Adultery

PROJECT REPORT 1
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1.1 Statement of Problem
There has been recurrent, conflict between the liberties of the individual and security of the
society. It is well reflected in the area of sexual behaviour as it becomes difficult to reconcile
competing claims of the liberty of the individual and the security which so far have defied
final solution. It gets further complicated in a developing, multilingual, heterogeneous and
plural society like India where conflict between them are multidimensional and naturally
sharper. It threatens to disturb the dynamic social equilibrium of the society.
Society is a dynamic and living concept as it grows with the passage of time. It is regulated
by various forced which set up a dynamic equilibrium in the society. Besides this the social
values keep on changing with the passage of time and place to place. An act which is an
offence today may not be an offence in the past and the vice-versa. This poses constant
problems in the society.
In many jurisdictions adultery is viewed as an offence injurious to public morals and
mistreatment of the marriage relationship. It jeopardises the institution of marriage. Though
historically adultery has been regarded as a very serious and heinous crime, but the modern
society is afflicted by many new social conditions which have led to a liberal view about it.
The processes of urbanization, industrialization and population explosions have brought
about new tensions, problems and changes in the society, which have affected the institution
of marriage and aspects related to it.
Thus, it becomes necessary to inquire the new approaches and developments that have taken
place with regards to the offence of adultery which affects directly affects the institution of
marriage yet it is penalised under the Indian Penal Code.
Liability in Case of Adultery in India: A Critical Study
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1.2 Aims and Objective of the Study

The chief objective of the work is to study various facets related to adultery in and around the
world. On critically examining the matrimonial, criminological and constitutional aspects of
the chosen problem, it will be easy to answer the question, whether the offence of adultery
should be retained or abolished in India.
The study has theoretical and academic importance as well as practical utility. Indian society
is developing rapidly to achieve the developmental goals which western societies took
centuries to achieve. Thus, it is becoming increasingly open because of the changes taking
place in sexual behaviour, attitude and sexual values in the society.
The work proceeds with the hypothesis that the existing legal provisions on adultery i.e.
section 497 IPC is not satisfactory. It is out of tune with the time and new wave of thinking
on sexual matters. The study aims to search solutions for the following questions raised:
I.
II.
III.
What should be the definition of the term adultery?

What are the different causes and consequences of adultery?
Whether the offence of adultery should be abolished or the man and woman at fault
should be punished equally?
IV.
Whether the wife of adulterer should be given right to take action against husband in
adultery?
V.
What remedial measures should be taken to check adultery in society?
1.3 Research Methodology

The research method used in the whole project report is doctrinal including primary and
secondary sources. Literature from various articles contributed by individuals and agencies
can lead to different conclusions all of which can be challenged on different grounds. Besides
these, other sources like Law Commission Report, Recommendations by Malimath
Committee and National Commission for Women, Working Papers etc. have also been
resorted to. The method of writing is analytical and comparative. The literature on the subject
is critically analyzed and comparison is made with the law prevailing in other countries on
PROJECT REPORT 3
the subject. However, the constraints of time and finances have added to the limitations of the
study and thus the doctrinal method of research has been used.
Font Size The project is in Times New Roman font size 14 for Main Headings and 12 for
other parts of the study with 1.5 spacing. The footnote is of size 10.
1.4 Chapterization Plan
The study has been conducted under the following chapter scheme:
Chapter 1 Introduction, articulates the problems for the study in the area of matrimonial and
criminological aspects of adultery. The statement of problem articulates the research problem,
rationale of the study and aims and objectives of the problem. It also describe the research
methodology employed.
Chapter 2 Conceptual Perspectives, deals with the various definitions that have been given
to the term adultery and its origin. It gives an historical account of adultery during different
ages.
Chapter 3 Causes and Consequences of Adultery, deals with the different factors that affect
the commission of adultery and different circumstances. It also discusses certain
consequences thereof.
Chapter 4 Analysis of various Laws relating to Adultery in India, which provides analytical
and descriptive study of adultery under matrimonial laws, penal laws and constitution.
Chapter 5 International Perspective, in which comparative study with the laws prevailing in
other countries has been done.
Chapter 6 Recent Issues and Debates regarding adultery. The different views that have been
raised in the society regarding female criminality and decriminalising adultery has been
discussed on the basis of the reports and recommendations of the Law Commission of India,
Malimath Committee and NCW.
Chapter 7 Concluding Observations, embodies the conclusion that has been arrived at after
undertaking the detailed study on the subject in the previous chapters.
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CHAPTER 2 - CONCEPTUAL PERSPECTIVES

