FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets: List of Figures

FM Global
Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets
5-49
September 1987
Revised January 2000
Page 1 of 11
GAS AND VAPOR DETECTORS AND ANALYSIS SYSTEMS
Table of Contents
Page
1.0 SCOPE ................................................................................................................................................... 2
1.1 Changes .......................................................................................................................................... 2
2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................................................... 2
2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 2
2.2 Electrical .......................................................................................................................................... 2
2.2.1 Power Supplies ..................................................................................................................... 2
2.3 Equipment and Processes .............................................................................................................. 2
2.3.1 Alarms and Supervisory Devices .......................................................................................... 2
2.4 Operation and Maintenance ............................................................................................................ 3
2.4.1 Initial Tests and Acceptance .................................................................................................. 3
2.4.2 Maintenance and Testing Systems ....................................................................................... 3
2.5 Training ............................................................................................................................................ 3
3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................... 3
3.1 General ............................................................................................................................................ 3
4.0 REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................................... 4
4.1 FM Global ........................................................................................................................................ 4
APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS ....................................................................................................... 4
APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY ....................................................................................... 4
APPENDIX C SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION ..................................................................................... 4
C.1 Description ...................................................................................................................................... 4
C.2 Application ....................................................................................................................................... 6
C.3 Operation ........................................................................................................................................ 6
C.3.1 Thermal Conductivity-Combustibles ..................................................................................... 7
C.3.2 Thermal Type Paramagnetic-Oxygen ................................................................................... 7
C.3.3 Non-dispersive Infrared ......................................................................................................... 7
C.3.4 Ultraviolet (uv) Absorption ..................................................................................................... 8
C.3.5 Zirconium Oxide Cell-Oxygen ............................................................................................... 9
C.3.6 Electrochemical MethodMicro-Fuel Cell-Oxygen ............................................................ 10
C.3.7 Gas Chromatography ......................................................................................................... 10
C.3.8 Flame Ionization-Total Hydrocarbons ................................................................................. 11
List of Figures
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Thermal conductivity. .......................................................................................................................... 7

Thermal paramagnetic. ....................................................................................................................... 8
Non-dispersive infrared. ...................................................................................................................... 8
Ultraviolet absorption. ......................................................................................................................... 9
Zirconium oxide cell. ........................................................................................................................... 9
Electromechanical-micro-fuel cell. .................................................................................................... 10
Gas chromatography. ........................................................................................................................ 10
Flame ionization. ............................................................................................................................... 11
1987 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in whole or in part, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without written permission of Factory Mutual Insurance Company.
5-49
Gas and Vapor Detectors and Analysis Systems
Page 2
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets
1.0 SCOPE
The basic methods of detecting gases or vapors and the general aspects of detection analysis systems are
discussed. References are made to data sheets concerning specific occupancies and hazards where the
application of such detectors are recommended.
1.1 Changes
January 2000. This revision of the document has been reorganized to provide a consistent format.
2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS
2.1 Introduction
The application recommendation for specific occupancies may be found in the data sheets concerning the
hazard and occupancy (see Section 4.0, References).
Factory Mutual Research Approved equipment and devices are preferred by FM Global, and should be used
when available and suitable for the application. Approved means equipment tested by the Factory Mutual
Research Corporation and listed in the Factory Mutual Research Approval Guide.
Because of processes and arrangement of many of the installations, Factory Mutual Research Approved
equipment may not be available to meet specific installation arrangements or particular field operating
conditions. In these cases, the equipment chosen should be from a reliable manufacturer and have a proven
satisfactory field experience.
2.2 Electrical
2.2.1 Power Supplies
2.2.1.1 The power supply for electrical detection and any actuation devices should be independent of the
supply for the equipment and the hazard area. Where this is not practical, use pneumatic or mechanical
devices or provide an emergency battery-powered supply with automatic switchover if the primary supply fails.
The batteries should have the capacity to operate the system for at least 24 hours.
2.2.1.2 For critical and important occupancies, an alternate power supply should be provided for any electrically operated detection and actuation system. An emergency battery-powered supply, with automatic
switchover if the primary supply fails, is an acceptable alternate power supply. The electric power supply
should not be exposed by the hazards in the protected area.
2.2.1.3 Wiring, cables and tubing should be located and protected to avoid mechanical damage. Tubing in
vulnerable locations should be in conduit or equivalent. Conduit is not needed for short lengths of cables or
tubing near detectors and controls.
2.3 Equipment and Processes
2.3.1 Alarms and Supervisory Devices
2.3.1.1 An audible alarm should be provided to sound when the system operates and continue until reset
manually.
2.3.1.2 Where a system is provided for valuable and important structures, equipment or contents such as
chemical processing equipment, multi-zone oven or a remote processing or pumping station, the detection
devices and circuits should be supervised. Trouble alarms distinctive from the operation alarms should be
provided to sound, preferably at a constantly attended location.
1987 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.

