SUMMARY

Variable Frequency Drives (VFD) can convert single phase to three phase power when
needed (even for many larger integral horsepower motors) or can run directly from
three phase power when available.

VFDs can only drive three phase motors, never single phase motors.

They can soft start a high inertia load to limit or completely eliminate the large inrush
current normally associated with motor starting.

VFDs take the place of a magnetic starter, while at the same time offering superior
motor protection and precise control.

While their initial cost may seem high, their installed cost compares very favorably
with traditional motor starting techniques; but VFDs offer so many significant
advantages over conventional magnetic starters at the same time.

VFDs are more efficient electrically than other phase conversion devices.

Motors do not need to be derated when driven by a VFD. Because VFDs deliver
balanced three phase current, motors can be operated at their full rated horsepower for
their specified duty cycle.

VFDs allow easy adjustment of motor speed to match changing load requirements.

VFDs can be programmed to change motor speed dynamically in response to a system

related variable, such as a drop in a pipe organ's static wind pressure.

VFDs can potentially damage old weak motor insulation. The use of a Load Reactor
can minimize the risk; but this is usually unnecessary. Rewinding with inverter duty
rated wire intended for use with VFDs will eliminate the risk.

VFDs can be programmed to shorten or lengthen a motor's normal deceleration time

when the motor is turned off. Energy recovered from braking may have to be
dissipated in an external resistor.

INTRODUCTION
Because 3 phase commercial power is not available at my home, I am forced to use single phase
240 VAC to run my pipe organ blower. I started out using a rotary transformer type of phase
converter to provide the three phase power required for the motor. It was big, noisy, and slow to
start, and caused a pretty severe brownout emphatically noticed on every light in the house. Each
of the several battery backup power supplies in the house would issue its warning beep and briefly
switch over to battery operation until the phase converter got up to full speed. Then another
brownout took place when the Spencer blower motor was started. Each of these starts was an
"across-the-line" start initiated by the closure of a disconnect switch and then a conventional
magnetic
starter.

A small 3 hp rotary phase converter is shown here. A rotary phase

converter generally looks like a shaftless electric motor with an extra metal box attached to
contain the phase shift capacitors needed to get its three phase motor to start and run on single
phase since power is being applied to only one of the motor's three field windings. Once up to
speed, the load is then switched to all three phase windings of the motor. The two unpowered
windings derive their power in the same way that a transformer's primary winding can induce a
current into its secondary winding, hence the name rotary transformer.
Rotary phase converters were commonly used before practical solid state alternatives were
developed. In spite of their popularity, I learned from my unhappy experience that a rotary phase
converter was not to be the solution to my phase conversion problem; so I started thinking about
alternatives. I knew that Variable Frequency Drives could make the required single to three phase
conversion; but after studying many drive specifications found on the Internet, I was disappointed
to learn that drives powered from single phase are only offered for motors up to 2 or 3 hp. But
what if your motor is larger than that? Well, since the initial writing of this page in 2003, a few
manufacturers have finally introduced new models that are factory specified to operate from 120
or 240 volts AC single phase, and are rated for 10 hp or more.