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Sexual relations have always been a matter of curiosity in society. The difficulties have also
been experienced with regard to putting the rider on legitimate sexual activities. The problem
might have been in the society since its inception but with the emergence of family
institution, it might have assumed debatable dimensions. As the society progressed and
advances were made in science and technology, many societal institutions including marriage
have come under attack.
Latest mechanization, urbanization, industrialization and population explosion have virtually
brought about disintegration of family institution. It has created serious problems so far as the
life is concerned. There are many known forms of social delinquencies such as unnatural sex,
unmarried motherhood, abortion, rape, kidnapping, enticement, abduction, adultery, incest,
indecent assault, etc. There is upward trend about these sexual offences in the society. The
areas of legitimate sexual activity have considerably narrowed down because of increasing
number of enactments and judicial pronouncements restricting sexual freedom. Since its
inception, the law on adultery in India has been subject to controversy with regard to several
fundamental issues.
This chapter takes into account adultery in its conceptual perspectives and general aspects.
2.1 Meaning and Nature of Adultery
Adultery is the indulgence in voluntary sexual intercourse of a married person with someone
other than his/her spouse. It is the intentional violation of the marital bed and the offence of
incontinence by those persons entered into the bond of marriage. However, such legal
definitions of adultery vary from one country to another and statute to statute, while adultery
is voluntary sexual intercourse between a woman and a man who is not her husband in some
places, it is voluntary sexual intercourse between a woman and a third party without her
husbands consent in other places. While at many places adultery is when a woman has
voluntary sexual intercourse with a person other than her husband, at other places adultery is
PROJECT REPORT 5
when a woman has voluntary sexual intercourse with a third person without her husbands
consent.
2.1.1 Definition of Adultery
Adultery is defined as the sexual intercourse between a married person and a person other
than the spouse outside the marriage bond. Hence, it directly hits the institution of marriage.
Nature of adultery is little confusing because of uncertainty in the definitional dimensions.
The point of uncertainty is whether both parties to the adultery should be held liable for all
purposes, matrimonial as well as criminal or one party may be exempted from the liability
keeping in view the requirements.
Etymologically, the origin of the term is traced from the Latin word, adulterare which
means to commit adultery. However, in order to understand the definition and true nature of
adultery the following definitions are being studied:
According to Websters Dictionary, it means voluntary sexual intercourse between a married
man and someone other than his wife or between a married woman and someone other than
her husband.1 It also says that adultery means the sexual intercourse of two persons either of
whom is married to a third person. It makes the word adultery synonymous with
unfaithfulness or unchastity. It gives another meaning as, any lewdness or unchastity of act or
thought, as in violation of the divine commandments.2
According to Blacks Law Dictionary, adultery means sexual relations between a married
person and someone who is not that person's wife or husband.3
According to Encyclopaedia Britannica, adultery refers to sexual relations between a married
person and someone other than the spouse.4 It also says that written or customary prohibitions
or taboos against adultery constitute part of the marriage code of virtually every society.
Websters Comprehensive Dictionary, 21 (1995), available at

http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/adultery?show=0&t=1302444990 (visited on 12.03.11 at 12:12
a.m.)
2
The New International Websters Comprehensive Dictionary of The English Language, Trident Press
International, 2003.
3
Blacks Law Dictionary, 8th Ed., 2004
4
Encyclopedia Britannica, 111 (2002, 15th Ed.), available at
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/6618/adultery (visited on 12.03.11 at 12:12 a.m)
PROJECT REPORT 6
According to Juris Secundum, it is defined as an offence against the marriage relation, but is
more specifically defined as sexual intercourse between a married man and woman not his
wife, or between a married woman and a man not her husband.5
Adultery is an act of voluntary sexual intercourse (which need not be completed), between
two persons who are not married to each other, but one or both of whom are, at the time of
the act, married to a third person.6
The act of adultery leads to civil as well as criminal consequences because it has been made a
ground for seeking divorce and has also been criminalised under the penal laws. Though the
modern trend is to decriminalize adultery, historically, many cultures have regarded adultery
as a crime. Jewish, Islamic, Christian and Hindu traditions are all unequivocal in their
condemnation of adultery. In most cultures both the man and the woman are equally
punishable. However, according to ancient Hindu law, in ancient Greece and in Roman law,
only the offending female spouse could be killed and men were not heavily punished.
In India the offence of adultery is punishable under Section 497 7 of the Indian Penal Code
(IPC), 1860. As it stands, this Section makes only men having sexual intercourse with the
wives of other men without the consent of their husbands punishable and women cannot be
punished even as abettors.
2.1.2 Nature of the Offence of Adultery
The nature of adultery has created some dilemmas to the policy makers. The question is
whether a single act should be regarded as sufficient to constitute adultery or if a person is
living in adultery should be regarded as adultery. Prior to 1976, in India the unamended
Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 had used the expression living in adultery 8. But later on the
expression was dropped in preference to the present phrase. However, the criminal law of
5
Corpus Juris Secundum, 410 (2003)