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Page 3
2.4 Operation and Maintenance

2.4.1 Initial Tests and Acceptance
2.4.1.1 The installer or manufacturers representative should make turnover tests of the completed installation. These tests should be witnessed by the purchaser and can be used to train selected plant personnel.
Turnover tests should determine that the system has been properly installed and will operate as intended.
Specifically, the tests should check the operation of all components. Records should be retained indicating the test results for future reference.
2.4.1.2 All controls should be properly identified as to function, area controlled, and operating instructions.
2.4.2 Maintenance and Testing Systems
2.4.2.1 Systems should be maintained in operating condition at all times and restored to service promptly
after any impairment. A program of scheduled inspections, tests and maintenance is essential and should
include the following:
1. Provide regular maintenance in accordance with manufacturers instructions and as determined necessary by the experience derived from the operation of the detector and the associated equipment.
2. Maintain records of periodic performance calibration and maintenance checks. The records should be
reviewed by supervisory management whose responsibility includes both safety and production.
3. The periodic inspections and tests should be done in accordance with manufacturers guidelines. These
should include but not be limited to the following:
a) Check calibration, zero and span adjustments (at least weekly). A known calibration gas as specified
by the manufacturer should be used.
b) Check the operation of any controls and alarms at the designated set point (at least monthly).
c) Check the electrical connections and electronics at detectors (remote), and for the controls and alarms
(at least monthly).
d) Check sample lines for leaks, obstructed filters and flame arrestors, proper flow and condensate (at
least monthly).
e) Check primary and secondary power supplies (batteries) for adequate power and reliability (at least
monthly).
f) Check equipment or location which might contain flammable or otherwise hazardous atmosphere. Test
and verify that the atmosphere is suitable before entering or making repairs and tests.
2.5 Training
2.5.1 Train instrument personnel and equipment operators in the proper operation and specific function of
the detectors and the associated system. Operating instructions should be available for ready reference.
3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS
3.1 General
System inspection maintenance and testing are outlined because operational reliability is of major importance
in providing early warning of impending hazardous conditions and in taking corrective action.
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4.0 REFERENCES
4.1 FM Global
Data Sheet 6-2/12-63, Pulverized Coal-Fired Boilers.
Data Sheet 6-4/12-69, Oil and Gas-Fired Single Burner Boilers.
Data Sheet 6-5/12-70, Oil or Gas Fired Multiple Burner Boilers.
Data Sheet 6-7/12-7, Fluidized Bed Combustors and Boilers.
Data Sheet 6-8/12-68, Combustion Air Heaters.
Data Sheet 6-9, Industrial Ovens and Dryers.
Data Sheet 6-10, Process Furnaces.
Data Sheet 6-11, Fume Incinerators.
Data Sheet 6-13/12-13, Waste Fuel Fired Boilers.
Data Sheet 6-17/13-20, Rotary Kilns and Dryers.
Data Sheet 6-21/12-21, Chemical Recovery Boilers.
Data Sheet 6-23/17-15, Black-Liquor Recovery Boilers-Direct Contact Evaporators.
Data Sheet 6-24/13-21, Coal Pulverizers and Pulverizing System.
Data Sheet 7-2, Waste Solvent Recovery.
Data Sheet 7-13, Mechanical Refrigeration.
Data Sheet 7-34, Electrolytic Chlorine Processes.
Data Sheet 7-45, Instrumentation and Control in Safety Applications.
Data Sheet 7-46/17-11, Chemical Reactors and Reactions.
Data Sheet 7-52, Oxygen.
Data Sheet 7-59, Inerting and Purging of Tanks, Process Vessels and Equipment.
Data Sheet 7-73, Dust Collectors and Collection Systems.
Data Sheet 7-95, Compressors.
APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Gas detector: device that responds to a specific concentration or range of concentrations of gaseous or
vaporous substances or compounds. (See Section C.1 Description)
APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY
This document does not have any revision history.
APPENDIX C SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION
C.1 Description
Gas detectors or analyzers give a response to a specific concentration or range of concentrations of gaseous
or vaporous substances or compounds. These substances may be detected in the normal atmosphere
in or around process or experimental equipment. Some devices are designed to detect specific gases in low
oxygen or oxygen-free atmospheres. The detector and associated system may analyze continuous samples
or an isolated sample.

