S e c o n d a r y S c l e ro s i n g C h o l a n g i t i s

Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Management

Mohamad H. Imam, MBBSa, Jayant A. Talwalkar,
Keith D. Lindor, MDb,*

MD, MPH

KEYWORDS
 Liver transplantation  Clinical management  Cholangiopathy  Complications
 Outcomes
KEY POINTS
 Secondary sclerosing cholangitis (SSC) is a rare disease entity with complex
pathogenesis.
 Common causes for SSC include obstruction, infection, ischemia, and critical illness.
 Although initially asymptomatic, patients with SSC may present later with pruritus,
abdominal pain, and jaundice.
 The cholangiographic finding of isolated peripheral ductal abnormalities suggests SSC
over primary sclerosing cholangitis.
 Management should address the underlying cause of SSC, and liver transplantation is an
option for advanced disease.

INTRODUCTION

Secondary sclerosing cholangitis (SSC) is a chronic disease with phenotypical, clinical, and cholangiographic resemblance to idiopathic primary sclerosing cholangitis
(PSC). Conversely, a known pathologic process underlies SSC, leading to inflammation, obliterative fibrosis of the bile ducts, stricture formation, and progressive destruction of the biliary tree that ultimately leads to biliary cirrhosis. Without timely
intervention, the natural history of SSC is less favorable than that of PSC.
The most common disease processes and causes underlying SSC include stones in
the biliary ducts, surgery, chemotherapy, blunt trauma, and recurrent or autoimmune
pancreatitis.1 A new form of SSC, sclerosing cholangitis in critically ill patients (SCCIP), is associated with rapid progression to liver cirrhosis. Patients with this form
of sclerosing cholangitis generally do not have a history of preceding biliary or liver

Cholestatic Liver Diseases Study Group, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Mayo
Clinic, 200 First Street SW, Rochester, MN 55905, USA; b College of Health Solutions, Arizona
State University, 500 North 3rd Street, Phoenix, AZ 85004-0698, USA
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Keith.Lindor@asu.edu

Clin Liver Dis 17 (2013) 269277

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cld.2012.11.004
1089-3261/13/$ see front matter Published by Elsevier Inc.

liver.theclinics.com

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disease and do not show evidence of obstructive injury to the bile duct. Therapeutic
options for SSC remain limited, and patients with SSC who do not receive liver transplantation have significantly reduced survival compared with those with PSC.
This article describes the epidemiology, pathogenesis, common causes, diagnostic
modalities, management, and outcomes in patients with SSC.
Epidemiology

Because of a common perception that SSC is a rare disease, relevant epidemiologic

data confirming the prevalence of SSC are lacking. From the authors experience at
the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, MN, USA, only 31 cases were described through
a decade of diligent patient follow-up. In this population, the major causes of SCC
were postcholecystectomy trauma, chronic pancreatitis, and intraductal stones.
Patients with SSC who did not undergo transplantation had a shorter period of survival
(72 months) than those with PSC (89 months).2
Pathogenesis

Primary hepatocellular bile has an intricately modulated content comprising a set alkalinity and fluidity that is adjusted by the intrahepatic bile duct epithelium, which in turn
affects the reabsorption of bile acids, amino acids, and glucose and the secretion of
electrolytes and water.
Orchestration of hepatocytes and cholangiocytes (epithelial cells of bile duct) is
essential for bile formation. Bile is first secreted by hepatocytes as primary bile, which
is modified later by cholangiocytes through secretion of electrolytes and fluids.3,4
Anatomically, the liver consists of a convoluted network of intrahepatic ducts that
are required for bile secretion. In these ducts an increase in alkalinity and fluidity
occurs; this is in contrast to the acidification and concentration that occurs in the gallbladder. Specific sections of intrahepatic bile ducts are often targeted by biliary abnormalities, and hence different functional properties of these segments can be affected
accordingly.5,6
The intrahepatic bile duct epithelium transport function is synchronized by several
factors, including neurotransmitters, neuropeptides, and hormones. This intrahepatic
biliary epithelium is the primary target of cholestatic insults, which may include autoimmune diseases, toxic agents, ischemia, infections, and even genetic diseases.
Characteristic findings in cholangiopathy include cholangiocyte apoptosis, proliferation, inflammation, and fibrosis. The pathogenic cascade involving the development
of SSC targets cholangiocytes. Through production of various proinflammatory mediators, cholangiocyte proliferation and death may contribute to the process of inflammation, resulting in chronic liver destruction. These afflictions of cholangiocytes are
often produced by toxins, ischemia, trauma, or apoptosis. SSC is characterized by
damage to the peribiliary circulation, proliferation of cholangiocytes, alterations in
cholangiolar secretions and transport processes, and, finally, activation of fibrosis.
Specific molecular pathways that lead to fibrosis are still under investigation.7
COMMON CAUSES