K.J. Aiyar, Judicial Dictionary, LexisNexis Butterworths, New Delhi, 14th Ed., 2007, pg. 46
7
Section 497 Adultery - Whoever has sexual intercourse with a person who is and whom he knows or has
reason to believe to be the wife of another man, without the consent or connivance of that man, such sexual
intercourse not amounting to the offence of rap, is guilty of the offence of adultery, and shall be punished with
imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to five years, or with fine, or with both. In such
case the wife shall be punishable as an abettor.
6
Section 13 (1) (i) Divorce - (1) Any marriage solemnized, whether before or after the commencement of this
Act, may, on a petition presented by either the husband or the wife, be dissolved by a decree of divorce on the
ground that the other party(i) is living in adultery; or
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India has not required the proof of adultery in such a manner i.e. living in adultery. A single
act of adultery is punishable under section 497 of IPC. Some offences are likely to be
committed for omitting adultery and it may also be responsible for provocation in committing
serious offences, such as culpable homicide, murder etc.
It is amorphous in nature. It is a civil as well as criminal offence. It involves sexual
intercourse with a married woman with her consent. Consent makes a difference between
adultery and rape. It is a sin and different from other sexual offences. With the passage of
time, a lenient attitude is emerging in the society. Though it involves many psychological
issues such as emotional problems, social prestige, status etc. but the Indian society is
developing a tolerant attitude due to numerous developments.
Adultery is not abduction under the statutory definition. It simply means taking or detaining a
female for the purpose of marriage, sexual intercourse, concubinage or prostitution under the
specified conditions.9
Under Indian criminal law the married woman who is party to the adultery cannot be
punished even as abettor. The reason, presumably may be social and economic backwardness
of woman an peculiar Indian circumstances in which they have been placed by the society
over the ages. In Sowmithri Vishnu v. Union of India10, the Supreme Court observed:
The contemplation of the law, evidently, is that the wife, who is involved in an illicit
relationship with another man, is a victim and not the author of the crime.11
Thus it seems that the basic condition of the Indian women and societys attitude towards
females prohibits the courts to punish her even as abettor.
Adultery is regarded as an anti-social and illegal act and any person of good moral would not
like this type of activity to be committed in the society. In this connection an observation of
Justice Bhat, made in Hatim Khan v. State of J & K12, deserves to be quoted:
Paripuranand Verma, Sex Offences in India and Abroad, B.R. Publishing Corporation, New Delhi, 1st Ed.,
1979, pg. 174
10
AIR 1985 SC 1618
11
Id. at 1621
12
AIR 1963 J&K 56
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Adultery by itself is an anti-social and an illegal act; naturally any peace-loving

citizen and any person of good morals would not like that adultery should be permitted to be
indulged in before his very nose.13
Similarly it may lead to destruction of marriage. Robert P. Blood observes that adultery is the
main factor leading to break ups in family life. He observes:
The varieties of adultery are endless. Sometimes it is a kind of pre-marital
intercourse, the physical expression of new love which has already superseded the old.14
Thus, criminologically adultery may be defined as illicit sexual intercourse between a
married woman, who has a living husband, and another man. It is immaterial whether the
man involved in the commission of the act is married or unmarried. The sexual act is
committed with the consent of the woman. According to matrimonial laws it means sexual
intercourse between a married person and another person other than a spouse. The element of
immorality and harmful nature of the act criminalise the human conduct in case of adultery.15
2.2 Origin and History of Adultery
Adultery as a sin has a long chequered history. The offence intimately associated with
marriage necessities to look into it from historical perspective. During ancient Hindu period,
it was prevalent. Mohammedan period saw an upsurge as there was an open show of sexual
lust. The rulers maintained Haram to satisfy their sexual lust and enjoyment. In English
period also, offences against sex including adultery were prevalent and increased following
the increasing impact of western liberal values, urbanization and industrialization. The
changing moral values introduction of western standards, cessation of adultery and
homosexuality between consenting adults as offence in some countries are largely responsible
to increasing incidents of adultery and other sexual offences. This section of the chapter
analyses the problem from historical perspective under the eras of time.
13
Id. at 58
Robert P. Blood, Marriage, The Free Press, New York, 2nd Ed., 1969, pg. 394
15
S. M. A. Quadri, Ahmad Siddiques Criminology: Problems and Perspectives, Eastern Book Company,
Lucknow, 5th Ed., 2005, pg. 121
14
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2.2.1 Hindu Period

