

space
the

the

the

were

when the

seals

the

in

the

electronic

related

industry

and cost

a successful

technoloqy

could

cross-over

and economical

belonged

many other

fields.

of

to

the

extent

that

to

vacuum

interrup-

be made.

problems

technologies

years

years.

seal

common to

recent

breakthroughs

earlier

these

BREAKER DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS

and in

produce

qlass-to-metal

some of

others
solved

in

to

vacuum-tight

Although

were

problems

breaker

Develop

needed

many major
I), 2)

be assured.

of

semiconductors

following

reliable

ters,

advancements

science,

were

a.
larger

technology

required

the

only
These

related

latter

fields

problems

made significant

advances.
Making
devices.

large

While

having

large
to

The

major

make

nickel-cobalt
that

of

of

that

a glass

were

used

Equally
There

iorate,

and its
glasses

four

life
having

having
not

in

the

such

is

the

only

this

is
the

interrupter,

rate

expansion
Today

as far
is

its

a partial

can

an example,
would

gas

through

so that

Today
that

pressure

permeate

vacuum

characteristics.

application

affected.

low permeation

an iron-

consideration

atmosphere

very

a pair.

of

required

Helium

Pyrex

wow1 d be seriously
such

between

glasses.

the

in

microns.
rate;

a vacuum

it

borosilicate

is

is

expansion,

seals

many

glasses

has a coefficient

important

a considerable
in

This

metal

and

was made when Fernico,

glass

to

common to

metals

thermal

strong

certain

manufacture

approximately
at

of

subject

of

helium.

some glasses

of

this

joining

to

was a problem

be made between

was developed.

concerned.

impermeability

ber

in

perfectly

is

helium

can

mechanically

advance

companies

as glass

seals

coefficients

large,

Satisfactory

of

seals

alloy,

matches

number

small

differencesin

difficult
first

glass-to-metal

quickly

there

are

permeation

if

such
detera numpresents

no problem.
Since
found

in

With

these

choices

the

for

the
past

development
several

developments
the

envelopes

of
years,

we have
of

Fernico,

other

including
now at

vacuum
3

the
our

matching
use of

disposal

interrupters.

pairs
high

a large

have
purity
number

been
ceramics.
of

In

order

to

vacuum,

one must

this

a subject

is

decade.

For

vacuum

better

this

limit

good

indication

in

surfaces

which

effects,

vacuum
Due to

are

vacuum

became

required

to
being

strength

of

techniques

known.

Again,

been made in

pressures

valuable,

obtain

possible

to

produce

the

this

directly

resulted

of

was

IO

-9

atomically

mm or

clean

physics

of

organization,

in

a hot

surface

the

are

in

of

magnetron

capable

of

These

in

ultra-high

development

Torr.

indirectly,

many scien-

engaged

cathode

which
-15
low as IO

and

that

error

vacua

been actively

tube,

as

discovered

them.

of

use of

and was not

fundamental

one of

past

achieve

Once this

to

has
the

vacuum.

the

to

equipment

possible

have

effort

pumping,

partial

of

interest

mass spectrometer

the

new

gauge,
measuring

advances

have

development

of

power

interrupters.

investigators

gases

from

arcing,

the

in
during

the

If

unsuitable

for

contacts

Method

of

It

was found
arcing,

With

possible

the

at

tungsten

point

metals

such

as copper,

point,

the

retains

the

that

amounted
would

in

metals

be removed,

to

if,

of
after

one

part

not

function

are

many orders

the

metals

per
proof

are

of

gave

dissolved

in

gases

out

a large

gases

can

temperature.

vacuum

this

off

amount

of

gas

vacuum.

an elevated

de-gas

still

gases

emission

interrupters.

electrodes

metals

to

diffusion

vacuum

destroying

a vacuum

envelope

cannot

was the

plagued

Gas Removal

refractory

in

gases

which

indicated

interrupter

most

problems

research

the

the
of

for

that

thus

in

metal,

these

major

Calculations

left

solubilities

higher.

the

interruption

arcing.
gas

magnitude

b.

vacuum

evaporated

Yet,

one of

previously,

ungettered
of

perly.

out

solids

IO million

metal

dielectric

have

measuring

study

laboratories

ion

early

heating

it

diversified

As pointed

during

advances

immediately

This

and a compact

very

vacuum

degree

breakdowns

the

in

and

high

best

by the

actual

means

research

principles

the

major

set

the

research.

total

which

became

By this

been

make use of

of

better.

in

intrinsic

many years,
it was thought
to be impossible
-8
than
IO
It was subsequently
mm of Hg.

it

vacuum

the

was actually

corrected,

tists

realize

impossible.

of

such

a considerable

amount
4

For

at 2300K.

is

With

gas.

can

by prolonged

example,

it

lower

Even at

metals
of

be removed

be so

is

boiling

the

melting

low that

the

Advances
solution

to

in

this

marily

on their

whose

properties

material

to

amounts
the

problem.
impurity
can

arcing

to
of

results

which
the

materials
molybdenum,
pure

copper,

such

as stainless

tinuous
tendency

to

sure

lower

contact
pure

weld

beryllium,

Recent
to
I)

meet

copper

the

The major

1)

refine

add

the

known

modifications

The ungettered

gas,

after

problem

methods,

and all

had been

found.

following

are

use of

binary

conditions
of
of
less

constituent,

fol

properties:

an effective

to

cold

the

binary

copper

has

and con-

vacuum

it

has a

vapor

amount

presof

In

high

vacuum,

weld

from

mechanical

this

as vacuum

problem.
switch

successfully

alloy

electrical

and alloys

Pure

higher

now solving
alloys

done

metals

large

has been

good

than

and its

pure

was also

high

temperatures.

alloys

constituent

in

or

momentary

a comparatively

has a tendency

the

higher

that

contact

crystal,
Work

low currents,

arc

with

and others.

found

also

of

single

for

lower

cohesive

had been

and other

titanium,

allows

The minor

a)

pri-

be

carbon,

much

point

lowing

depends

could

purified.

pure

at

meta I , preferably
boiling

semiconductors

major

and

easily

we have

point

research

to

first

by several

be advantageous

even

Less

this

to

special

refine

sintered

more

so far

at

a I one.

with

leading

semiconductors

and then

experience

tantalum,

easily

ultra-clean

pressure

tacts

pure

vaporization

to

both

are

melting

purity,

was measured

they

but

produce

metals.

successful

and could

currents,

and

most

steel,

been interesting

to

necessary

that

from

in

Is

tungsten,

since

of

helped

semiconductors

is

to

a solution

the

pure

with

degree

gases

Materia

1962,

of

it

developed

of

that

Contact

Up to

order

so refined,

indicated
c.