Unlike PSC, the origin of which is still under investigation, common causes for SSC are
evident and can be treated accordingly. Common causes include obstruction,
ischemic insult, infections, and immunologic disease. Imaging and diagnostic modalities can help differentiate secondary causes, and can hence aid in implementing the
appropriate treatment in a timely and effective manner. Table 1 provides a summary of
common causes and their related pathogenesis.

Secondary Cholangitis

Table 1
Causes and related pathogenesis of SSC
Causes

Related Pathogenesis

Cytomegalovirus/parasites
(mainly in AIDS or organ transplant
recipients)

Infection leading to chronic inflammation

Autoimmune pancreatitis, hypereosinophilic

syndrome

Immunologic modulation

Cholecystitis, biliary stones, polyps, tumors,

arterial aneurysms, pancreatic disease,
and strictures

Obstruction leading to a cycle of biliary stasis

and suppurative cholangitis

Echinococcosis

Hydatid cyst rupture leading to necrosis and

fibrosis of biliary epithelium

Allograft rejection, vasculitis, thrombotic

obstruction, advanced AIDS, liver
transplantation, hypoxia, massive
transfusions, hereditary telangiectasias,
radiotherapy, and chemotherapy

Ischemia caused by direct effect of trauma or

subsequent massive transfusions,
medications, or hypotension

Critical illness (SC-CIP)

Interference with the biliary blood supply

Obstruction

Obstruction of the biliary tree has numerous causes, which may include cholecystitis,
biliary stones, polyps, tumors, arterial aneurysms, pancreatic disease, and strictures
inflicted through surgery or trauma. Obstructive cholangiopathy is characterized by
bile stasis, which eventually leads to inflammation and fibrosis. The timing at which
this sequence occurs often depends on the extent and duration of the obstruction.
Along with stasis, the external pressure effect and the possibility of superimposed
infection may also lead to aggravated injury. Eventually, the patient develops a vicious
cycle of biliary stasis and suppurative cholangitis.
Gallbladder and bile duct abnormalities can be associated with portal hypertension
in some patients, which leads to extrinsic obstruction of the common bile duct. Moreover, this may be the pathogenesis that underlies bile duct obstruction in cirrhosis and
liver fibrosis.8 Patients with this disease, termed portal biliopathy, are often symptomatic at diagnosis, and liver histology shows minimal or no abnormalities. Cholangiography is the preferred modality for diagnosing patients with portal biliopathy, in whom
abnormalities in the common bile duct are often prominent.9 Recommendations for
treatment include biliary balloon dilatation, and possibly surgery if persistent obstruction is present.10,11
Infectious and Inflammatory

Recurrent pyogenic cholangitis is caused by the development of strictures or pigmented stones that lead to obstruction of the biliary tract and, subsequently, recurrent
episodes of bacterial cholangitis. This disease entity is also referred to as Oriental
cholangiohepatitis.12 Ultrasonography may be used initially to diagnose ductal stones
or dilatation; this can then be followed by a contrast computed tomography to identify
central ductal dilation and peripheral ductal tapering.13,14 Conversely, endoscopic
retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) and magnetic retrograde cholangiopancreatography are not recommended because of the increased risk of sepsis.
This can be managed through conservative measures and antibiotic therapy, with