While VFDs designed to run on single phase electric power have been readily
available to operate motors up to 3 hp, there have been very few offered to operate larger integral
horsepower motors. There is very little call for such a thing since most users of larger motors have
three phase commercial power available, and all VFDs will run on 3 phase.
It is usually possible to use single phase power with larger motors, however, if the drive is
carefully selected for the size and type of load. Specifically this has to do with rectifier sizing, and
the type of load being driven. The 40 hp Hitachi VFD pictured here is less than 10" x 15-1/2".
Many sales people will say that if you just double the size of the drive, it will work on a single
phase power source. For example, to run a 7-1/2 hp motor, use a 15 hp VFD. For a 10 hp motor,
use a 20 hp drive, etc. This is a rather arbitrary formula that is probably safe for many
applications; but at least for larger drives, correctly programmed, it could be expensive overkill.
Its better to try to calculate the size drive needed. Most of the engineers I have spoken with used
the following logic to determine the size needed. Read the full load amperes (FLA) on the
nameplate of the motor to be driven. Remember that this current rating is for 3 phase power. To
calculate the equivalent number of amperes needed from the single phase power line, multiply the
3 phase FLA times the square root of 3 (1.73).
Single Phase Full Load Amperes = (3 phase FLA) x 1.73
Select a drive with a rated INPUT current capacity at least as large as the calculated single phase
amperes. Dont cut it too fine. Leave a little safety margin. Some sales engineers suggest a 10%
fudge factor. And dont forget to program your drive to limit output current to your motors FLA
amperes! This will prevent the drive from exceeding its input diode current ratings. This procedure
is good for comparing drive prices from different manufacturers; but when you are ready to order
a VFD, be sure your sales engineer knows you are intending to run the drive from single phase,
and
get
him
to
confirm
and
approve
your
selection.
Some types of loads, like reciprocating piston pumps and compressors, for example, require a
Constant Torque VFD designed for or at least derated for the constant torque application.
Fortunately, an organ blower is a variable torque fan load, and the less expensive Variable Torque
drive can be used. In this context, the torque needed to rotate a fan varies with the speed of

rotation. Most VFDs can be programmed to operate in either mode, with reduced current being
available
when
driving
a
Constant
Torque
load.
An Encoderless Vector Drive or Flux Vector Drive is not required for simple fan loads. A Variable
Frequency Drive is sometimes referred to as an AC Drive, Adjustable Speed Drive (ASD), and
occasionally simply as an "Inverter". The Input Section of a VFD takes alternating current and
rectifies it to Direct Current (DC). The voltage ripple remaining after rectification is minimized by
using capacitors which act as short-term reservoirs to help stabilize the DC voltage available on
the
"DC
bus".
The heart of a VFD is really a power inverter - a device that converts DC power to AC power. The
inverter section of a VFD typically uses a microprocessor to manage 3 bipolar pairs of
semiconductor switches to synthesize three pseudo sine wave output voltages which are zero, 120,
and 240 degrees apart in their phase relationships. The semiconductor switch pairs feed from the
DC bus, and deliver pulses of Direct Current to each of the three phase load terminals of the drive
in sequence. The microprocessor controls the pulse durations and polarity to synthesize a pseudo
sine wave of variable frequency. This is commonly called Pulse Width Modulation.

Block diagram of a VFD showing major components

The need for careful selection of the drive is really the need to match to the intended load the size
and current ratings of the silicon diode rectifiers that make up the front end of a VFD. It is much
easier to supply stable DC bus voltage when there are three phase-independent full wave bridge
rectifiers operating at zero, 120 degrees and 240 degrees apart, than to have to draw all power
from just one single alternating current source. Its really very much like comparing a single
cylinder internal combustion engine to a three cylinder engine of equal power and torque. The
three cylinder engine simply runs a whole lot smoother than a single cylinder engine.