In

was found

were

removal

materials

of

high
It

have

The behavior

be controlled,

impurities.

techniques

technology

content.

an extremely

of

adapted

semiconductor

is

tested:

con3)

a non-refractory

conductivity,

having

35OOK.
or

freezing

the

eutectic

it

temperature

forms,

below

that

has th?

of

the

major

constituent
b)

cl

substantial

solubility

liquid

state

little

or

solid

state.

in

the

major

constituent

in

the

and

no solubility

in

the

major

constituent

in

the

The minor

constituent,

in

be highly

dispersed

throughout

minor

constituent

value

in

the

in

order

to

container.

of

minor

Alloys

that

such

these

alloys

cools

below

the

not

ingly

rich

Finally,

above

il

temperature

in

a granular

structure.

soluble

in

the

constituent

mutually

solidifies

required

should

solid

solubil-

state

in

mix
the

copper-

silver-bismuth,
phase

soluble

the

solid

the

within

constituent

include

diagrams

in

As the

during

of

low

for

I and 2.

Since

constituent

temperature

Figs.

of

the

constituent.

by casting.

freezing

when the

the

requirements

in
are

formed

secondary

to

of

a relatively

minor

Representative

constituents

mutually

to

must

percentage

copper-thallium,

I ustrated

readily

the

major

stated

the

in

secondary

are

two

are

solidify

tially

the

requirements,

strength

corresponding
in

the

of

copper-tellurium,

a I loys

Since

to

dielectric

and silver-tellurium.

binary

be limited

percentage

constituent

copper-lead,

silver-lead,

high

these

The maximum

must

the

a value

meet

meeting

alloy.

alloys

preserve

above

this

bismuth,

these

to

the

The minimum

be substantially
ity

addition

the

liquid

homogeneous

phase,

liquid

primary

constituent,

it

the

constituents

are

two

phase,

the

liquid

this

initial

grain

of

the

increas-

period.

sufficiently,

boundaries

essen-

becomes

cooling

has dropped

begins

the
primary

grains.
The extensiveness
around
two

the

primary

from

tinuous,
films

to

varies

This

of

0.5%

bismuth

thin

grain

constituents.

micrographs

and thickness

bismuth

is

copper

Note

20%.

(I I$ - 20$),
whereas

at

and

smal I,

il

of

according
lustrated
alloys

lower

grain

islands

Fig.

the

constituents

relative
3 showing

which

the

bismuth

at

the

higher

that,

percentages,

discrete

in

boundary

secondary

to

in

particularly

the

the

deposit
the

is

bismuth

on the

grain

quite

quantities
a series

of

content

deposits
boundary.

500X

varies

percentages
thick

of

of

and conare

in

very

Test
summarized

results
in

TABLE I.

on various

Table

alloys

used

as contact

materials

are

I.

SUMMARY OF CONTACT WELD DATA FOR SEVERAL ALLOYS


CLOSING

TESTS

We I d Strength
Observations
of Various
Al low

Peak
Current
Ranqe

4% Pb - Al

29-x)

4%Sn

-Al

Copper-Bi

Weld
Breaking
Force
KA

30 l-a
l-IO%

0?400#
I 0 -4OO#

14-32

KA

lO-40#
50-170s

Cu-Te

5%

M-40

KA

Cu-Te

(.5%)

22-28

KA

Cu-TI

(3%)

22-30

KA

Cu-Pb

(1%)

21-34

KA

Ag-Bi

(3%)

Ag-Pb

(6%)

33-36

KA

o-45#

Ag-Te

( I%)

29-34

KA

o-550?+

34KA

O-870@
45-900#
IM-990#
o-lOOi?

Fig.
I.
bismuth

Phase
alloys

diagram

for

Fig.
2.
silver-lead

copper-

Fig.
4.
strength
tacts
in

Metallographic
sections
Fig.
3.
showing
effect
on grain
structure
of copper-bismuth
alloys
of specified
concentrations
of bismuth

Phase diagram
alloys

for

Statistical
plot
of weld
for copper
bismuth
cona vacuum interrupter

THECRETZCAL

II.

A.

ment

are

and

Breakdown

Strenqth

The major

insulating

essentially

dielectric

materials,

vacuum

can

diameter
vacuum

gap,

gap of

ponding

of

The reason

for

cules

probably

are
the

there

meters)

an electron

10m6 Tort-,

than

cm and that
with

collide

high
air

for

voltage

of

the

be seen

Table

breakdown

molecules
II).

carriers

strength

from

Fig

5,

175 kv and a corres-

strength

is

the

electrodes

of

an air

in

electric

electron

is

of

more

than

I cm only

is

primarily

in

vacuum

is

40 x IOs6cm.
path

a few

electrons

this

fact

in

if

the

is

responsible

the
is

vacuum

more

It

can

form

responsible

low breakdown

is

than
be seen

a million
to

which

mole-

a volume of 22.4
-6
cm (centi7 x IO

cm.
in

air

room temperature

molecule

opportunities

.4)

and

and

30,000

of

ionized

However,
the

to

air,

about

have

compared

absence

charges

molecule

and therefore
It

a 3/B-inch-

of

With

mean free

of

of

strength

breakdown

for

gap in

inch.

about

the

a gap distance
with

in

path

by these

a corresponding

As can

equip-

compound

be withstood

breakdown

vacuum.

electrodes.
main

can

what

power

rubber-like

At atmospheric
pressure
value.
23
molecules
of air constituents
6 x IO

about

and

shown

the

and

kv per
high

The mean free

liters.

5,000

to

electric

low breakdown
are

better

paper,

has a breakdown

this

the

oil,

minute

air

1,750

the

present-day

voltages

5 gives

for

inch

gradient

between

that

both

of

air,

are

Fig.

l/IO

molecules

mediums

they

AND ELECTRODE PERFORMNCES

Insulation

appreciable

withstand.

rod

of

atmospheric
Although

porcelain.

for

UNDERSTANDING OF VACUUM INSULATION

will
ions

(as
for

strength

the
in

COMPARISON OF MOLECULAR DENSITY

TABLE II.