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Most detectors have meters for visual indication of the concentration, usually expressed in parts per million
or percentage. These may also have set points with electrical contacts which permit signaling when the set
point or limit has been reached.
Common uses include in-line process control, fire detection or explosion prevention and detection of potential atmosphere or process contaminants. These devices have the capability for continuous or repetitive
measurement of specific gas or vapor concentration in the atmosphere. The detector may be incorporated
into a system to control the concentration of the gas or vapors. Alarm and corrective action can be initiated
when the concentration point or concentration range is insufficient or is exceeded. A continuous recording
device may be incorporated to print a record of the gas concentration.
The detector elements may be located either remote from the sampling point or at the sampling point. The
in-site detectors simplify the sampling method but erosion, corrosion and temperature of the gas stream can
present problems. The environment around the installation outside the sampled gas stream must be considered for protection of the associated mechanical, electronic and electrical equipment. For a remote detector element, a forced flow is frequently used to transport the sample to the detector element. This usually
complicates the system by requiring a pump-blower arrangement. As soon as the sample leaves its original environment enroute to the sensor, care must be taken to prevent detrimental alteration of the sample.
Condensation, particulate matter and contamination are common problems.
Some detectors use a media which is sensitive to a specific substance. The media compound may change
color or composition when exposed to a certain gas or vapor. These may be used for grab sample instantaneous tests or accumulative sample long term exposures for time weighted averages. Most detectors of this
type require that the sensitized material be discarded after use, although some substances may be regenerated for repeated use.
Some detection and measuring methods are only suitable for laboratory conditions. The processing method,
equipment size, processing time, sensitivity of the equipment to temperature, atmosphere corrosion and
vibration are all restrictive factors. In some instances, the same sample processing method may be used
in the laboratory and the field with either portable or fixed equipment. The accuracy and sensitivity may vary
with the analysis method, the detector design, and the sample collecting method.
The required accuracy and range of the detectors will vary with the application and the detectors design.
A cold storage food warehouse with an ammonia refrigeration system could need a detector for concentrations in the range of 5 to 25 ppm and above. A flammable vapor detector for a coil coater drier would measure
concentration in percent of the lower flammable limit or between 0 and about 5000 ppm depending upon the
solvent.
Industrial equipment is expected to have an accuracy of 1% and a reproducibility of 3% of full scale
concentration or 10% of actual gas-vapor concentrations.
Gas detectors are used in control systems of the relatively unsophisticated hard wired electromagnetic relay
type. There is a trend to incorporate gas detectors with a microprocessor based, closed loop analytical control for process analysis and control feedback. The control gas detector and a dedicated safety limit gas
detector may be similar devices, but interfaced into different control systems. Each is important to the proper