If the front end of the VFD (the diode rectifier section) is large enough to supply the required
current demanded by the anticipated load, then the drive should work successfully when powered
from a single phase source. If each one of the 3 rectifier packages is by itself large enough to
support the intended load, then a single phase power source can be used, and the 2 unused diode
packages can be left unterminated. In practice, I connect one side of the single phase line to L1,
and the other side of the single phase line to both L2 and L3 to allow these two rectifier packs to
share
the
load.
Most drives are optimized for use on 3 phase power. Drives intended for single phase come with
oversized filter capacitors. Larger capacitors are needed to better smooth the rectified DC since
only one of the three phase diode bridges is under power. Also, larger capacitors do a better job
dealing with the increased ripple amplitude and decreased ripple frequency applied to the DC bus
as a result of running on single phase. The wider voltage swings in the capacitor's
charge/discharge cycle, when running on single phase, exagerate the heating effect on the
capacitor bank. This heating effect is minimized when the drive is powered from 3 phase current.
So if only single phase power is available, then one very important benefit gained from using a
VFD is that you dont need a separate phase converter with its attendant cost, installation, noise,
electrical inefficiencies, and eventual maintenance. And all the phase converters I am aware of
have current balance problems where leg currents vary with load. Motor loads dont like this, even
if they are able to grin and bear it for a while. VFDs drive each 3 phase leg in exactly the same
way; so when all 3 motor windings have the same impedance, as they normally do, then leg
currents will remain equal even as the blower load and speed vary. This is why a motor must be
derated when powered by a rotary phase converter, or worse yet by a phase shifting capacitor
bank.
Another important benefit of using a VFD is the ability to soft start the load. Instead of a sudden
demanding across-the-line start of the phase converter, followed by another across-the-line start of
the organ blower motor, the blower simply starts turning and very gracefully accelerates without
complaint to the programmed operating speed over a programmed period of time. By spreading
the motor acceleration over a longer period of time, you can completely eliminate all the inrush
current demanded by a motor to get it up to running speed from a dead stop. For a squirrel cage
induction motor, this inrush current is typically on the order of 5-6 times full load current (FLA).
For a larger motor, this sudden demand for current often causes a very noticeable brownout to the
lighting and other electrical loads in operation when the motor is started, as mentioned above. The
cold start ramp time to attain normal running speed is easily programmed on a VFD. I have mine
set to 30 seconds so as to completely eliminate any discernible voltage drop. Dimming lights in
the
house
no
longer
signal
the
start
of
the
organ
blower.
Organ blowers are normally selected to provide a little headroom in supplying the organs required
wind pressure and volume. To provide for this reserve capacity, the blower runs faster than

necessary most of the time. A worst case example is when no pipes are playing at all. Similarly,
when the organist is playing a light registration, the blower is still running full bore ready to
handle
the
worst
case
stop
combination
when
it
comes
along.
Obviously, one useful feature of a variable frequency drive is the ability to vary the speed of the
blower motor. This makes it easy to match the running speed of the motor to the actual load. For a
pipe organ, it means being able to speed up the blower when a little more wind or pressure is
required. Conversely, if less wind would adequately satisfy the needs of the organ, then you can
very easily slow things down to better match the motor speed to the real load. This capability has
special value to organ people. For example, during the organ tuning process when only 1 or 2
pipes are playing at once, the blower can be slowed down to allow its "static" pressure to approach
the normal regulated wind pressure of the pipes being tuned. Not only does this save electric
power, but also it reduces the frictional heat gain from churning the very small consumption of
wind required to tune pipes. VFDs usually offer several optional programming methods which can
be utilized to accomplish this speed adjustment in very accurate discreet programmable steps, or
dynamically
as
described
below.
Another way to utilize the control features of a VFD is to use remote pressure sensing to control
the running speed of the blower. This can be done using a simple wind pressure switch wired to
the VFD to arbitrarily respecify the running speed of the motor, with a programmable time
constant to establish the sensitivity or rate of response of the drive to the changing control signal.
The
revised
or
alternate
running
speed
is
programmed
in
advance.
A more sophisticated approach would be to cause motor speed to change dynamically by using an
analog pressure transducer to control the drives output frequency (motor speed). Once again, as
wind consumption increases, as more and more pipes are called into play, the drop in residual
wind pressure feeds back to the VFD to cause motor acceleration until the desired wind pressure
has been restored. And when the musical arrangement thins out with fewer pipes playing, reducing
demand for wind volume, the motor will slow down to conserve energy and reduce noise and
frictional heating of the wind. So another benefit of using a VFD is that it can be programmed to
automatically compensate for varying load conditions.