AND MEAN FREE PATH AT VARIOUS PRESSURES

Pressure
(Tori-1

Molecules
per
Cubic Cm

760

2.46 X 101

6.69

X lO-6

3.24 X lOI

5.09

lo-3

lo-3

3.24 X lOl3

5.09

IO0

IO6

3.24 X lOlo

5.09

IO3

lo-g

3.24 X IO7

5.09

IO6

lo-l2

3.24 X IO4

5.09

IO9

lo-5

3.24 X IO1

5.09

lOI

If

the

indicated
this

voltage

in

to

down is

not

the
fully
at

of

the

film

anode

the

high

of

the

not

more

thousand
quick
that

amperes,
return

the

of

fuses

rapidly

go at

high

and there

due to
speeds

to

the

the

at
latter
in

in

order

original

dielectric

dielectric

strength

absence

the

insulating

the

the

localized
of

gas,

of

is,

of

condense.

IO

during

is

the

in

air.

time
of

several
This
the

contacts

The metal
the

current-

drops

due to

the

metal

to

supporting

established.

course,

between

and to

of

values

gas molecules.
walls

velocity

a deionization

strength

emission

high

voltage

current

break-

vaporization

capable

contacts

and after
after

at

during

this

causes

shooting

the

even

the

anode

across

discharge

is

be started
the

values

circuit,

by field

small,

which

of

to

IO microseconds,

metal

the

The current

impedance

appears

drop

high

gap occurs.

above

It

The voltage

the

or

of

ionization

the

to

The mechanism

electron

of

raised

breakers.

metal,

extremely

vaporized

the

The impact

and anode

is

than

is

by external

circuit

Upon termination
of

only

cathode.

causing

period

of

understood.

current.

carrying

electrodes

a breakdown

limited

case

electrons

cathode,

5,

is

of

the

between

Fig.

breakdown

similar

Mean Free Path


(Cm)

fact
dif-

molecules

surfaces,

Breakdown
voltage
of vacuum comFig.
5.
pared with air
for one pair
of 3/8-inch
diameter
tungsten
contacts
Snark-over

B.

In

genera

(spark-over)
ing

the

of

impu Ise,

contact

for

voltages

to

graph
(standard
IJJsec,

similar

for

high
for

dependent

been

are

highest

on insulating

Fig.

maximum
methods

6 at

space).

the
In

breakdown
of

process-

same vacuum

this

The 300-kc

60 cycle

for
test

l-l/2

graph,

voltage

ac curve

l-l/2

value

found

higher

x 40,usec

voltage,

l/2

frequencies

on vacuum

the

particular

outer

the

Spacinq

line

for

maximum

standard

impulse

contacts.

reducedto

these

that

compared.

to

impulse

Contact

found

curve,
in

close

vs.

with

spacing

diameter

shows

at

cularly

lie

half-inch

voltage

more

vacuum

levels

also

that

in

ac and

The

found

has

(existing

dc

Levels

it

10m7 Torr

was found
values

I,

voltages

follow

level

Voltaqe

in

at

surfaces,

and

40,Usec),

switching

frequencies
level

the

remaining

than

for

dc voltages.

I I

x 40,

mean peak
and is

surges.
withstand
adsorbed

steady

state

somewhat
We have

level

is

gases,
60 cycle

much
partior

Variation
Fig.
6.
for various
contact

The curves
continuing

depending
of

be aged

out

graph

use)

on residual

vacuum
by high

be forced

show the

Occasional

breakdown.

typical

actually

this

I es by popular

barnac
again

in

components
voltage
upward

of breakdown
spacings.

areas

at

gases

loose

these

application

I2

lower

contact

this

(called
voltages,
It

material.

intermittent

of

constant

breakdowns

considerably

so that

by application

reasonably

type

may occur

that

of

short-burst

and

voltage

breakdowns
operating
high

levels
voltage.

is
can

can

Spark-over

C.

For
uration

of

Voltaae

a fixed

the

the

pressure

in

7.

These

were

presented

1955 and
switch

particu

1956.4)

The

and its

gradient

are

switches

occur

and still

as
type

in

voltage

dependent

materials,

can

curves

specific

and contact

Variations

70 percent

as shown

as early

considerably

configuration.

voltage

I ar

difference

on processing,

Level

maximum

curve

by Ross

Vacuum

and config-

60 Hz spark-over

follows
Fig.

type

contacts,

steady-state

vs.

as much as

in

commercial

be satisfactory

for

some applications.
At
graph
or

the

indicates

better

values

for

the

voltage

more

widely

diameter

in

residual

enclosure,
surfaces
voltage

the

extreme

at

useable

one of
of

sparkthe

l/2-inch
Pressure

analysis

the

type

will

and

gases

and

Iarge

quantities

emission

high

since

Variation
Fig.
7.
age at different

vapor
of

pressure
which

is

sources.

I3

must

be taken

corona

especially

Torr
of spark-over
pressures.

remaining

be adsorbed

distortion

and external
This

materials

can

Care

wave shape

levels.

voltage

vary

positioning

surfaces.

currents

voltage
hipot

10s7 Torr

contacts.

and current

field

impedance

of

and insulating

ing

the

maximum

types

static
to

to

vacuum

levels

tungsten

according

-4

average

used

This

spacing,

a IO

range

over

of

l/32-inch

on both
in

true

can

the

conductive

metering

may be caused
which

in

volt-

applied

by rectify-

be prominent

when one uses

high

at

Col d Fie I d Emission

0.

Graphs,
may concern

Wide

8 and

graphs

variations

indicate

during
emission

effects

time

voltages,

which

test

elevated

heating
also

and
have

a general
which

operation

voltages,

effect

do not

and,
are
are

long-time
possibly

show some of

properties

may occur

performance

ately

9,

post-interrupting

These

tics.

