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Pr incip le
Object ive
Background
I)
II)
III)
IV)
V)
11
V I)
11
14
Experiment al Set up
15
Procedure
18
18
22
Discussion
24
Ref erences
24
Objecti ve
The object ive of t his lab is t o acquire e xper ience on t he basic Rankine cycle and t o
underst and t he f act ors and paramet ers af f ect ing t he eff iciency and cost of generat ing
energy. I n t his lab, we will det erm ine:
a) Mass Flow Rat e of a Rankine Cyc le.
b) Thermod ynam ics p ropert ies (ent rop ies, ent halp ies, qua lit y, et c). Draw a
schemat ic of t he cycle in a T-S d iagram .
c) Work and heat t ransf er in t he dif f erent st ages of t he cycle .
d) Therma l ef f icienc y of t he cyc le.
e) Mass f low rat e in t he t urbine.
f ) Boiler ef f icienc y
g) Air-Fuel rat io and air e xcess.
h) Cost of generat ing st eam and energy.
Background
The Rankine c yc le is t he most common of a ll power generat ion c yc les and is
diagrammat ica lly depict ed via Figures 1 and 2. The Rankine c yc le was de vised t o make
use of t he charact erist ics of wat er as the working f luid. The c ycle begins in a boile r
(St at e 4 in f igure 1), where t he wat er is heat ed unt il it reaches sat urat ion- in a const ant pressure process. Once sat urat ion is reached, f urt her heat t ransfer t akes place at a
const ant t emperat ure, unt il t he working f luid reaches a qualit y of 100% (St at e 1). At t his
point , t he high-qualit y vapor is e xpanded isoent ropically t hrough an axially bladed
t urbine st age t o produce shaft work. The st eam t hen exit s t he t urbine at St at e 2.
The work ing f luid, at St at e 2, is at a low-pressure, but has a f airly high qualit y, so it is
rout ed t hrough a condenser, where t he st eam is condensed int o liquid (St at e 3). Finally,
t he cycle is co mplet ed via t he ret urn of t he liquid t o t he boiler, wh ich is norma lly
accomplished b y a mechanical pump . Figure 2 shows a schemat ic of a power plant
under a Rankine cyc le.
process. Th is phenomenon will be analyzed more in det ail. Also, t he boiler generat es a
superheat ed vapor.
water
time water
Here, time is measured with a chronometer for a known volume of water water in the
boiler.
V12 V22
&
&
0 = Qin + m water h1 h4 +
+ g ( z1 z 2 )
2
neglecting kinetic and potential energy, the energy equation reduce to:
valve, the mass and energy rate balance reduces under steady state to:
h1 = h1
which means that there is an isenthalpic expansion in the valve.
Making a similar analysis for the pump and condenser, the work and heat transfer are:
The energy balance for a control volume around the turbine under steady state condition
is:
x2 =
S g 2 S1
Sg 2 S f 2
h2 = hg 2 x 2 hg 2 h f 2
W& t (h1 h2 )
=
Qin
(h1 h4 )
M air [O 2 + 3. 76 N 2 ] + M
fuel
[C 4 H 10 ]
M air [O2 + 3.76N2 ] + M fuel [C4 H10 ] = A(CO2 ) + B(CO) + C(NO) + D(O2 ) + F(NO2 )
+ G(N2 ) + M water (H 2O)
so,
A+ B
4
M fuel =
M air =
C + F + 2G
3.76
M water =
M fuel
5
Where the coefficients (A, B, C, D, F, G and Mi) are the molar mass necessary to
balance the equation. Then the air excess is:
Eair =
M air
100
M air (ideal)
the M air (ideal ) is the molar mass of air when the chemical reaction is complete, and
there is not formation of water and intermediate compounds:
13
[O2 + 3.76N 2 ] + [C4 H10 ] = 4(CO2 ) + 24.44( N2 ) + 5(H 2O)
2
Then, the Air-Fuel ratio is defined by:
AF =
M air Pair
M fuel Pfuel
Where Pair and Pfuel are the atomic weight of air and combustible, respectively. The
W&t = VI
so, the mass flow rate in the turbine is:
& =
m
VI
t (h1 h 2 )
Where t is the efficiency of the turbine. Here, we will assume this efficiency equal to
one.