Block diagram of PID Control feedback operation available on some VFDs

The blower's wind pressure is sensed by an analog pressure sensor. Two types of sensor are
commonly available. One has a variable voltage output, and the other has a variable current
output. Cost is usually under $100. Program the drive to match the type of sensor you use. A Set
point is programmed which represents the motor speed needed to produce the desired static wind
pressure under no-load conditions (no pipes playing). Another parameter is programmed to specify
how much influence the pressure sensor is to exert on the calculated motor speed needed to
maintain the currently sensed wind pressure close to the desired or Set point wind pressure. The
drive constantly senses, recalculates, and adjusts the motor speed (frequency) to maintain the
desired wind pressure regardless of the wind load imposed on the blower at the moment. In this
case the motor speed will increase as more pipes are played. And conversely, at the end of the
tune, the blower will slow down again when wind consumption returns to its normal idle value.
This is all interesting theory, but practical issues such as regulator efficiency and motor speed
recovery time can limit their application. A VFD is not a practical substitute for properly designed
organ wind pressure regulators; but it can help stabilize the static pressure in the main wind trunk
ahead of the various regulators feeding wind chests. The accuracy of the pressure regulators must
be considered, especially when the differential between static and regulated wind pressures is
minimal. A relatively large change in static pressure can sometimes have a surprising negative
effect on the regulated wind pressure, resulting in undesired changes in tuning pitches. Tuning
with a marginal reserve static pressure can lead to pitch changes when the normal static pressure is
restored. This is due to the imperfect nature of pressure regulators. Use some discretion and good
judgment when playing with your VFD's capabilities. As with most things, a lack of understanding
can
lead
to
unexpected
results.
Another opportunity to utilize a VFD's variable speed capability occurs when the organist finishes
playing a tune and hits the General Cancel before spinning around to speak to his audience. The
organ relay can signal the drive to slow down to a walk to minimize noise, power consumption,
and frictional heating of the churning air in the blower. When the organist starts to register for his
next piece, the blower quickly speeds up to its programmed normal running speed. Recovery time
depends on the horsepower reserve of the motor and drive, the level of current limiting
programmed into the drive, and the speed of the idling motor. Trial and error will allow you to
program realistic speed differentials into the drive. Ramp time is separately programmable for this
situation
on
some
drives.
To help maintain an instrument in tune, a VFD can be made to turn the blower motor very slowly
when the organ is not being played. This moves ambient air and moisture through the organ very
slowly in an effort to stabilize the temperature and humidity of the windchests and pipes. The
electrical cost to do this is minimal since it takes very little power to turn the blower very slowly.
This can be activated manually, of course, but there are typically several different ways to program
a drive to accomplish this automatically as a result of "turning off" the organ.

While it may not be important in the context of organ blowers, VFDs typically have the ability to
employ controlled braking to the motor load. Several optional braking schemes are usually
available. When necessary, recovered energy is converted to heat in a resistor. So if youd like
your blower to slow down quickly instead of coasting to a stop, its easy to do if you are using a
VFD. Just a little more programming of the drive is needed to enable this feature.
Incidentally, most VFDs are programmed using a keypad and alphanumeric display built into the
drive case. Many drives can also be programmed remotely from a computer using software and
cables
available
for
the
purpose
from
the
drive
manufacturer.
A VFD does not need an expensive magnetic starter. A fused disconnect is all thats required. The
drive is normally left under power all the time, and consumes very little standby current until
commanded to start the motor. One of the functions of a magnetic starter is to protect the motor
from overload. Heaters in the starter respond to motor current and open the control circuit when an
unusual or protracted overload situation occurs. VFDs offer superior motor protection in their
programmable current limiting capabilities. Current limitation also protects the drive itself from
self destruction by exceeding its design limits. Dramatic electrical problems like a short circuit in
the output cause a self protecting shutdown to take place. Error codes are presented on the
programming display to identify the cause for a protective shutdown.
To start a VFD, a switch closure or voltage appearance is all thats needed. For example, a VFD
can be triggered to start the blower when the magnet power supply is turned on making keying
voltage available to the organ. Just run a wire from the keying voltage power supply to the
appropriate
VFD
control
input.
Incidentally, most VFDs offer a "Frequency Arrival" signal to indicate that normal operating
frequency has been attained. This signal can be used to turn on a pilot light, or start another
electrically
controlled
process.
Yes there are some nice features and benefits that come with the use of VFDs for organ blowers.
But of course, there are some problems and tradeoffs too. To start with, VFDs may seem to cost a
little more than magnetic starters. For me, I think the inherent special features and flexibility of a
VFD easily justify its cost. I accept that some may disagree. But when you consider installed cost,
a VFD is bound to cost a lot less than 2 magnetic starters, a phase converter, and all the additional
time,
labor,
and
materials
needed
to
complete
the
installation.
VFDs operate in the digital domain. This is at once a blessing and a curse. The continuous spiking
of high voltage DC square waves to the motor windings can encourage premature insulation
failure. Unless they have been rewound, old motors will still have old insulation. Most new motors
are now designed and specified to be "inverter duty rated". That means that they have superior
insulation designed to be highly tolerant of the constant abuse of the pulsing high voltage DC used