Figs,

usually
usually

operating

X-ray

for

as well
average
appear
rated

to

field
have

must

emission
effect

operating

higher,

or

close

vacuum

for
or

short-

for

spacings,

be considered.
when

levels.

on switch

However,

negligible.

which

characteris-

steady-state

voltages,

distribution

characteristics
as statis

in

considerably

radiation

on voltage

the

moderemission

Emission
units

are

used

may
in

a series.
These
emission

current

applied

voltage

i I lustrate
current
true

graphs

from

a lone

or

(ac

checkers

capabilities;

cate

vs.

field

does
inability

hold

cold-field
spacing

and

why ordinary

condition

ing

of

off

not

do not

and

dc),

also

dc

leakage

tel

I a

for

ac operating

a high

leakage

read-

emission

current

necessari

I y indi-

to

interrupt

current,

voltage.

dc voltage
for different
coldFig.
9.
emission
average
currents
at various
contact
spacings
in vacuum.

Fig.
rise
caused
by the
IO. Temperature
bombardco lI dn
d fie I d-emission
typica
I %co
ment energy.

dc voltage
for different
Fi
co 9d-emission
currents
at various
8contact
spacings
in vacuum.
I4

Temperature

E.

In
shown
vs.

to

typical

current

co1 d

fiel

causes.

It

recommended

operating

level

for

the
for

the

positive

the

In

is

of

the

shows
the

that

of

Fig.

IO is

bombardment

energy

about

particular

heated.

Emission

This

cycle

graph

d emission

polarities.

ha If

the

is

wil I have

very

8 watts

the

contact

studied.

current

wi I I be

evident

different

is

on ac

emission

than

half.

all

diameter

contact

different

positive

negative

and

emission

it

different

the

the

Emission

rise

dc only,

where

to

Field

temperature

maximum
For

from

relationship

indicate

the

Rise

of

these

tungsten

ratings

curves

the

contacts

are

average

have

necessari

been

I y lower

maximum

shown.

to

va ues

found

for

l/Z-inch

Over-a

l production

values

a I low reasonab

y economical

and

safe

variations.
F.

has

been

IO

Vacuum

Pump Action

Another

fundamental

established

years

is

the

pump action

gassed

tungsten

which
pie

are

vacuum
in

itself

this

shows

pumping

within

a few

contact

the

large

molecule

the

or

container

and

heavy

Fig.

II

a IO -4 Torr
or

is

Y
3
2
91.,6

better

2
_
*I(
5

If
2

used,

tungsten

inert

atom

in

-I s

vapor

this

walls

LEVEL VS NUMBER OF INTERRUPTIONS

action.

plasters

other

GENERAL AC,4

t,;d

con-

operations.

material

easily
any

The

of

metal lit

hundred

tungsten
very

speed

speed

can improve
-6
Torr
level
a IO

to

princi-

possible

action

T-

TIME FOR PRESENT GLASS


TYPE

1x1-d

pump

The graph

the

LEVEL S

is

ion

high

high

that

vacuum

atom

today.

its

GENERAL MCM

pumps

ion

vapor

gases.

i I lustrates

out-

when interrupting,

al I of

taminating

This

market

~ll--1I

provides.

has a relatively
for

I*,(

past

properly

vapor

a metallic

action

the

vacuum

metal

contact,

which

the

cmmercial

on the

Switches

which

within

contact

use the

Vacuum

self-correcting

vacuum

High-speed

in

a tightly

inert

Fig.
I I.
interruptions
level.

against
held
I5

The effects
of number of
and time on the vacuum

met hanica
vapor

I I ayer .

reacts

thus

For

oxygen

chemically

effectively

removing

them

of

vacuum

However,

arcs

deals

the

the

currents.

60kA

r.m.s.,

currents

between
to

the

tained

from

continually
streams
the

it

arcs

through

cathode

cathode

is

about

The anode

a condensing

surface

the

for

about

1000A.

affected
the

IOmm in

about

IOkA.
The

adversely
spots
(a)

arcs

of

the

total

if

area,

performance
affected

current,

rooted

to

the

of
in

two

of

cathode
the

the

of

the

copper-vapor

practical

molten

anode

or

power-frequency

vacuum

circuit

ways

if

these

breakers
large

contact

erosion

or

wear
I6

will

vapor.

be produced.

and

forms only
5) ,6) ,7) ,8) ,9)

shows

that

the

contact
are

in

readily

excess
arc

of

is

confined

also
form

spots

loops

will

high-temperature

develop:
Excessive

and

and cathode

during

across

geometry

current,

and a constructed
large

move
gap with

electrode

currents

sus-

which

relationships

at

con-

is

developed

arc

these

examined

arc

spots

and cathode
10),11),12)

a function

of

diameter,

discharge,

by others

may

centimeters

interelectrode

of

particles

about

breaker

vacuum

The voltage

in

systems,

up to

a few

mobile

and that

current

major

of
circuit

the

appearance

arc

much higher

literature;

part

reported

the

art

at

breaker

range.

arcs

independent

dimensions

Moreover,

circuit

a few centimeters

particles.

is

vacuum

currents

filling

amperes.

distribution

current

of

highly

geometry,

vacuum

vacuum

the

arc

the

a vacuum

this

charged

work

may develop,

about

the

the

that

little

copper-vapor

by the

arc

for

in

properties

a few thousand

interconnected

surface,

plays

and contact

apparent

in

fundamental

than

interrupt

2OV and is

experimental

separation

of

up to

and charged

separation.

of

study

electrodes

the

electrodes

voltage

interest

1000A,

given

vapor

The

of

less

of

to

about

copper

the

of

desirable

description

over
of

is

up to

butt

as mechanically,

circulation.

on the

on high-power

control

At

form

resurgence

and thus

tungsten

VACUUM ARCS

discharges

may be required

satisfactorily

long,

with

faults

breakers

active

literature

a fundamental

During

as well

the

Vacuum Arcs

existing

present

has necessitated

circuit

of

of

from

HIGH-CWIRENT

Observation
Most

materials,

and electrostatically

III.