V I. Boiler analysis
From the chemical equation of combustion, balanced in term of moles:
(mh) + Q
comb
where
and
= (mh)
P
(nMh) + Q
comb
= (nMh)
P
Here, h is the enthalpy of reactants and products at the temperature of inlet and outlet
[nM (h
0
f
)]
[ (
)]
+ h + Qcomb = nM h 0f + h
P
where h 0f is t he ent halpy of react ant s and product s, respect ive ly, at t he st andard
t emperat ure and pressure. Rearranging:
[ (
)] [ (
)]
= [nM (h )] [nM (h )]+ [nM (h )] [nM (h )]
Qcomb = nM h 0f + h nM h 0f + h
P
0
f
0
f
0
The f irst t wo t erms a re t he ent halpy of combust ion ( h PR
) at st andard t emperat ure and
pressure.
0
Qcomb = hPR
+ [nM (h )] [nM (h)]
P
The ent halpy of combust ion also is called heat ing value (HV), and t his is number
indicat ive t o t he usef ul energy cont ent of dif ferent f uels. There are t wo t ypes of heat ing
va lue: higher heat ing va lue (HHV) and t he lower heat ing value (LHV). The HHV is
obt ained when all t he wat er f ormed b y combust ion is a liquid. The LHV is obt ained when
all t he wat er f ormed by t he combust ion is a vapor. For t hat HHV is more t han LHV (see
Table 1). For ca lculat ions, we will assume t hat wat er f ormed is in t he liquid st at e and t he
0
HHV will be used f or h PR
. Now, we can ca lculat e t he ef f iciency of t he boile r as:
boiler =
Qin
Qcomb
STEAM cos t =
where Pr ice fuel is t he price of t he f uel. Also it is possib le t o det ermine t he cost of
generat ing energy b y:
ENERGY cos t =
Fig u re 6 : T he mini -p o we r p la nt
The m in i-power plant has a boiler (see Figure 7), wh ich is a dua l-pass, f lame t hrough
t ube t ype unit . A burner f an speed is elect ronically ad just able t o operat e whit a
min imum of excess of air. A vort ex disc, locat ed downst ream of t he boiler unit , mixes
f uel and air and set s up a rot ary gas f low t hat result s in ef f icient heat t ransf er f rom t he
f lame t ube t o t he boilers wat er, (see Figure 8).
Fig u re 7 : Bo ile r
Elect romechanical and elect ronic burner and boiler cont rols are locat ed wit hin t he f ront
operat or panel enclosure. An A.G .A. cert if ied elect ronic ignit ion gas valve and
microprocesso r based gas ignit ion module aut omat e and supervise f lame cont rol. A
t ransducer assist s in regulat ing bo iler pressure b y c ycling t he burner on and of f . A
poppet valve , locat ed on top of the boiler, ser ves as a saf et y valve . I n t he event of
cont rol malf unct ion, t he poppet valve will open and re lie ve boiler p ressure.
Fig u re 8 : Fo rc e d a ir g as b ur ned
The ot her component is t he t urbine and generat or, (see F igure 9) . The t urbine cons ist s
The generat or is a 4-pole, permanent magnet , brushless unit . The rot or is support ed by
pre-loaded precis ion ball bear ings. The generat or inc ludes a f ull wa ve, int egral rect if ie r
bridge t hat delive rs direct current t o t he generat ors D.C. t erminals. The generat or
t erminal board a lso car ries a set of AC out put t erminals f or e xper iment al p rocedures
t hat may ent ail t he use of a t ransf ormer, or dea l wit h f requency re lat ed t opics, rp m
measurement and ot her AC relat ed e xperiment s.
Fig u re 10 : Co o ling to we r
Finally, t he condenser t owers out er mant le is f ormed f rom a sing le p iece of alum inum ,
(see Figure 10) . The t owers large surf ace area af f ect s heat t ransf er t o ambient air and
provides a rea list ic appearance. Turb ine e xhaust st eam is p iped int o t he bot t om of t he
t ower. The st eam is kept in close cont act wit h t he out side mant le by means of 4 baf f les.