Marriage in India has been regarded as sacramental in nature. The sanctity attached to
husband and wife brought about by the marriage and inseparability of their relationship was
the firm foundation on which social life was construed. 16 Manu recognised eight forms of
marriages brahma, daiva, arsa, prajapatya, asura, gandharva, raksara and paisaca and
according to him everyone should get married. He says:
Just as every creature lives by air, so the order of life exist by the support of the house
holder: a wife is the main source of dharma, artha and kama and so an unmarried
person, irrespective of varna to which he belongs, in unfit for the discharge of his
duties.17
He attached great importance to the women of the house and she should be respected by
everyone. According to Dharmshastra and Manu, the home and the family are the bedrock of
the society and woman is a person on whom the sanctity of the home and household rests.
The wife is the home and should not be exposed to the rough and independent life. She
should always be taken care of by someone by her father in childhood, by her husband in
youth and by her son in old age. 18 This means that emphasis was on subordination and
dependence of women. She was to grow under the impression that she was not fit for
independent existence.
The Mahabharta also referred to promiscuities in marital relations of ancient India. It
described how Svetaketu enjoined that there should not be any laxity in conjugal relations. 19
The perusal of the marriage hymn showed that the institution of marriage has already been
recognised in the society. The marriage tie was a binding force throughout the life.
Monogamy was the rule but polygamy was also practised by the rich and riling class.
Polyandry was not known in that period and marriage was not treated as secular contract but
was a religious ceremony which guided the husband to treat his wife as God given gift. It had
exclusively sacramental nature.
16
M. Rama Jois, Ancient Indian Law Eternal Values in Manu Smriti, Universal Law Publishing Co. Pvt.
Ltd, 2007, pg. 38
17
R. B. Pandey, Hindu Sanskaras Socio Religious study of Hindu Sacrament, Motilal Banarsidas, Delhi, 2 nd
Ed., 1976, pg. 153
18
V. Raghvan, The Manu Samhitas, in The Cultural Heritage of India, Calcutta, 2nd Ed. 1959, pg. 354
19
Id. at 358
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Even from the Vedic age, the standard of female mortality appeared to be high, the chastity of
the woman was emphasised and it was to be protected and respected. The degree of
punishment depended upon the classes of offences.20
According to Buddha, all the sufferings are due to kama which brought about ones bondage.
It binds the world and there is no other bond. It neither is satisfied nor is extinguished by the
enjoyment of the objects. It grows stronger with the passing of day. He identifies kama with
fire. Like fire is never satisfied with the amount of fuel, kama cannot be satisfied with any
kind of objects. When the kama inside the heart ceases, then the moral becomes immoral.
Ancient sages divided sins into two classes as, mahapatakas (moral sins) and upapatakas
(minor sins). The former were the killings of Brahmna, drinking wine, stealing and adultery.21
In ancient India the sin of adultery considered deadly and treated very severely. The unlawful
coming together of a man and woman for sexual enjoyment constituted strisangrahna or
adultery.22 The punishment for adultery varied from death sentence to different types of
corporeal punishments.
2.2.2 Medieval Period
In medieval India, polygamy was prevalent in different classes of society. The travellers like
Alberuni, Hamilton who visited India during this period found that the Hindus take one wife
and never divorce her till death except for the case of adultery, but for Mohammedans the law
permitted to have three or four wives. The Sikh Gurus and social reformer treated adultery as
most heinous crime.
During this period Ala-ud-din issued orders, providing punishments for adultery, such as,
stoning to death, castration, cutting of nose etc. Jahangir also admired the fidelity of Hindu
women who would not allow the hand of any unlawful person to touch the skirt of their
chastity and would rather perish into flames.23
2.2.3 English Period and Post-Independence Period
20
J. D. Mayne, A Treatise on Hindu Law and Usage, Nabu Press, 13th Ed., 1991, pg. 93
Dinesh Chandra Bhattacharya, Penances and Vows, in The Cultural Heritage of India, Calcutta, 1993, pg.
386
22
M. Rama Jois, Legal and Constitutional History of India, Universal Law Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., 2010, pg.
374
23
P. N. Chopra, Some Experiments in Social Reforms in Medieval India, in The Cultural Heritage of India,
Calcutta, 1993, pg. 639
21
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When East India Company came to the country, the substantive criminal law was
Mohammedan Criminal Law and cases were tried and decided according to it. In 1860, this
law ceased to be the law of the land and was replaced by the Indian Penal Code, 1860, which
is still the law of the land. Section 497 of the code provides punishment for adultery. The
maximum punishment is imprisonment for five years of either description or fine or both.
The action is initiated on the complaint of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 i.e. section
198. The guilty wide is punishable neither as offender nor as abettor.
However, it may be noted after independence offences against women have increased and
adultery is not exception to this. It can be well demonstrated by the fact that male prostitution
is increasing day by day. Women have become more liberty oriented and the population of
working women is also increasing.
2.2.4 Miscellaneous Aspects regarding Origin
It deals with general history of the act of adultery that was prevalent around the world.
Written or customary prohibitions or taboos against adultery constitute part of the marriage
code of virtually every society. Indeed, adultery seems to be as universal and, in some
instances, as common as marriage.
In the Graeco-Roman world we find stringent laws against adultery, yet almost throughout
they discriminate against the wife. The ancient idea that the wife was the property of the
husband is still operative. The lending of wives practiced among some savages was
encouraged. The following passage of the Oration against Neaera, depicts the position of
women. It reads as,
"We keep mistresses for our pleasures, concubines for constant attendance, and wives
to bear us legitimate children, and to be our faithful housekeepers.24
In the early Roman law the jus tori belonged to the husband.25 A married man could have
sexual intercourse with an unmarried woman and could not be held guilty of adultery or any
other crime. But the married woman was guilty of adultery whenever she had sexual
intercourse with a man who is not her husband. It made no difference whether the man was
24
Available at: http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?

collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/hastlj38&div=12&id (visited on 18.03.11 at 12.32 p.m.)
25
Available at: http://www.roman-colosseum.info/roman-life/roman-punishment.htm (visited on 18.03.11 at
12.32 p.m.)
PROJECT REPORT 12
married or not. Therefore, there was no such thing as the crime of adultery on the part of a
husband towards his wife.
In the Mosaic Law, as in the old Roman law, adultery meant only the carnal intercourse of a
wife with a man who was not her lawful husband. The intercourse of a married man with a
single woman was not accounted adultery, but fornication.26 Both the adulterer and
the adulteress were penalised with death.
In the Christian law this discrimination against the wife is emphatically repudiated. In
the law of Jesus regarding marriage the unfaithful husband loses his ancient immunity if
indulges in adultery. The obligation of mutual fidelity, incumbent upon husband as well as
wife, is moreover implied in the notion of the Christian sacrament, in which
is symbolized the ineffable and lasting union of the Heavenly Bridegroom and His unspotted
Bride.27 But the notion that obligations of fidelity rested upon the husband the same as upon
the
wife
is
one
that
has
not
always
found
practical
exemplification
in
the laws of Christian states. Despite the protests of Mr. Gladstone, the English Parliament
passed, in 1857, a law by which a husband may obtain absolute divorce on account of
simple adultery in his wife, while the latter can be freed from her adulterous husband only
when his infidelity has been attended with such cruelty "as would have entitled her to
a divorce.28
The same discrimination against the wife is found in some of our early New England
colonies. Thus, in Massachusetts the adultery of the husband, unlike that of the wife, was not
sufficient ground for divorce.
The Code of Hammurabi (18th century BC) in Babylonia provided a punishment of death by
drowning for adultery.29 In ancient Greece and in Roman law, an offending female spouse
could be killed, but men were not severely punished. The Jewish, Islamic, and Christian
traditions are all unequivocal in their condemnation of adultery. The culpability of both men
and women is more explicitly expressed in the New Testament and the Talmud than in the
Old Testament or the Qurn.30 In strict interpretations of Islamic law, or Sharah, men and
women are equally liable to harsh punishments for adultery including death by stoning. The
26
Available at: http://openlibrary.org/subjects/adultery_(roman_law) (visited on 28.03.11 at 1:37 p.m.)