A.

and othernon4nert

of

exceeds

be

of

(b)

A high

density

more
These

have

designs

prevented
the

at

arc,

of

spot

the

a transverse

of

order

As the

current

repelled

cathodes,

these

velocities

of

of

Froome

field

butt

spots
up to

and

vacuum

spots

motion

of

is

been

the

the

observed

is

increased,

the

mean current

to

addition

to

increasing
been

with

once

of

of

of

cathode

spots

than

this

field

of

spots

form

divide

On copper
mean directed

they

process

by more

which

spots

spot.

the

formation

has also

which

and move apart


extinguish

develops

additional

IOO-ZOOA per

if

on a variety

arc

be

cathode

spot

magnetic

to

on

direction,

at

on

However,

random.

a transverse

one another

is

out

of

repel

current

carried

The order

by Reece

In

been

and Reece.

shown

and tend

contacts.
spots

Amperean

has

moving

cathode

cathode,

normal

presence

spontaneous

cathode

the

and Gal lather

the

electrodes.

of

to

the

of

the

the

may be

by magnetically
of

field

to

motion,

the

IOm/s

that

circuit-

melting

IOkA peak
overheating

applied

one another;

is

when the

formation

is

in

in

has reported

cathodes

re-ignition

practical

electrode

magnetic

opposite

from

cathodes

about

an external

lOOm/s

on copper

edge

of

by Cobine

IWb/m.

of

undue

may be concluded

retrograde

of

and are

arc

and

exists
on the behavior
13) * 14)
Much work has

velocity

may be

some time,

literature

magnetic
of

for
that

excess

and it

cathodes

velocity

making

localized

designated

metal

the

in

absence

a component

recognized

meta I electrodes.

cathodes,

been

be maintained,

preventing

of

mercury

has

will

demonstrated

currents

A volume
a variety

been

have

and thus

in

vapor

likely.

problems

breaker

of

move over

spot

the

fission,
on mercury

spontaneous
15)
on copper
by Reece

reported

IOA/s;

cathodes.
The
been

rate

at

which

investigated

Plyutto
up to

et
a few

evaporation

of

During
between

criptions

by many workers,

including

is

vacuum

in

the

the

from

Cobine
during

cathode

cathodes

is

of

the

spots

and Vanders

the

is

cathode

vacuum

eroded,

the

order

of

of

less

than

lice,

arc

and

has
Greece,

at

that

currents
the

mean

100 g/C.

arc:
all

electrodes

show that

that,

only

copper

practically

given

concluded

amperes,

for

the

copper

photographs

evaporated

hundred
rate

Appearance

is

and it

al.,

metal

of
the

the
more

general

discharges
than

IOOmm in

appearance
The

literature.
I7

of

discharge

diameter,
the
is

arc

about

IOkA peak,

high-speed
follows

supported

the
through

tine
desa

number
these

of

cathode

spots

emit

current

cathode

Summary

of

in

spot

12.

.linear

i.e.

up to

the

gram

obtained

ities

occur

the

Fig.

current

arcing

voltage

of

arcing

They

were

portion

excess

of

the

current
of

the

surface,
anode.

by a further
most

50%;
of

considerably

oscillogram

clearly

indicates
to

the

the

three

copper,

Fig.

at

and
The mean-

the
test

arc

25%.

the

effect

period,
by the

onset

during

of

I3

up to

40V;

instabilstarvation

in

and the
of

oscillo-

increases

results

gross-melting

of

of

Arc

Fig.
tests

Current
16.8KV
Vo I tage

Arc

Current
2l.IKV

Arc

Voltage

the
form

arcing
of

I8

10.5KA/cm
25V/Division

10.5KA/cm
25V/Division

Arc

Current
32KV

IO. 5KV/cm

Arc

Voltage

I5V/Division

12. Arcing-voltage/current
characteristics
on 75 mm-diameter
o.f.h.c.copper
electrodes

the

ThPs

discharge.
Arc

in

a reduced

extent

melting.

disposition
the

the

on

Fig.

Gross

exceeds

are

tests

subsequent

melting

asymmetrical

current

the

current

high-current

the

consecutive

by about

electrode

reduced

arcs

5mm separation.

I4 shows

and shows

gross

vacuum

characteristic

increased

i.e.

third

with

voltage/current

is

40V;

I5 was the

respect

during

current.

are

with

to

associated

obtained
0.f.h.c.

instabilities

voltage

voltage

of

starvation

for

extends

the

characteristics:

when the
in

which

over

IOO-ZOOA.

electrodes

the

current.

is

forms

Fig.

move constantly

plasma

arcing-voltage

75mm-diameter
shows

which

a green

The three
shown

spots

during
three
consecutive
at 5 mm separation

the

B.

fields

tliqh

Current

Vacuum Arc

High

current

vacuum

have

(a)

important

So far

the

anode

radiation

of

at

the

to

enable

desired

field

The

other

will

types

ment.
the

the

better

arc

in

vacuum

constant

arc

an attempt

fields

on constant
Recently,

arcs

is

cally

experimental
et

a I.

ca Icu la-ted,
field

of

copper

arcs

arcs

outline

of

column

and arc

Axial

Arcing

voltage

electrodes

voltage

represented

current

reaches

ponding

to

in

u I ar

vi bration,

radius

that

of

to

have

with

electrode
is

not

in

this

study.

of

high

current

respect

of

magnetically
aid

of

obtained

data

through

vacuum

to

arcs

magneti-

are

stabilized

the

magnetic

data

vacuum

than

gap arcs.

by axial

with

stabilized

same as

longer

constant

stabilized

move-

the

becomes

of

out

contact

The voltage-current

by the

peak
axial

arcing
while

Masnetic

Flux

measurement

a dc magnetic
in

three
of

that

information

magnetically

authors,

with

by the

properties

available.

induced

and
reported

arcs

on axial

are

electric

application

of

the

limit.

Critical

form

is

less

quantities

to

wave

but

vacuum

8) The various

the

so as

operation.

arcs

was carried

concerning

gradually,

Kruskal-Shafranov)
C.

vacuum

spacing

designed

spacing

to

be prevented

important

line

when electrode

up the

is

separation

to

of
by

magnetically

proper

in

change

clear

are

initiated

characteristics

according

arc

for
are

melting
caused

can

compared

longer

contact

induced

density.

It

arcs

go,

anode

by the

breakers

However,

electrode

increasing

melting

current

becomes
the

literature

stabilized

by Ito

of

gap arcs.