continuous operation of a system. The control analyzer is in continuous service or is available during the
process as a production control device. The safety limit analyzer must also be constantly in service ready
to signal actuation of the emergency operations, shutdown, bypass and alarm. This actuation would occur
when the hazardous limits were approached due to the failure, malfunction or control inability of the process
analyzer and associated controls.
Because of the degree of reliance upon the dedicated safety limit gas detection, it is important that the system have adequate reliability in circuitry and power supplies. In some instances, the safety limit gas detector system may need to be entirely independent of the process control microprocessor and its system.
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C.2 Application
An isolated sample taken manually would be a simple application procedure. This method would measure
the concentration at a specific time and with the conditions of the sample and its environment at that time.
Repetitive sampling during a test cycle or production process is a procedure commonly used for verifying
the adequacy of safety ventilation for a solvent evaporation oven or the concentration of a fire extinguishing or an inerting agent.
A slightly more complex system would be a single detector continuously sampling a specific area. This can
be limited to a type of detector with the capability of continuously analyzing the compound specified.
For sampling multiple points, two methods are available:
1. A multiplicity of detectors each at a sample point transmitting to a central controller. The controller may
query the status of each detector in a rotational basis or it may respond to a signal for a condition varying from
a present set point.
2. A single detector with a multiplicity of sample draw tubes working on a rotational basis to analyze a sample
from each tube. This method usually requires several minutes to draw and process samples. In some
instances, response time could be excessive. A hazardous condition could occur in the processing equipment before the detector could sense the increased concentration.
High dust concentrations in the sampled atmosphere may make the continuous and reliable operation of a
detector nearly impossible. In these instances, the location of the sampling probe may be located downstream of a dust removal device, such as an electrostatic precipitator. This method has proven effective on
black liquor recovery boiler applications.
Some of the Data Sheets which mention the application of gas-vapor detectors and analyzers are listed in
Section 4.0, References.
C.3 Operation
The property of the gas or vapor component being measured and the operating principle of some commonly
employed detectors may be classified or grouped as follows:
1. Thermal properties.
2. Electrical or magnetic properties.
3. Radiant energy properties.
4. Chemical properties.
5. Combinations of the above.
a) Electrochemical.
b) Chromatographic.
c) Flame ionization.
The basic principles by which some detector types operate are described as follows:
Chemiluminescence NO, NO2, NOx (NO + NO2) and Ozone
When the sample containing nitric oxide (NO) is combined with ozone (03) the reaction releases light energy
in measurable wave lengths, 6000A (600 mm) and above. The light intensity is proportional to the nitric oxide
(NO) concentrations. When a thermal catalytic NOx converter is used in conjunction with the chemiluminescence NO analyzer, the oxides of nitrogen are converted to NO and the analyzer can determine the total
NOx concentration. With the conversion of the NOx, N02 can be determined by the difference.

