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24/06/13
Forces ( F.Robilliard)
Mass:
So far, in our studies of mechanics, we have considered the motion of idealised
particles moving geometrically through space. Why a particular particle moves
with a particular type of motion, has not yet been considered.
The motion of a real body, is determined by the external forces, that act upon it.
There is an intrinsic property of a body, however, that determines its precise
response to a given applied force the mass (or inertia ) of the body.
Mass: Mass is the amount of material composing body.
Bodies are made from atoms, and atoms are composed of elementary particles,
such as protons, and electrons. These elementary particles have a quantum
property which we call mass. This property allows a particle to interact
gravitationally with other particles, and also gives the particle the property of
inertia. This property is additive. The mass of a body is the total mass of all the
elementary particles, of all the atoms, of which the body is composed.
SI Unit of mass: kg
1 kg = The total mass of (~5.98x1026) individual protons
24/06/13
Forces ( F.Robilliard)
Momentum:
Next we need to quantify the amount of motion possessed by a body. We
need to include both the mass of the body, and its velocity.
A body of mass, m, moving with a velocity vector, v, has a
momentum vector, p, defined by -
v
m
p
p=mv
24/06/13
Forces ( F.Robilliard)
Several Forces:
It is common for several forces to act on a body simultaneously. Each individual
force will contribute to the overall motion of the body. For example:
R
Fr
W
Although we have not yet defined precisely what we mean by force, it is
intuitively clear that forces have direction, and are therefore vectors.
The individual contributions by individual forces, to the overall motion of a body, will
add up, like vectors. We can use the idea of an overall effective force causing an
overall effective motion.
We can replace the several forces, with a single equivalent force, that has the
same total effect on the motion of the body, as all of the individual forces. Such an
equivalent force is called a resultant force, and is obtained by vector addition of
the several individual forces.
24/06/13
Forces ( F.Robilliard)
Resultant Force:
The vector sum of all the forces that act on a given body, at a given
moment, is called the resultant force acting on the body, at that moment,
and is represented by F.
R
Fr
F
In the diagram F = F + Fr + R + W (vector sum)
W
It is the resultant force, F, acting on a body, that
determines the overall change in motion of that body.
24/06/13
Forces ( F.Robilliard)
Forces ( F.Robilliard)
Law 1 (N1):
Unless a resultant force acts on a body, its momentum vector will not change.
Law 2 (N2):
The time-rate of change in the momentum of a body, is proportional to the
resultant force that acts on that body, and takes place in the direction in which
that resultant force acts.
Law 3 (N3):
If a body A exerts a force on a body B, then B exerts a reaction force back on A,
which is equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction to the original action force
due to A. This is true at every instant.
24/06/13
Forces ( F.Robilliard)
More Concisely:
F = force vector;
N1 :
N2 :
N3 :
If F = 0, then p = 0
~
d' $
F % p"
~
dt & ~ #
FAB = FBA
~
N1:
p = momentum vector
No cause, no effect!
Force causes a proportional
rate-of-change in momentum.
Never a lonely force; an action
causes an equal, but opposite
reaction.
24/06/13
Forces ( F.Robilliard)
N2:
We can simplify N2:
Say a resultant
force, F, acts on a
body, of mass, m,
which has a
velocity , v, and a
momentum of p.
p
m
N2
d' $
% p"
dt & ~ #
k constant of proportionality
d
= k m v where
~
p mv
dt
dv
= km ~ if m = const.
dt
dv
= km a where a acceleration ~
~
~
dt
F
~
( )
F = ma
~
Unit:
Forces ( F.Robilliard)
Example:
3N
2 kg
m
4N
F = 4 + 3 = 4i +3j (N)
#
4N
F = ma
4i +3j = 2 a
thus a = 2i + 1.5j m s-2
Resultant Force:
F = 5 N, at = 36.9 deg to x-axis
24/06/13
3N
F = ma
thus acceleration
= a = F/m = 5/2 = 2.5 m s-2
in the direction of the resultant
force, namely at = 36.9 deg
to the +x-axis.