5 mm, the

Thereby,

the

stage

anode

name indicates,

breakers,

the

dimensions

threshold

circuit

length

arcs)
to

reproducibilities.

circuit
arc

the

Field

magnetically

input

be controlled

as the

arcs,

and the

energy

Induced

lows:

electrode

to
the

by axial

as triggered

neglected,

exceed

actual

(such

when the

not

The initial

about

is

have

the

stabilized

If

density

lized

a stabilized

separation

place.

plasma

current

stabi

In

take

by Maoneticallv

as fol

gap arcs

current,

the

which

(b)

not

arc

arcs

characteristics

as constant
does

Stabilized

Fig.

field

in
wave

flux

is
the

The change

magnetic

the

carried

I3 indicates

value.

voltage

Densitv

of

densities

a relatively
form

of
I9

to

Stabilize

out

with

shown

in

value

arcing

at

a pair
Fig.

shown

voltage

in

asymmetric
The arcing

instant

voltage
is

Arcs

of

13.

the

weak magnetic
arcing

the

in

when the

wave

form

Fig.

14.

field
a strong

corresThe

has irregmagnetic

field

has

no vibration,

photographic
a strong
radia

but

observation
magnetic

has good

confirms

field

is

reproducibility

that

caused

the

of

arcing

by expansion

wave

voltage
of

arc

in

Fig.

to

column

form.

The

over-shoot

in

column

toward

the

I direction.
The diminishing

to

be the

is

that

parts

transition

the

magnetic

region

energy

field

of

loss

applied

the

from

arc
diffused

by diffusion
across

the

voltage
arcs

is
arc

being

13 are

decreased

voltage

which

considered

arcs;

the

through

exists

fact

the

between

axial
the

contacts.
The

reason

is

explained

tial

field

region
ing

the

column

paths
to

increasing

as follows.
B. and the

of

leading

for

axial

these

the

decrease

The effect

field

For

arcs.

along

been reported

Helical

this

helical

of axial

of

voltage
magnetic
Bz are

magnetic

the
fields

radius

of

fields

with

magnetic

fields

brought

by the

tangen-

enlarged
plasmas
are

in

easily

for

may also be the same as the above one, otherwise


instability

of the thinly

20

long

discharg-

extinguished,

vacuum arcs has

to this report the arc voltage


of mgnetic
fields.
The reason

increased

the helical

peripheral

arcs.

is being
this

the

having

of low current

10) According
in pace with the increase

by C. W. Kimblin.

line

fields
being

reason,

magnetic
actual

in

column arcs.

it

may be due to

27

34 kA

Over-shoot

01
0
Axial

Fig.
13.
flux
for
spacing

I
0. 05
Magnetic

of

Flux:

Arc voltage
various
arc

I
0. 1
B, (Wb/m2)

versus
currents

1
0. 15

axial
magnetic
30mm electrode

Arcing
voltages
25 V/div
sweep 2
mS/div

Arcing
voltage
wave form in various
Fig.
14.
magnetic
flux
densities
at 18.4 kA.
Zero lines
of arcing
voltages
are the same as for currents
(a) B, = 0.02 Wb/m2
(b) B, = 0.064
Cc) B, = 0.12
21

IV.

VACUUM CIRCUIT
Operatinq

A.

Since
eight

I5 kV,

state

power

BREAKERS USED ON REPETITIVE

LOAD SWITCHING

Experience

1965,

3-pole

the

Stanford

vacuum

circuit

supplies

Linear

Accelerator

breakers

operating

at

12.47

for

kV,

Center

all

has

of the

60 Hz,

used

large

solid-

ranging

from

1.5 to

were

added

5.8 MW.
In
replace

1970,
the

solid-state

six

4160

existing

air

power

circuit

breakers

beyond

the

duty

has

been

the

vacuum

properly

corrected

or

breaker

of
to

the

the

similar

air

questioned

which

are

breaker

initial

(Q:B

two

5 kV,

the

power

supply

off

supply
air

circuit
vacuum

rectifier

rectifier

circuit

It

the

chopping

circuit

breaker

generated

22

through-

short

complete

circuit

are inhibited

circuit

transformer

failures.

were

due to

current

reported.

5 kV vacuum

generated

breaker

been

breakers,

due to

Oscilloscope

is

anti-bouncing
have

circuit

the

from

by vacuum
current

Fig.

noted
is

while

breaker
Fig.

the

circuit

that

the

was switched

that
about

less

were

chopping.

16 shows

voltage

chopping

pictures

voltage

breaker.

breaker.

on

currents.
of

transformer

sticky

failures

sustain

two

wear

transformer

transformer

circuit

circuit

only

were

failures

breaker

that

The fuses and a back-up

circuit

voltages

air

difficulties

750 KVA rectifier

circuit

by vacuum

thread

due to

currents.

breakers.

of

difficulties

to

period

prove

due to

vacuum

operations

previously.

The vacuum breakers

transformer

transient
air

the

properly

operation

records

were

These

I5 kV and

4000

there

closing

operating

the short

the

existing

either

to

life

used

stage

delayed

of excessive

clear

were

earlier

Each time

compare

power

conventional

567 KW
vacuum

above

2000

operating

failures

operated

of

the

these

2 MVA rectifier

circuit

was switched

volt,

circuit

on all

breakers;
normal

no further

vacuum

the

to

These

and oil

range

mechanism.

the

the

4160

operations

(ACB)

which

long

15 kV,

periods

that

due to

the

fuses,

was suspected

shows

the

in

history.

were

current

six

circuits.

installed

these

tripping

two

there

versus

of

of 20,000 amp at 12.47 kV.

breakers,

the

repetitive

An annual

that

and

power

During

taken

been

mechanism

operating

opening during

It

of

breakers

on the

were

circuit

for

switching

breaker

exceed

circuit

rods

used

air

far

indicate

material

current

needs

have

each

operating

their

power

breakers,

breakers

There

breakers

breakers

circuit

for

fibre-glass

with

air

and oil

the

the

circuit

mechanical

out

provide

counters

Records

the

a.c.

recorded

breakers

circuit

circuit

cycles.