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surgery indicated in patients experiencing persistent symptoms or decompensation or

those developing peritonitis.15
In patients with immunodeficiency, susceptibility to parasitic infections may predispose to SSC. For example, patients with advanced AIDS often develop a cholangiopathy caused by biliary infection with Cryptosporidium parvum or Microsporidia, which
presents with papillary stenosis and features of SSC.16,17 Moreover, in patients undergoing organ transplantation, cryptosporidiosis has been described to cause SSC and
viral infection, with cytomegalovirus as the second leading cause of SSC in AIDS
cholangiopathy.1720
Echinococcosis can be complicated by hydatid cyst rupture, which may lead to
necrosis of biliary epithelia and fibrosis through toxin mediated mechanisms.21
Hepatic stellate cells seem to have a role in interacting with parasitic antigens, leading
to liver fibrosis.22 Leakage of fluid from the hydatid cyst through a biliary fistula may
also cause SSC.23
A histologic finding of a heterogeneous population of plasma cells, fibroblasts,
macrophages, and eosinophils may denote the presence of a rare pathologic entity
referred to as hepatic inflammatory pseudotumor. Despite associations with Crohn
disease, its pathophysiology remains obscure.24,25
Ischemia

The biliary system is a highly vascular network, which necessitates the maintenance of
an adequate blood supply to avoid injury. The right and left hepatic arteries form the
major blood supply to the extrahepatic biliary system, except for the gallbladder,
which receives its blood supply from the retroduodenal artery and is less vascular
than the remaining biliary formation.
Ischemic cholangitis is an umbrella term that can comprise several causes with
a common pathophysiology, including allograft rejection, vasculitis, thrombotic
obstruction, advanced AIDS, liver transplantation, hypoxia, massive transfusions,
hereditary telangiectasias, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy.1,26 After trauma, a patient
may develop ischemic cholangitis either from the direct effects of the trauma on the
biliary tree or as a result of subsequent massive transfusions, medications, or hypotension. In patients undergoing liver transplantation, ischemic injury may result from
destruction of small arteries and thrombosis of larger arteries; this may occur in up
to 19% of patients undergoing transplant. The risk for biliary ischemia is even higher
in liver transplantation from donation after cardiac death, in which donor age and cold
ischemic time act as major risk factors for the development of ischemic cholangiopathy.27 Chemotherapy can affect the bile ducts through ischemia and hence lead to
secondary sclerosing cholangitis; common agents include floxuridine, paclitaxel,
5-fluorouracil, formaldehyde, and yttrium 90.1,26,28
Sclerosing Cholangitis in Critically Ill Patients

Patients with life-threatening illnesses are prone to developing secondary sclerosing

cholangitis, a disease entity coined as SC-CIP. Surprisingly, this pathogenetic process
persists even after recovery from the primary illness, and leads to rapid development
of cholestasis despite the absence of baseline liver disease. Investigators have suggested that the underlying pathogenesis is centered on interference with the biliary
blood supply.29 Cholangiography may initially show simple filling defects, but later
stages may be confused with PSC, an important differential to consider when assessing patients. Casts are the hallmark of sclerosing cholangitis in critically ill patients and
may be useful in distinguishing it from different disease entities. Once this disease

Secondary Cholangitis

develops, the outcomes are truly detrimental, with rapid progression to cirrhosis and
an urgent need for transplantation.30
Immunologic

Several autoimmune disorders may be involved in the pathogenesis of SSC. One

disorder is autoimmune pancreatitis, a distinct primary pancreatic disease with no
gold standard for diagnosis but features of autoimmunity, such as the presence of
hypergammaglobulinemia, elevated serum immunoglobulin G 4 (IgG4) levels, and
elevated liver enzymes.3133 IgG4 levels are the most important in distinguishing autoimmune pancreatitis from pancreatic cancer.32 On histology, autoimmune hepatitis
shows diffuse lymphoplasmacytic infiltration with acinar atrophy, obliterative phlebitis,
and marked fibrosis.34 A varying array of symptoms may occur in patients with autoimmune pancreatitis, often related to strictures or pancreatitis; obstructive jaundice
may be present in a little fewer than half of the patients with autoimmune pancreatitis.
Patients with eosinophilic infiltration from hypereosinophilic syndrome commonly
present with features of sclerosing cholangitis. Infiltration of the liver with eosinophils
may occur in several liver diseases or as an immune response to other pathogenetic
processes. The role of this infiltration in inducing biliary fibrosis remains uncertain.
Patients with SSC from hypereosinophilic syndrome show good response to steroids,
reflected by a decrease in sclerosing cholangitis and eosinophilic infiltration.1,35
Fibrotic tissue is mast cellrich, reflecting the role of mast cells in the production of
fibrogenic factors, such as heparin, tryptase, stem cell factor, and histamine.3639 In
patients with systemic mastocytosis, this infiltration of mast cells could lead to sclerosing cholangitis.35,40
Children with a diagnosis of cystic fibrosis may present with changes concordant
with PSC. This finding can be explained by the increased expression of cystic fibrosis
transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene.41 Although some older studies
contradict this theory, showing a lack of association between CFTR mutations and
PSC,42 more recent reports convey a link between CFTR dysfunction in the pediatric
population and the development of PSC.43,44
Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH), also known as histiocytosis X, has been linked
in several reports to PSC.45,46 Patients with LCH may develop end-stage liver disease
and hence require liver transplantation. Outcomes of patients with LCH after liver
transplantation for advanced liver disease show good outcomes, but further study
is required in a larger cohort of patients.47
CLINICAL SYMPTOMS AND DIAGNOSIS