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C.3.1 Thermal Conductivity-Combustibles

The flammable gas samples and air are passed over a tungsten or platinum alloy filament. This catalyst is
heated to a low temperature which promotes an oxidation reaction. The temperature increase due to the reaction is proportional to the combustibles in the sample. The increased conductivity of the filament due to temperature increase is proportional and is measured by a Wheatstone bridge circuit. Filament materials may
become corroded, coated or poisoned by presence of silicon, lead or phosphorous compounds in the gases.
Fig. 1. Thermal conductivity.
C.3.2 Thermal Type Paramagnetic-Oxygen

Magnetic fields attract oxygen. Using this effect, the oxygen content of a gas can be measured by passing
the gas through two parallel passages which have an interconnecting crossover. When an energized electromagnetic is positioned at one end of the crossover, flow through the crossover will occur. This magnetic
breeze is proportional to the oxygen content. The breeze can be measured by its cooling effect on a heated
wire placed in the crossover and connected to a Wheatstone bridge.
C.3.3 Non-dispersive Infrared
Energy paths of separate infrared sources pass respectively through sample and reference cells. The energy
sources are chopped to allow energy to pass through these cells alternately, with the presence of an absorbing gas in the sample cell. The microphone-diaphragm chamber heats up. Movement of the diaphragm
changes the microphone capacity thereby generating an electrical output signal. The signal produced by the
imbalance between the sample and reference cells is a function of gas concentration in the sample cell.
Solid state detectors are becoming more common.
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Fig. 2. Thermal paramagnetic.
Fig. 3. Non-dispersive infrared.
C.3.4 Ultraviolet (uv) Absorption

Ultraviolet absorption analyses are used to determine the concentration of a component in a gas mixture
based on its specific wave-length absorption characteristics in the uv region. Components suited for uv
absorption analysis techniques include chlorine, hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides,
and many ignitable solvents. Use of monochromatic radiation is essential to measurements of the specific
absorption by these components. Monochromators may employ prism or grating systems, or optical uv
interference filters.
The following diagram illustrates simultaneous analysis of two components in a gas mixture passing through
a flue gas stack by use of a grating monochromator arrangement. Various wavelengths of radiation from a
uv source passing through the stack are absorbed according to the kind and amounts of gas components in

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the mixture. The radiation reaching a mirror is reflected onto a grating and dispersed according to wavelength. Finite wavelength ranges corresponding to absorption characteristics are measured by a slit and
phototube detector arrangement. The proportionality of this absorption output measured against a reference
radiation output yields the concentration of the gas being analyzed.
Fig. 4. Ultraviolet absorption.
C.3.5 Zirconium Oxide Cell-Oxygen

Zirconium oxide becomes a conductor of oxygen ions (O2-) at relatively high temperatures. At these
temperatures, measurable signals are produced in a zirconium oxide cell in response to an oxygen partial
pressure differential. The response to the oxygen concentration is logarithmic having the greatest sensitivity
at the lower concentration level. The platinum heating element is integral to temperature sensors in maintaining constant temperature of the cell which is sensitive to temperature change. Platinum gauze or porous
coating electrodes on inner and outer cell faces serve as conductors.
Fig. 5. Zirconium oxide cell.
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C.3.6 Electrochemical MethodMicro-Fuel Cell-Oxygen

The oxidation-reduction cell has a membrane permeable to oxygen. Oxygen from the sample diffuses through
the membrane into the cell where it is reduced on the surface of the cathode. Oxidation occurs on the anode
generating a voltage proportional to the oxygen concentration.
Fig. 6. Electromechanical-micro-fuel cell.
C.3.7 Gas Chromatography

A gaseous sample introduced into the chromatograph is moved by a carrier gas (mobile phase) through a
tube (column) packed or lined with solid or liquid materials either separately or in combination (stationary
phase). The individual gaseous components of a gas mixture are separated according to differences in their
physical behavior in the stationary phase which cause them to be eluted from the column more or less separated in time. The eluted components are then monitored by a detector whose signal displays a series of
peaks corresponding to the respective gas components (chromatogram). From the chromatogram, two types
of peak data yielding qualitative and quantitative information may be obtained: emergence or retention time,
and integral characteristics. The retention time for each peak is used to identify its gas component, and the
integral characteristics of each components peak is used to determine its relative or absolute amount.
Fig. 7. Gas chromatography.
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C.3.8 Flame Ionization-Total Hydrocarbons

The sample gas is fed into a hydrogen fueled flame ionization chamber where the gases are burned. The
conductivity of the resulting ionized gases, positively charged carbon ions, are measured. The conductivity
is proportional to the carbon concentration in the sample. Below the lower flammable limits the conductivity is
nearly a direct ratio to the combustible concentration or percentile of the lower flammable limit.
Fig. 8. Flame ionization.
FM Engr. Comm. July 1987

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Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

GAS AND VAPOR DETECTORS AND ANALYSIS SYSTEMS

Thermal conductivity. .......................................................................................................................... 7

Gas and Vapor Detectors and Analysis Systems