to generate the 3 pseudo sine wave output lines. I say "pseudo" because the output wave shape
from a VFD is only an approximation of a pure sine wave. And when located at a distance from
the drive, the motor can see what begins to look like a hairy square wave. We are used to thinking
of a sine wave as having a nice smooth harmonic free shape. A VFDs output is synthesized
digitally, and the fast rise time of the DC pulses means that lots of harmonics are always present to
some
extent.
The drives that I have studied use pulse width modulation to change the average current delivered
to the load during a certain period of time. In the process of trying to imitate the shape of a sine
wave, the computer controlled semiconductor switches deliver bursts of DC from the bus to their
respective output terminals. At the beginning of the sine wave, the pulses are very narrow, and as
the prototype waveform rises in amplitude, the pulses are made wider by maintaining the
semiconductor switches ON (closed) longer. This causes an increase in the average current
available to the load during that part of the alternating current cycle. The pulses get narrower again
as the waveform approaches the zero crossing point. The cycle then repeats but with reverse
polarity
DC
for
the
second
half
of
the
sine
wave.
Before using an old motor with a VFD, it is sometimes recommended that a 5% impedance Load
Reactor be inserted between the drive and the motor. This will reduce the number and intensity of
harmonics that are sent to the motor, and minimize the effects of high voltage spiking on the old
insulation. For a more critical application ask your local motor shop to rewind your motor using
modern better insulated wire designed specifically for inverter operation. Because the new wire
can operate safely at higher temperatures, the chances are that the rewound motor can also safely
deliver
more
horsepower
as
a
bonus.
VFD powered motors typically produce a unique whistling sound when running. The whistling
sound is the result of the digital pulsing of the power to the motor. The chances are that this
audible noise will not be a problem since the blower itself is inherently noisy. It can be minimized
by reprogramming the digital pulse rates to a higher carrier frequency, or by inserting a 5%
impedance Load Reactor between the drive and the motor.

Oscillograms showing improved waveform by adding a 5% load reactor

If there is a considerable distance between the drive and the motor, a load reactor is desirable to
prevent motor overheating from wasteful harmonic content in the generated output power.
Harmonic content is real power, too high in frequency to contribute to motor torque, but still there
to heat the motor windings. Load reactors function as low pass filters to significantly reduce the
harmonic content of the VFD-generated 3 phase power delivered to the motor. When the motor is
reasonably close to the drive, a load reactor is probably not needed, and can be added later if
found
necessary.
The filter capacitors in a VFD have a limited life and must be replaced occasionally. For industrial
motors running hard 12 hours a day, the recommended time interval is usually 5 years or so
depending on the actual run time of the load. Replacement capacitors don't cost that much, but
you should be aware of the limited life of these capacitors, especially when the rectifier section of
the drive is working especially hard as it always does when powered from single phase current. In
typical home or church organ service, they should last much much longer.
A switch is a pretty simple thing. Anybody can flip it on or off. But a VFD takes a bit more
understanding, thought, and care during installation and programming to make it work best in any
particular application. From my own experience, some tweaking was required to make everything
work the way I wanted. The larger the drive and higher the currents, the more important all this
becomes. Once the drive has been installed and programmed, then it's operation becomes routine
and
taken
for
granted.
I am no expert on VFDs, but through reading and many conversations with VFD design engineers,
in addition to my own practical experience with several VFDs, I have managed to learn quite a lot
about these remarkably clever devices. I have tried to present the VFD in a fair light describing
both their benefits and limitations. I tried to explain why I prefer a VFD to the rotary phase
converter I first tried. Even when three phase power is already available, a VFD still offers many
advantages over a conventional magnetic starter, as described above. Id be glad to compare notes
with anyone who would like to consider using a Variable Frequency Drive.