Available at: http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Adultery (visited on 11.04.11 at 12.30 p.m.)
28
Available at: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01163a.htm (visited on 11.04.11 at 12.30 p.m.)
29
Supra note 23
30
http://www.jrank.org/history/pages/3488/adultery.html
27
PROJECT REPORT 13
punishment still applied in the early 21st century in some countries, including Iran and
Afghanistan.
The term adultery implies distinctively Judeo-Christian and Islamic attitudes toward
marriage, many contemporary anthropologists are cautious about using it in comparative
contexts. There are many societies in which marriage is considered a less-permanent
arrangement and in which extramarital sex is less sternly condemned. In other words,
attitudes toward adultery vary widely between cultures. Whereas the traditional Senufo and
Bambara of West Africa, for example, tacitly condone the honour crime of killing the
adulterous female spouse and her companion, among the Kaka in Cameroon a man may have
sexual relations with the wives of certain relatives with impunity. Wife lending was long a
part of Eskimo hospitality.
In Western Europe and North America, adultery was traditionally a ground for divorce. The
diffusion of this principle, along with Western notions of egalitarianism and modern
expectations of mutual emotional support in marriage, has resulted in unprecedented pressure
for equal marital rights for women in traditional African and Southeast Asian societies. In
many eastern European countries, adultery does not in itself constitute a ground for divorce;
both partners must testify, under the principle of "general breakdown," that the offense
resulted in the decline of those feelings of which marital unity is composed. 31 The concept of
marital breakdown was gradually adopted in the United States during the 1970s, when many
states began to permit "no-fault" divorces, which do not require an injured party to prove
specific misdeeds. Most American states allow couples to divorce on either a fault or a nofault basis, and many use no-fault divorce exclusively. The shift to no-fault divorce
significantly reduced the importance of adultery as an element in divorce proceedings.
The forgoing analysis shows that adultery is extant in the society from ancient period or from
times immemorial. The immoral act is intimately associated with the marriage and might
have come into being with the dawn of this social institution. Historically speaking, it used to
be visited with heavy punishments, but standards changed with the passage of time. Thus,
societal response has varied from time to time and place to place.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------CHAPTER 3 - CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF ADULTERY

31
http://www.articlesbase.com/parenting-articles/adultery-and-its-long-history-2778748.html
PROJECT REPORT 14
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------In order to eradicate the evils of adultery, it is necessary to find out the causes of adultery.
Adulterous relation, in fact, is also termed as cheating, criminal conversation, unfaithfulness,
etc. The remedial measures can be suggested only when the causes of the problem are
diagnosed properly. In this section of the chapter, the causes of adultery shall be discussed at
length.
Sexual indiscipline in society may be the result of many factors. The traditional concepts are
withering away in the society. Sexual values are rapidly changing. Population explosions,
urbanization, industrialization, increasing disorganization of family and society, increasing
population of working woman are largely responsible for sexual offences including adultery.
3.1 Various Causes of Adultery
The causes of adultery may be divided under the following heads:
3.1.1 Religious Causes
Religion in modern times has become and lost its effectiveness as a means of social control.
The impact of western culture, liberal values, secular education, heavy craze for materialistic
life and things have certainly given rise to increased sexual delinquency in the society. People
have become less afraid of religious sanctions for violating religious directions. Thus,
morality has lost much significance woing to modern sexy life. The basic reason is lack of
religious education and disregard of moral values. All religious prohibit sexual lust. The
Sermons of the Mount prohibits even a lustful look at a woman.
3.1.2 Biological Causes
Doing sex is biological need but the control of sex is desirable and in the interest of the
society. Early physical maturity may be a case of delinquent sexual behaviour. Sexual
impulses affect all persons whether male or female and the intensity of sex emotions in an
individual depend on their personal traits and biophysical and factors. 32 Some persons have
more strong sexual desires whereas some are passives in such sexual behaviour. The
differences in such sexual behaviour are because of the conditions of gonad glands which are
32
Available at: http://www.adultery-etc.com/index.php/9 (visited on 30.03.11 at 5:02 p.m.)
PROJECT REPORT 15
more active in some persons than others. Impotency of the husband is also one of the causes
of adultery.
Excessive sexual behaviour may be due to over secretions from endocrinal glands. Sex crime
also takes place due to desire of maternity. A married woman who had no child is discarded in
the society. She is considered as ill omen.
Sex crimes are also increasing due to the security which is provided by modern medicines
against the pregnancy and venereal disease. The use of various contraceptives has almost
eliminated the fear of unwanted pregnancy. It results in deriving sexual pleasure.
3.1.3 Psychological Causes
The human nature plays a significant role in determining the behaviour of an individual for
an act. There can be various psychological causes such as disinterested partner, the feeling of
taking revenge etc. If a man or woman has a disinterested partner, not enjoying sex, there are
chances for developing sexual relationship outside the marriage bond. Sex is the basic part of
the marriage and if other partner is not willing to have sex, frustration arises and leads to
extra-marital relationships.33 The married women, whose husbands are absent, derive sexual
satisfaction through male prostitutes. They pay handsome amount to them for their sexual
satisfaction. In Hyderabad there are number of boys who have joined this activity because of
the handsome payment given to them.34
In addition to this, sometimes after knowing that partner to marriage is not faithful, the
opposite partner develop illicit relations with some other person outside marriage then it
causes the feeling of revenge, due to which even the other spouse enters into such kind of
illicit relationships. Many people find it very exciting and adventurous also and in order to
satisfy their excitement they go for such illicit relationships.
One of the major cause for adultery and such other sexual offences is misrepresentation and
fraudulent acts done by the person. The other person trusts on the words and later discovers
that he/she was cheated.
3.1.4 Social Causes
33
Available at: http://ezinearticles.com/?Adultery:-Problems,-People,-and-Pain&id=56580 (visited on 30.03.11

