Notes 003a: Sensing Elements

Gilbert Thio CEng (EC UK), MIET

Unless otherwise specified, all materials and diagrams are adapted from the
following sources:
1. Principles of Measurement Systems (3 rd Edition), by John P. Bentley,
Pearson/Prentice Hall 1995
2. Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques (2 nd Edition),
by William David Cooper, Prentice Hall 1978
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LO1

LO2

LO3

LO4

LO1
LO2
LO3
LO4

Describe the general measurement system, and

analyse experimental data to derive the mathematical
model of a system [addresses PO2]
Identify and employ a wide range of
sensors/transducers and describe their principles of
operation [addresses PO2]
Design signal conditioning circuits to improve the
output of the sensors/transducers [addresses PO2]
Analyse sensor characteristics using appropriate
laboratory experimental techniques [addresses PO2]
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Wire wound displacement sensor

Resistance is proportional to displacement

(constant resistance per unit length)

Resolution:

, where n is the number of turns

The resistance for one turn:

Typical specs of wire-wound pots:

Displacement spans from 0.5 to 100 inches

Non-linearity from + 0.2% up

Resolution from 0.008% up

Resistance values of 1 k/inch
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To calculate velocity and acceleration, the formulas

below are applied

Velocity, v = x / t
Acceleration, a = v / t
Where t is the time (seconds) it takes to transverse x (meters)
displacement.

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Q.

A common implementation of a potentiometer is by using a

voltage divider configuration. A voltage source Vs is applied
across the entire potentiometer, and the open circuit voltage
is measured along the length of displacement, Rpx. However,
a more practical configuration would be to have a load
connected in parallel with
the length of displacement,
Rpx, and the voltage VL is
then measured / calculated
using a Thevenin equivalent.
Determine the Thevenin
Equivalent circuit, and
discuss the linearity of this
configuration / how we can
make it linear.
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A.

.
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Resistance is proportional to temperature

Typical range: 100 ~ +800C

Non-linearity occurs due to heating coefficient.

Typical value: 0.3C/10mW

Material: copper, nickel, platinum etc

Platinum is most common: highly repeatable

resistance/temperature characteristics, wider

temperature range: -200 ~ +800C

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General equation:

Applying RT directly in a bridge circuit would then give

us linear results of voltage vs. temperature.

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Q.

A platinum resistance thermometer is used to

interpolate between the triple point of water (0C), the
boiling point of water (100C), and the freezing point of
zinc (419.6C). The corresponding resistance values are
100.0, 138.5, and 253.7. The algebraic form of the
interpolation equation is:

Find the numerical form of the interpolation equation.

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A.

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Material: Semiconductor materials

oxides of chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel

Negative temperature coefficient (NTC)

resistance decreases with increase in temperature

General Equation:

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Applying R directly in a bridge circuit would then give us

linear results of voltage vs. temperature
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If the resistance R1 is known at 1 (reference temperature),

then the resistance at any other temperature can be given

as:

Example of a typical NTC element:

Resistance of 12k at 25C (298 K)

Resistance of 0.95k at 100C (373 K)

Heating coefficient of 1C/7mW
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Q.

The resistance R() of a thermistor at temperature

K is given by R() = exp(/). Given that the
resistance at the ice point ( = 273.15K) is 9.00 k and
the resistance at the steam point is 0.50 k, find the
resistance at 25C.

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A.

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Converts mechanical displacement into a change of

resistance

Manufactured from bonded small diameter wires, or

etched from thin foil sheets.

Resistive of strain gauges varies linearly to the applied

tension of compression on the transducer.

The measurement is then converted to voltage using a

wheat-stone bridge.
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Longitudinal Strain: measured along the axis of the

external force

Transverse Strain: any strain measured not along the axis of
the external force
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The relationship between Longitudinal and Transverse

Strain is:

Typical values for v: 0.25~0.4

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Sensitivity of a strain gauge is described in terms of Gauge Factor

(G)

For a single axis strain gauge, the gauge factor is approximated as
the unit change in resistance per unit change in length:

In measurement, we usually apply the form:

This gives us linear results of R vs. e.
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The resistance of a strain gauge can be expressed as

follows

This gives us linear results of R vs. e.

Applying the strain gauge in a bridge circuit then gives

us linear results of voltage vs. strain

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Q.

For a rectangular strain gauge, with resistance

defined as R = l / A, proof that the gauge factor
can be approximated as:

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A.

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Q.

Determine the gauge factor for a cylindrical strain

gauge.

A.

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Q.

Below are the characteristics for a typical single

axis strain gauge.

Determine the maximum change in resistance,

and the maximum rate of change of resistance.
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A.

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A torque sensor is usually made up of a cylindrical shaft

with at least 2 embedded strain gauges. The applied torque

T produces a shear strain in the shaft, and corresponding
linear tensile and compressive strains on the shaft surface.

The 2 stain gauges are fixed with active axes at +45 (for

tensile strain, +e) and 45 (for compressive strain, e) to

the shaft axis.

4 strain gauges can also be applied with 2 more gauges

mounted at similar angles on the other side of the shaft.

Applying 2 or 4 strain gauges eliminates environmental
inputs and increases sensitivity by 2x or 4x.
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The strain for a torque sensor is given as:

Applying the 2 or 4 strain gauges in a bridge circuit

would give us linear results of voltage vs. strain, or

voltage vs. torque.
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A cantilever sensor is usually made up of a rectangular

plank with at least 2 embedded strain gauges. The 2 strain

gauges are mounted respectively on the top and bottom
surface of the cantilever.

The applied force F causes the cantilever to bend so that

the top surface experiences a tensile strain (of +e) and the
bottom surface an equal compressive strain (of e).

4 strain gauges can also be applied with 2 gauges on the top

and 2 gauges on the bottom surface of the cantilever.

Applying 2 or 4 strain gauges eliminates environmental
inputs and increases sensitivity by 2x or 4x.
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The strain for cantilever is given as:

Applying the 2 or 4 strain gauges in a bridge circuit would give us

linear results of voltage vs. strain, or voltage vs. force.

To calculate pressure, the formula below can be applied

Pressure, P = F/A
Where F is the force applied (Newton) over a surface area of
A (meter2).
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Q.

A platinum resistance sensor is to be used to

measure temperatures between 0 and 200C.
Given that the resistance RT at TC is given by
RT = R0(1+T+T2) and R0 = 100.0, R100 = 138.50,
R200 = 175.83 calculate:
(a)
the values of and
(b) the non-linearity at 100C as a percentage of
full-scale deflection.

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A.

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Q.

Four strain gauges are bonded onto a cantilever to

form a load cell. Given that the gauges are placed
halfway along the cantilever and the cantilever is
subject to a downward force of 0.5N, use the data
given below to calculate the resistance of each
strain gauge.

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A.

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Sensing Elements

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