Forces ( F.Robilliard)
1.5
hence = 36.9 deg
2
Same as before
10
N3:
N3 is often misunderstood. The only way a force can act on a body is by an
interaction with another body. There must always be two bodies. The
interaction could be by direct contact, or remotely, via a field. If A exerts a force
on B (the action force), symmetry would suggest that B would exert reaction
force back on A. This can be deduced from the requirement that the motion of
a body must be consistent with the motion of its component parts The action and reaction forces-
action force of A on B
reaction force of B back on A
Forces ( F.Robilliard)
11
Forces ( F.Robilliard)
12
Common Forces:
Next, we will describe some of the more common types of force, that occur in
problems.
Weight:
from F = m a
W=mg
W = mg
24/06/13
Body
g (m s-2)
9.78
8.87
3.77
Forces ( F.Robilliard)
1.62
13
Common Forces:
Tension:
T
B
t
m
24/06/13
T
M
14
Common Forces:
Reaction:
When a body exerts a force on a surface, the surface reacts back on the
body, with an equal and opposite reaction force. If there is no mechanism
for this reaction force to have a component along the surface (no friction,
no hinge etc), then the reaction will be normal to the surface. We call this
the normal reaction , R.
R
B
S
r
Normal reactions occur, where the surfaces in contact are smooth. If the
surfaces are rough, we get, in addition, a force component along the
surface, which we call friction.
24/06/13
Forces ( F.Robilliard)
15
Common Forces:
Spring:
Let one end of a spring be fixed to a wall and an object is fixed on the
other. When an applied force F acts on the object, the object exerts a force
F on the spring and the spring exerts a restoring force F on the object.
The restoring force is in a direction opposite to the displacement of the
object.
Hooke's law is a principle of physics that states that the
restoring force -F acting on the spring when it has been
extended or compressed by some distance of x is
proportional to that distance :
-F x
thus F = -kx
where k is the spring constant and is a characteristic of
that spring.
24/06/13
Forces ( F.Robilliard)
16
Common Forces:
Friction:
If there is roughness between two surfaces in contact, a contact force along
the surface is possible. This force is called friction.
The friction force will depend on
(1) the nature of the surfaces in contact
(2) the normal forces of contact that hold the surfaces together.
We identify two situations:
(1) static friction is where there is NO relative motion between the surfaces.
(2) kinetic friction is where there is relative motion.
Friction forces are always directed so that they oppose motion.
24/06/13
Forces ( F.Robilliard)
17
mg
When F = 0 (no dragging force!), f must also = 0, since the block is stationary.
Initially, as F is increased, the block remains stationary. Thus f must be equal,
but opposite, to F. Eventually, F reaches a value where the block starts to
move. At this point, f has reached its maximum value, and F has become
slightly greater than f. As F continues to increase, f remains constant, and the
block moves, with an increasing acceleration, proportional to (F-f), along the
surface.
We plot a graph of the friction force, f, against the applied force, F.
24/06/13
Forces ( F.Robilliard)
18
F
In static region: f = F
In kinetic region: f = const.
static friction
kinetic friction
There is a non-simple transition region between the static, and kinetic regions.
For any pair of surfaces, there will be a characteristic maximum value of
friction force, just before the block slides. This is called the maximum static
friction force.
As soon as the block starts to slip, the friction force typically relaxes to a
slightly smaller constant value, called the kinetic friction force.
24/06/13
Forces ( F.Robilliard)
19
f max.static R
thus f max.static = s R
f kinetic R
thus f kinetic = k R
Forces ( F.Robilliard)
20
Surfaces
steel on steel
0.74
0.57
copper on steel
0.53
0.36
0.10
teflon on teflon
0.04
0.04
human joints
0.01
0.003
24/06/13
Forces ( F.Robilliard)
C
B
A
F
Curves for different pairs of
surfaces A, B, and C.
21
Example:
What horizontal force, F, would be needed to drag a steel block, of mass 5.0 kg,
along a horizontal steel surface, at a constant velocity?
R
R
mg
24/06/13
Forces ( F.Robilliard)
22
Force Diagrams:
When addressing force problems, the first, and probably most important, step is
to draw a diagram showing all the individual forces, that act individually on each
body in the problem. These are force diagrams. There are clearly two steps:
(1) divide the system up into individual bodies
(2) for each chosen body, draw a diagram showing all the
forces that act on that particular body.