at 5:02 p.m.)
34
Available at: http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-12-20/man-woman/28237738_1_maleprostitution-boys-easy-money (visited on 30.03.11 at 5:02 p.m.)
PROJECT REPORT 16
There are various social causes, which are responsible for sexual delinquency. Family,
cultural problems, ecological factors, etc. may be cited as the cause for adultery by way of
various examples. Family is the institution where one learns the basic values of life and has
the highest impact on ones life. The modern women are not confined within the four walls of
the house but have participation with the men in the outdoor activities also. They no longer
follow the order of the husband in the house but want to share husbands burden equally.
During jobs the women get enough opportunity to develop relations with other men. This
intimacy sometimes develops sex delinquency. The broken homes constitute an important
factor in the causation of sex crime. Lack of family ties due a divorce, separation or the
voluntary breaking between parents leads to sex delinquency. Economic independence has
brought tremendous change in the outlook of the women.
Also in the relationship of marriage both the parties grow apart and sometimes they did not
have as much in common as they thought and when one met a person who has more in
common, the person may check out if he is compatible with her under the sheet also. Family
happiness due to the wife being frigid or husbands habits, complexities may cause
dissatisfaction which led to extra marital relationships. Thus, compatibility between the two
partners plays a very important role.
Besides this the mass media plays a very influential role in causation of the sexual offences.
The influence of modern cinemas, blue films, obscene literature and transparent dresses etc.
arouse sexual desire normal. Easy availability and access to all these sources induce the
desire to commit these offences. In many Hindi movies also the directors by depicting illicit
sex, try to make a picture of freeing individuals from social and religious restrictions and
encourages lust.
Moreover the habit of taking narcotic drugs and drinks also increases the sexual desire of the
person. An herb found on the hilly slopes ear Milan, Italy if taken orally increases the sexual
desire in human beings and is responsible for different sexual offences. Alcoholic drinks and
drugs impair the mental faculty of human beings and their acts do not remain in their control
due to which they tend to do certain acts which normally they would not do.
3.1.5 Economic Causes
The society is increasingly becoming more materialistic and lust for materialistic goods, drive
people to earn money or get such things by any means legal or illegal. Poverty and
PROJECT REPORT 17
unemployment force women to indulge in such kind of sexual behaviour. The cases have also
been reported where male members have gone to work abroad and the wives indulge in
sexual intercourse with other males or male prostitutes.
The phenomenon of rapid industrialization in India has introduced many radical changes in
the society. The increase in number of working women has exposed the men and women to
western culture. The interaction between the working women and working men sometimes
make the women more impressed by her fellow mate than her husband and may lead to
adulterous relationship.
3.1.6 Miscellaneous Causes
The following are some general causes of adultery which are not category specific as they
may fall under all the categories simultaneously or none.
i.
In some relationships sexual activity can only occur outside of the marriage as is the
ii.
iii.
case with extreme chronic illness or disability.

Extramarital affairs relating to a philosophical belief about "open marriage."
Tension and conflict in the relationship due to any of a number of factors such as
financial problems, value conflicts, long periods of separation, problems and
iv.
incompatibility with in laws, and career oriented issues.

Critical life events such as illness or accident, death, being uprooted, a shift in status,
personal failure, life transitions, substance abuse, may have knocked you off balance
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
x.
and contribute to the affair.

Individual character issues predisposing someone to extramarital affairs.
One partner feeling that his / her needs are not being met.
Emotional emptiness can lead to adultery.
Need for sexual variety.
Inability to resist new sexual opportunity.
Failure or rejection on any front can make you or your spouse more vulnerable to an
xi.
xii.
affair.
Surprisingly, success is also a risk factor because it increases attractiveness to others.
Lack of conflict resolution skills.
Thus, there is multitude of factors which are responsible for causation of sex offences. Social
and moral values have lost their control.
3.2 Consequences and Effects of Adultery
PROJECT REPORT 18
There are a number of negative consequences that result when someone commits adultery.
There are areas in the world in which legal action is pursued as a criminal act. In many
instances, when an individual has been a victim of their spouse's adulterous acts, they are
issued immediate permission to divorce that individual. As you can see, this is not an
uncommon issue. However, when experienced, it can be an absolute disheartening experience
for all that are involved.
Below are some more examples when it comes to effects of adultery:
i.
Individuals who engage in sexual acts with someone outside of their marriage, often
experience high levels of anxiety and depression once this has been indulged in. This
level of stress not only impacts the mind in a psychological way; it also affects the
physiological make up and parts of the person.
ii.
By engaging in this act, one may start to experience difficulties in other relationships,
also at work, and many other areas because along with legal ramifications social
stigma is also attached to the act of adultery.
iii.
Many who have pursued an adulterous relationship have often found themselves
suffering financial loss as a result of the relationship that is being pursued. Since these
relationships are bound by any bond so once the purpose is fulfilled or either of the
partners has become incapable of fulfilling the desires of the other than these
relationships come to an end. It means that they are short term relationships.
iv.
In many professional positions, there is a possibility for termination of employment if