Procedure
1. At t he moment of making t he experiment , t he st eam t urbine will be operat ional in
t he no load condit ion. So, t he f irst st ep is t o set t he of t he maximu m load
applied on t he t urbine b y t he generat or.
2. Allow t he syst em t o reach st eady st at e, and t ake readings. The y a re:
a) Boiler t emperat ure.
b) Boiler p ressure.
c) Turb ine in let t emperat ure.
d) Turb ine e xit t emperat ure.
e) Turb ine in let pressure.
f ) Turb ine e xit pressure .
g) Wat er f low.
h) G enerat or amperage.
i) G enerat or volt age.
j) Time operat ion.
k) Repeat t he st ep 2) f or and of t he ma ximum load applied.
Solu tion
Assumpt ion:
1. Each component of t he cycle is analyzed as a cont rol vo lume at st eady st at e.
2. All processes of t he work ing f lu id are int ernally re vers ib le.
3. The t urbine and pump operat e adiabat ica lly.
4. Kinet ic and pot ent ial energ y ef f ect s are negligib le.
5. Sat urat ed vapor ent ers t he t urbine. Condensat e exit s t he condenser
as
St age 2 is f ixed by p 2 = 0.008 MPa and t he f act t hat specif ic ent ropy is const ant f or t he
adiabat ic, int ernally re versib le expans ion t hrough t he turbine. Using liqu id and sat urat ed
vapor dat a f rom Table A-3 of Moran and Shapiro, we f ind t hat t he qualit y at st age 2 is:
x2 =
S2 S f
Sg Sf
5. 7432 0. 5926
= 0 .6745
7.6361
W& p
m&
W& p
m&
= h4 h3
f or h4 , using
h4 = h3 +
W& p
&
m
= h3 + 3 ( p 4 p3 )
Subst it ut ing propert y va lues f rom Table A-3 of Moran and Shapiro:
106 N / m 2 1 kJ / kg
3
h4 = 181.94 kJ / kg
a) The net power de ve loped by t he cyc le is:
W& t
= h1 h2
&
m
and
W& p
m&
= h4 h3
where m& is t he mass f low rat e of t he st eam. The rat e of heat t ransf er t o t he working
f luid as it passes t hrough t he boiler is det ermined us ing an energ y rat e balance as :
Q& in
= h1 h4
m&
t he t hermal ef f iciency is t hen:
= 0.371 (37.1%)
b) The mass f lo w rat e of st eam can be obt ained f rom t he expression f or t he net power
given in pa rt a). Thus:
m& =
c) Wit h t he expression f or Q& in f rom part a) and previously det erm ined specif ic ent halpy
va lues:
d) Mass and energ y rat e balances applied t o a cont rol volu me enclos ing t he st eam side
side of t he condenser give :
Alt ernat ively, Q& out can be det ermined f rom an energy rat e balance on t he overall
vapor power p lant . At st eady st at e, the net power developed equals t he net rat e of
m& cw =
& (h2 h3 )
m
(hcw,in hcw,out )
at t he ent ering and exit ing t emperat ures of t he cooling wat er:
& cw =
m
needs and burns complet ely t o H 2 O . Five percent of t he heat of combust ion is lost t o
t he f urnace ext erior.
Solu tion
The st oichio met ric equat ion f or et hane in air is:
a+b= 2
oxygen balance:
a+
b 3
+ = 2 .8
2 2
Q = (nMhf
P
(nMh )
P
f 1500K
1500K
(nMh f )25C
R
(nMh )
f
25 C
t hus,
Discussion
Re ferences
Moran, M. J. and Shapiro, H. N., 1995, Fundament al of Engineering Thermod ynam ics,
3rd edit ion, John Wile y & Sons, I nc., Ne w York.
El-Wakil, M. M. , 1984, Powe rplant Techno log y, McG raw-Hill, I nc. , Ne w York.