Most patients at the initial stages of the disease are asymptomatic, with elevated alkaline phosphatase and gamma glutamyltransferase levels. Several symptoms may
occur as the disease progresses, which may include pruritus, abdominal pain, and
jaundice. In patients with SSC, recurrent episodes of bacterial cholangitis from
ascending infection are common.4850
After the identification of abnormal liver test results, patients should undergo ultrasonography to detect biliary abnormalities relating to obstruction. If the underlying cause
is not obstruction and the ultrasound shows no findings, the use of ERCP is recommended. Findings on ERCP are similar to those for PSC, with ductal dilatation and beading.
RADIOLOGIC DIFFERENTIATION

Cholangiographic findings may be helpful in distinguishing SSC from PSC. Diffuse

ductal narrowing and multifocal strictures suggest PSC, whereas isolated peripheral

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ductal abnormalities suggest SSC. Recurrent pyogenic cholangitis may show sudden
ductal cutoff, intrahepatic bile collections, and ductal stones. Autoimmune pancreatitis may show changes to the pancreatic duct, whereas AIDS cholangiopathy is characterized by papillary stenosis and accompanying intrahepatic disease.
MANAGEMENT, COMPLICATIONS, AND OUTCOMES

The management of SSC depends on the underlying cause. Patients with recurrent
pyogenic cholangitis may benefit from prompt supportive care and institution of
empiric antibiotics, followed by monitoring. If decompensation occurs or the disease
is persistent, surgical intervention may be necessary. Surgery focuses on drainage
and exploration of the bile ducts. Endoscopic intervention may also be used when
needed, and long-term drainage may be the only option in a few patients with widespread disease.15,51,52
Conversely, therapeutic options in patients with AIDS cholangiopathy are limited,
because none have been shown to be beneficial in improving survival. Patients usually
have advanced immunosuppression from AIDS, which contributes greatly to the poor
prognosis in this subset of patients. Average survival is estimated merely as 12 months
and is not affected by endoscopic interventions.18,53 AIDS cholangiopathy has not
been shown to benefit from antimicrobial therapy, and hence prognosis depends on
the status of the underlying immunosuppression, with decreased viral load and
improved counts being favorable signs.17
In symptomatic patients with portal biliopathy who develop obstructive jaundice
from stones or stricture endoscopic sphincterotomy, balloon dilatation of the stricture
or portosystemic shunting may be instituted.10,11,5458
Despite the common notion perceived through retrospective study of patients with
SSC that these patients are at no increased risk of developing cholangiocarcinoma,
several case reports have shown an increased occurrence in patients with subtypes
of SSC.2,59,60 The possibility exists that the detection rate of cholangiocarcinoma in
this population remains minimal because of the poor outcomes caused by comorbidities. Advances in diagnostic modalities may lead to increased diagnosis of cholangiocarcinoma in patients with SSC.
Liver transplantation seems to be an appropriate method of management for
patients with advanced SSC. A French study of 5 patients with SSC requiring liver
transplantation after biliary surgery who were followed up for 39 months posttransplant showed excellent outcomes with no recurrence.61
SUMMARY

Because of the reversible nature of secondary sclerosing cholangitis, a high suspicion

for the diagnosis should be maintained, especially in patients with PSC with unclear
diagnostic features.
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