Operating
5 kV vacuum

vacuum

supply

present

mechanical

volt

than

the

voltage

off

by

rise

ZOO%, whereas
lO$ overvoltage.

the

15

I7 and

Figs.
formers

during

closed

position.

the

vacuum

circuit

be used

initial
in

I9 shows

order
to

against

which
life

3/64

closing
change

of
of

in

the

this

life

during

contains
dimension

Transient
Fig.
15.
567KW, 416OV power
scale
2.5 kV/cm

the

pnoper

force

of

the

life

of

the

breakers.
initial

to

circuit

radial
can

bouncing

in

closing
the

with

the

breaker

in

air

contacts

contact
is

and
to

breaker

is

measured

is

noted

to

in

their

Therefore,

assure
there

especial

displacement.

spring

determined

on each

to

that

wipe

assist
is

surfaces.
provided

contact

on contact

force

circuit

be attributed

an

container

the

service-

may be a change
ly if

the

Any subsequent
contact

wear.

voltage
rise
on vacuum breakerbwitched-off.
supply
PB20.HorizontaI
scale
IOms/cm;
vertical

23

the

differences

requirements

50 operations,

a slight
then

It

contact

I7 compared

travel

mark

contact

same trans-

no essential

vacuum

vacuum
the

the

18.

contact

dimension

of

vacuum

on Fig,

of

the

are

on Fig.

moveable

an impact

reference

an inch

motion

assure

wear

examine

there

defines

erosion

the

that

as shown

The

by the
external

of

to

conditions

to

as shown

curve

provide

initial

able

noted

a typical

This

voltage

period

closing

opening.

general

is

closing

I curve.
in

turn-on
It

breaker

motions
to

the

breaker

Fig.
trave

I8 show the

Load-

a)
5 kV/cm
Horizontal
scale
20 ms/cm

b)

Transient
voltage
rise
on air circuit
breaker
during
Fig.
16.
Load - 567 I<# 4160 V power supply
PQ 204.
"switched-off".
24

Vertical
scale
2.5 kV/cm
Horizontal
scale
50
ms/cm

Fig.
17.
turn-on.
Horizontal

Fig.
18.
turn-on.
horizonta

Voltage
Load
scale

condition
in vacuum breaker
during
567 KW 4160 V power supply
PB-204.
IO MS/cm; vertical
scale
2.5 kV/cm

air current
breaker
Vo I tage condition,
Load 567 KW 4160 V power supply
PQ-204;
I sea I e 20 MS/cm; vertica
I sea I e 2.5 kV/cm

25

f
Spet:tfjed
Ida*.
overrrnve1

Fig.

19.

Tvaical

B.

Typical

Construction

The vacuum
consist

of
I)

the

interrupter

As shown

a.

in

Fig.

for

20,

the

unit

appears

are

described

below:

This

components

as well
in

the

alumina

ceramic,

able

maintaining

of

selected

Breaker
the

project

use

components:

Enveloae:

are

curve

unit:

components

tacts

travel

a Vacuum Circuit

breakers
main

contact

of

circuit

following

Vacuum

The major

moving

Ideal

provides

mechanical

as electrical
open

or

the

simple.

support

for

insulation

position.

glass

deceptively

It

may be nade

over

other

when the

glass-ceramic.

vacuum

the

It
the

long

of

conhigh

must

be cap.-

life

of

the

interrupter.
b.

End CUDS or
stainless
other

steel

Stationarv

center

Monel.

and must

a direct

match

seal

and Moveable

is

copper.

conductors.

One is

fixed

Metal
from

Usually

provide
the

made of

support

thermal

to

various

expansion

of

the

made.

Rods:

(OF%)

the

shell:

These

conductivity

ate
d.

if

and
or

components

envelope
c.

plates

Normally
These

while

are

the

oxygen-free,
the

other

main
moves

high
electrical
to

separ-

contacts.
vapor

condensina

OFHC copper,

as a condensing

shields:

nickel
surface
26

or
for

These

are

normally

stainless

steel.

the

vaporized

metal

They

made
serve

by the

arc.

e.

It

prevents

the

ing

portion

of

Flexible

metal
the

bellows:

into

the

The usual

vacuum.

condensing

on the

insulat-

envelope.

metallic

transferred

from

Permits

interrupter

the

motion

without

materials

are

to

a loss

stainless

be

of

steel

or

Monel .
f.

Electrical

contacts:

components

of

destroy

the

the

entire

low vapor

tively

high

the
ized
of

which

contacts

copper

will

not

only

quantities

of

tacts

exhibit

must

tradictory,
They
means

less

have

a copper

the

would

go to

mally

the

Thus,

it

ping

alloy.

They

at

zero

current

and is

goes

of

are

of

to

the

is

reached,

about

interrupter

the

to

the

tube

sometimes

materials)

anti-we1

wave,

but

directly

from
derived

line
the

system

or

silver-alloy

The interrupter
A copper

evacuation.
off,

ding

must

a few

impedance

of

27

good

from
and

normally

current

the

tube.

This

the

only

pinched

con-

Ideally,

voltage

is

The con-

They

any

for

in

copper.

that

IO-T.

level

present

material.

sinusoidal

zero

welded

package.

a pressure

the

independent

components

an airtight

values.

following

a function

current

sealing

high

normally

exhibit

of

vapor-

on contact

pure

few

chopping

and

is

using

welding

conductivity.

eliminates

of

the

easily

current

diverse

must

used

has a rela-

one of

is

is

section

electrical

may be noted

is

ious

(see

may

rule

so that

contact

of

good

current

the
It

I$ of

a number

This

properties.
chop

than

is

also

reduces

a few amps.

the

as bismuth

It

critical

failure

to

copper

occur.

properties

must

exception

the

most

common material

Bismuth

thus

the
their

materials,

modify

arc-and

to

one

pressure.

will

by the

is

pressure

vapor

perhaps

The most

This

only

are

interrupter;

interrupter.

copper-bismuth.

elements

These

not

noramps.
chop-

the

chop

The var-

voltage.
brazed

forming

is

then

tube

is

usually

attached

When the

desired

pressure

actually

evacuated

a cold

to

weld

The interrupter
Wren the
several
will

reveal

Metallic
.
. .
nssemDty
1

,, to ,ns,ation
Meta
Vacu lum Seal

unit

is

then
found

This

weeks.

standard

FI exible
Bellows

is

leaks
helium

checked
to

for

be good,

time

is

leak

testing

is

for

that

than

are

retained

succeeding
detectable

tests
with

equipment.