the adulterous act was brought to the attention of the employer. An example of when
this act may cost a professional loss is law enforcement positions. These are
professionals who are expected to achieve the highest level of integrity and it is
believed to be a breakdown of character if adultery is committed. Being a pastor and
head of a religious denomination may also line up for dismissal if adultery is
committed.
v.
When an adulterous act is committed, and others find out, a lack of respect and
tolerance may be experienced. This can be potentially devastating because the person
has to go through many psychological traumas.
PROJECT REPORT 19
vi.
Besides these social, economic and psychological effects there are serious legal
consequences also if the case is reported. The act of adultery has been considered as a
very heinous crime since times immemorial and has always been awarded with severe
punishments. Though those brutal forms of punishments have ceased to be practised
but still the Indian Penal Code provides for imprisonment of either description for a
period of five years or fine or both. This shows that it has serious legal consequences
as well.
Therefore, it may be said that adultery is an offence against the institution of marriage. In
order to keep marriage intact it is necessary to punish those who violate its sanctity. There is
close connection between law and morals so immoral act of adultery has been prohibited by
law since ages.
PROJECT REPORT 20
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------CHAPTER 4 - ANALYSIS OF LAWS RELATING TO ADULTERY IN

INDIA
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Adultery is not uncommon in India for a number of reasons. Its peculiarity and amorphous
quality is exhibited from the fact that it is sexual offence as well as offence against the
institution of marriage. It is a ground for judicial separation as well as divorce under family
law and therefore, from matrimonial point of view, its relevance cannot be ignored. It attacks
the institution of marriage in the society. The definition of adultery has changed from time to
time and place to place.
This chapter deals with the difference in the nature of adultery under matrimonial laws, penal
laws. It takes into account adultery as a civil wrong.
4.1 Adultery under Matrimonial Laws as Civil and Social Wrong
According to Dr. Paras Diwan, there is no formal definition of adultery but it has a fairly
established meaning in matrimonial laws.35 Adultery consists of sexual intercourse by one
party to the marriage with some person other than the spouse. It is defined under law as a
consensual physical correlation between two individuals who are not married to each other
and either or both are married to someone else. Sexual intercourse must be voluntary for
adultery and therefore, the married woman who is raped cannot be party to adultery. 36 It
should be voluntary both physically and mentally so that the defence of insanity may not be
taken. In order to establish adultery, the complete acts of sexual intercourse need not to be
proved which is required to consummate a marriage.37 It is one of the principle grounds for
divorce as well as judicial separation. A single act of adultery is enough to constitute a
matrimonial offence or wrong.38
35
Dr. Paras Diwan, and Peeyushi Diwan, Family Law: Law of Marriage and Divorce in India, Allahabad
Law Agency, 9thh Ed., 2005, pg. 171
36
KI Vibhute, PSA Pillais Criminal Law, LexisNexis Butterworths Wadhwa Nagpur, Gurgaon, 10th Ed., 2008,
pg. 573
37
S.K. Sarkaria, R.A. Nelsons Indian Penal Code, LexisNexisButterworths, NewDelhi, Vol.4, 9 th Ed., 2003,
pg.4594
38
Supra note 35
PROJECT REPORT 21
4.1.1 The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955

Under Hindu law adultery is a ground for judicial separation and divorce. Section 10 and
section 13 of the act deals with judicial separation and divorce respectively.
Section 10 - Judicial separation - (1) Either party to a marriage, whether solemnized before or
after the commencement of this Act, may present a petition praying for a decree for judicial
separation on any of the grounds specified in sub-section (1) of Section 13, and in the case of
a wife also on any of the grounds specified in sub-section (2) thereof, as grounds on which a
petition for divorce might have been presented.39
(2) Where a decree for judicial separation has been passed, it shall no longer be obligatory for
the petitioner to cohabit with the respondent, but the court may, on the application by petition
of either party and on being satisfied of the truth of the statements made in such petition,
rescind the decree if it considers it just and reasonable to do so.
Section 13 - Divorce - (1) Any marriage solemnized, whether before or after the
commencement of this Act, may, on a petition presented by either the husband or the wife, be
dissolved by a decree of divorce on the ground that the other party
(1) has, after the solemnization of the marriage, had voluntary sexual intercourse with any
person other than his or her spouse; or ...
Before the amendment in 1976, section 13(1) (i) of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 was that
the marriage may be dissolved by a decree of divorce on the ground that the other party is
living in adultery. But after the amendment now the clause is that the other party after
solemnization of the marriage had voluntary sexual intercourse with person other than the
spouse. This clearly indicates that now a single act of adultery is enough for taking evidence.
4.1.2 The Indian Divorce Act, 1869
Section 22 - No decree shall hereafter be made for a divorce a mensa et toro, but the husband
or wife may obtain a decree of judicial separation, on the ground of adultery, or cruelty,
or desertion without reasonable excuse for two years or upwards, and such decree shall
have the effect of a divorce a mensa et toro under the existing law, and such other legal
effect as hereinafter mentioned.40
Section 10 - When husband may petition for dissolution 41 - Any husband may present a
petition to the District Court or to the High Court, praying that his marriage may be dissolved
39
Section 10, The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955