Example:
T
m
mg
Pulley System:
T
M
Mg
T
m
mg
24/06/13
Forces ( F.Robilliard)
T
M
Mg
23
Force Diagrams:
The Box in the Lift:
Assume the lift has acceleration, a, upward. Let m = mass of box
M = mass of cage of lift
T = tension in the lift cable
R = reaction of lift floor on box
= action force of box on lift floor.
a
m
Cage:
R
m
mg
Mg
24/06/13
Forces ( F.Robilliard)
(M + m) g
24
Force Diagrams:
a
Mg
r
t
mg
r
m
Let:
M = mass of engine
m = mass of either carriage
F = traction force due to wheels pulling engine forward
R = normal upward reaction of rails on engine
r = normal upward reaction of rails on either carriage
T = tension in coupling between engine and first carriage
t = tension in coupling between the two carriages
mg
24/06/13
Forces ( F.Robilliard)
25
Force Diagrams:
The Block sliding on a Wheeled Wedge:
r
m
M
The Block:
Assume frictionless wheels.
The Wedge:
mg
R
m = mass of block
M = mass of wedge
r = normal reaction of wedge surface on block
R = normal reaction of horizontal surface up on wheels
= coefficient of friction between block and wedge
Relative to the wedge, the block will accelerate
down the wedge s inclined face. The wedge will
accelerate horizontally to the left, relative to the
horizontal surface.
Mg
24/06/13
Forces ( F.Robilliard)
26
Steps:
24/06/13
Forces ( F.Robilliard)
27
Example:
A 5 kg mass rests on a horizontal surface, with which its kinetic friction coefficient
is 0.5. Find its acceleration, a, when a horizontal force of 50 N acts upon it.
a
R
m = 5 kg
F = 50 N
= 0.5
24/06/13
R
m
mg
+y
F
+x
N2:
F = ma
x direction: +F R = ma .(1)
y-direction: +R mg = 0 .(2)
Solve (1) & (2) for a:
(2):
R = mg ..(3)
(3)->(1): F mg = ma
thus:
a = F/m g
= 50/5 (0.5)(10)
= 5 m s-2
Forces ( F.Robilliard)
28
Example:
#
M = 10 kg
m = 5 kg
= 0.2
tan = 3/4
T
+
#
a
mg
Mg
24/06/13
Forces ( F.Robilliard)
29
a
T
T
+ a
R
+
M
Mg
Example:
mg cos#
For M (vertically):
N2: F = ma
+Mg T = Ma.(1)
+R mg cos = 0.(2)
+T mg sin - R = ma.(3)
Thus :
24/06/13
mg sin#
mg
(2)->(3):
(1) + (4):
Find a:
a=
M m(sin + cos )
g...........(5)
(M + m)
Forces ( F.Robilliard)
30
Example:
+Mg T = Ma.(1)
a=
Find T:
From (1): T = M (g - a)..(6)
(5)->(6) gives:
M m(sin + cos )
g...........(5)
(M + m)
Mm
[1 + sin + cos ] g......... .(7)
(M + m )
Numerical values:
From (5):
a =
M m(sin + cos )
g
(M + m )
(8)->(6):
4#
&3
10 5$ + 0.2 !
5"
%5
=
9.8
(10 + 5)
T = 10 (9.8 4.05)
=57.5 N
= 4.05 m s -2 ...........(8)
24/06/13
Forces ( F.Robilliard)
31
Forces in Rotation:
v
t
a
O
= const
where
v = the tangential velocity.
By N2, this acceleration must be caused by some centripetal force, F, given by:
2
v
F = ma = m 2 r = m
r
Forces ( F.Robilliard)
32
Example:
A car drives in ever decreasing circles, on a flat horizontal surface, at a constant
speed of 100 km/hr. The coefficient of maximum static friction, , between the
car s tyres and the road surface is 0.8. At what radius, will the car slip?
v2/r
R
R
m
mg
As r is decreased, the static
friction force will increase,
until it reaches its maximum
static value. Friction can not
increase beyond this value,
and when r decreases
further, the car will slip.
24/06/13
N2 gives
But
thus
v2
R = m
at the point of slipping
r
R = mg since there is no vertical acceleration
v2
mg = m
r
2
Hence
v 2 ' 100 10 3 $
1
""
r=
= %%
g & 60 60 # 0.8 10
= 96.5 m
Forces ( F.Robilliard)
33
24/06/13
Forces ( F.Robilliard)
34
Fr
W
24/06/13
Forces ( F.Robilliard)
35