Electrical
Contacts

InsulatinaVacuum
Enve,ape-

properties.

it

such

much smaller

dielectric

Vacuum

Chamber

Stationary
Electrical
Terminal

Metal to lnsul lotion


Vacuum
Seal
MetalLapar
Condensing

Fig.
20.
Cutaway
view of typical
15.5
600/800
ampere
load current
interrupter.
28

Shield

kV,

Elactric
Region

12,000

Arcing

ampere

interrupter

2)

Three-pole

control

As shown
use

on each

control
age,

of

as shown

travel

2.1, the

phase

lower

portion

and

power

protective
on Fig.

vacuum

circuit

C.

mercial

safety

are

housed

The final

22.

breaker

order

to

on the

closing

and tripping

the

picture,

for

top

provides

circuit

of

the
link-

the

contact

Each
kV,

ating

voltage

12.5

the

vacuum

steel

switching

housing

as

coordinated

medium.

and its

circuit

switch

over-ail

Application

breakers
were

used

from
for

com-

the

15 kV

interrupting
voltage

breaker

be 4000

of

shall
and

in

closing

for

into

a fault

of

a minimum

of

normal
40,000

carrying

and

The impulse
The vacuum
20,000

rating

At

80 percent

housing

of

interrupting

The

its

be capable

rating

system.

amperes.
at

current.

cycles.

have

grounded

be 400

be 95 kV BIL.

latch
at

Z-l/Z

shall

oper-

voltage

amperes

assembled

continuous

40 operations
of

kV,

shall

rating

time

14.5

capacity

rated

a close

13.2

wye connected,

I and subsequently

its

at

3 phase,

shall

design

be rated

kV,

be capable

amps asymmetrica

shall

maximum

The switch

shall

I have

breaker

ac,

capacity

operation

clearing

provides

circuit

current

factor.

minimum

gauge

specifications

60 Hz

interrupting

shal

II

as the

assembly,

disconnecting

Specification

the

vacuum

The continuous

stand

mechanism

breakers:

(15L)

power

a No.

be served

following

Rating:

in

assembly

procure

control

manual-operated

Breaker

to

the

600 Amp vacuum

the

of

units

mounted

of

3-phase

fuses,

relays

sources

a.

units,

Vacuum Circuit
In

are

interrupter

Assembly:

with

shown

vacuum

previously.

The interrupter
complete

three

The movement

as described

Final

assembly:

15 kV systems

assembly.

on the

movement
3)

on Fig.

three

mechanism

mechanism

rated

breaker

amperes

with

and maximum

current

operating

with-

life

of

fault

(400/600

amp),

40,000

oper-

ations.
b.

Design
remote
Breakers

Each 3-pole
125 volt
shall

switch

shall

dc electrical
be long

be designed

operation
minimum

life,
29

for

as shown
maintenance

local
on the
with

and
drawing.
minimum

Fig.

21.

15.5

kV 600/800

Amp 3 pole
30

control

mechanism

assembly

I
I-

i,
.
.i:.d_
-.-,.
.
&.i

interrupting

c.

interrupt

time

Trip

free

mechanism:

with

125 volt

the

vacuum

loses
d.

rating

Vacuum

in

Figs.

breaker

23,

one cycle
Trip

in

Shall
while
switch

switch

dual
Typica

amps RMS, 2 cycle


or

case

less

mechanism

dc undervoltage

Interlocks:

the

4000

trip

maximum

preferable.
shal I be equipped

device

125 volt

to

trip

dc control

out

circuit

voltage.

a switch
e.

with

to

pole

the

fuse

contactor
position

shall

I SLAC vacuum
24,

be provided

to

prevent

compartment
position

and contact

is

the

of

open.

indicators
erosion

closing

to

indicate

for

each

indivi-

lations

are

shown

be provided.
circuit

breaker

instal

25 and 26.

15 kV 600A vacuum circuit


Fig.
23.
current
transformers
and potential
12.47 kV solid
state
power supply.

breaker
transformers

32

assembly
complete
for use on 5.8

with
MW

Fig.
24.
Same I5 kV 600 Amp vacuum circuit
covered
with metallic
screen
to comply
with
for ho-l' maintenance
and inspection.

600 Amp I5 kV vacuum circuit


Fig.
25.
and manual disconnect
switch
assembly

33

breaker
California

as shown
Safety

in Fig.23,
Code

breaker
back side power fuses
for use on 5.8 MW power supply.

600 Amp I5 kV outdoor


circuit
Fig.
26.
use on 3.4 MW rectifier
transformers.

After
vacuum

eight

circuit

I5 kV power

circuit

for

are

now being

5 kV 3.0
magnet

is

MW vacuum
power

accepted

by SLAC for
A fully
built

15 kV main
circuit

supply

34

for

experience

now being

Ring)

installation

operating

applications.

breaker

Assymetric

SPEAR detector

successful

switching

circuit

Electron

Two additional

of

breakers

500 MVA vacuum


Positron

years

breaker

use.

rated
for

feeder

breakers

at

SLAC,

5 kV and
I5 kV,

SPEAR (Stanford
circuir

are

being

breaker.
built

v.
Vacuum circuit
a circuit
fast

breakers

breaker

must

and efficient

maintainable
after

thousands

have

to

fault

be capable

duties

The

switches

of

repetitive

any

know the

devices

The
is

exhaust,

the
must

be taken

continuing

of
to

the

surge

much closer

in

on 34.5

69 kV and

of

vacuum

on the

cost

breakers

to

in

the

ideally

or

known

of

be made

and

vacuum

attributes,
for

and

such

hazardous

of

non-

distribution

highly

conditions.

manufacturer,

circuit

application

the

power

switchgear

all

to

is

operations

suited
under

it

The contacts

These

characteristics
in

have

normal
of

a quiet,

design

low maintenance

especially

selecting

special

of

that
is

erosions.

be a fact.

engineer

its

adjustments

and
to

duties

breaker

a lifetime

make them

of

electrica

state

kV,

proven

importance

specific

life

electrical

care

in

the

of

contact

all

operations,

I including

Reasonable
under

been

switching

As an applications
must

due to

operating

for

circuit

external

encountered

long

suited

By virtue

interrupting

has already

absence

breaker.

operations
of

well

A vacuum

occasionally

normally

services.

the

of

are

perform.

circuit

except

coNcLlJsIoN

one

protective

vacuum
of

breakers.

vacuum

breakers

I network.
art

of

ahead.
the

the

vacuum

Vacuum circuit

conventional

A greatly

industrial

and

horizon.

35

power

and material

breakers

bulk-oil

I I5 kV circuits.
the

technology

should

switchgear
expanded
systems

is

science
bring

now used
application
definitely

it

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