Section 22, The Indian Divorce Act, 1869
41
Id., Section 10
40
PROJECT REPORT 22
on the ground that his wife has, since the solemnization thereof, been guilty of adultery.
When wife may petition for dissolution.-Any wife may present a petition to the District
Court or to the High Court, praying that her marriage may be dissolved on the ground that,
since the solemnization thereof, her husband has exchanged his profession of Christianity
for the profession of some other religion, and gone through a form of marriage with
another woman;
or has been guilty of incestuous adultery;
or of bigamy with adultery;
or of marriage with another woman with adultery, or of rape, sodomy or bestiality;
or of adultery coupled with such cruelty as without adultery would have entitled her
to a divorce a mensa et toro;
or of adultery coupled with desertion, without reasonable excuse, for two years or
upwards.
The term adultery for the purpose of this Act has to be construed in its ordinary meaning and
as such has wider importance than it has under section 497 IPC. It means illicit cohabitation.
This was held in the case of G.L.J. Vailshery v. Romola Voilshery42
4.1.3 The Dissolution of Muslim Marriage Act, 1939
Section 2 of the Act provided that a Muslim woman may obtain a decree for the dissolution
of her marriage on any or more of the following grounds mentioned therein. Although,
adultery has not been mentioned as a ground for dissolution of marriage, in this section, but
inference can be drawn. Section 2(viii) lays down that the husband treats her with cruelty,
that is to say, associates with women of evil repute or leads an infamous life or attempts to
force her to lead an immoral life, or if he has more wives than one does not treat her equitably
in accordance with the injunctions of the Quran.43
4.1.4 The Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act, 1936
The Act lays down that any married person may sue for divorce on the ground that the other
spouse has since the marriage committed adultery or fornication or bigamy or rape or
unnatural offence provided that divorce shall not be granted on this ground if the suit has
been filed more than two years after the plaintiff came to know to of the fact.44
Section of the Act provides that any married person may sue for judicial separation on any of
the grounds for which such person could have filed a suit for divorce.45
4.1.5 Special Marriage Act, 1954
42
1997 (3) Kar LJ 531

Section 2, The Dissolution of Muslim Marriage Act, 1939
44
Section 32(d), The Parsi Marriage and Divorce Acr, 1936
45
Id. Section 34
43
PROJECT REPORT 23
Under this Act, the husband or wide may seek dissolution of marriage on the ground that after
the solemnization of marriage, the other spouse has voluntary sexual intercourse with any
person other than his or her spouse.46
Section 27 Divorce - Subject to the provisions of this Act and to the rules made thereunder,
a petition for divorce may be presented to the District Court either by the husband or the wife
on the ground that the respondent
(a) has, after the solemnization of the marriage, had voluntary sexual intercourse
with any person other than his or her spouse ; or
Also, Section 23 provides for Judicial separation - (1) A petition for judicial separation may
be presented to the district court either by the husband or the wife
(a) On any of the grounds specified in sub-section (1) and sub-section (1A) of section
27 on which a petition for divorce might have been presented; or
(b) On the ground of failure to comply with a decree for restitution of conjugal rights;
and the court, on being satisfied of the truth of the statements made in such petition,
and that there is no legal ground why the application should not be granted, may
decree judicial separation accordingly.
In the case of Kaitha Kulengina Kutty Kanan v. Nellothamucethil Malar47 the Court held that
the purpose of granting judicial separation is to give an opportunity to the spouses to live
separately and provide them a chance for reconciliation and come together. It has also been
held in the case of Devyani v. Kantilal48that if the respondent was not living in adultery at the
time of filing of the petition, no decree could be passed.
Further, the Court took a liberal view on the aspect of producing evidences and proving the
fact beyond reasonable doubt. In the case of N.G. Dastane v. S. Dastane49 it was laid down
that desertion, cruelty and adultery and other ground of divorce need not be proved beyond
reasonable doubts and may be proved by balance of probabilities.
46
Section 27, Special Marriage Act, 1954

AIR 1973 Ker 273
48
AIR 1963 Bom 98
49
AIR 1975 SC 1534
47
PROJECT REPORT 24
Thus, matrimonial laws generally allow judicial separation and divorce on the ground of
adultery, because all the laws recognise adultery leads to break down of the institution of
marriage.
4.2 Adultery under Criminal Laws as a Crime
In India, adultery is a ground of divorce as well as a crime under the Indian Penal Code.
Every religion treats it as an unpardonable sin.50 It treats adultery as an invasion of the right
of the husband over his wife and puts it under Chapter XX of Offences Relating to Marriage.
The section 497 penalizes sexual intercourse of a man with a married woman without the
consent of her husband when such sexual intercourse does not amount to rape. That is, it
draws a distinction between consent given by a married woman without her husbands
consent and a consent given by an unmarried woman. It does not penalize the sexual
intercourse of a married man with an unmarried woman or a widow or even a married woman
when her husband consents to it. In case the offence of adultery is committed, the husband
cannot prosecute his unfaithful wife but can only prosecute her adulterer.
However, since the offence of adultery can be committed by a man with a married woman
only, the wife of the man having sexual intercourse with other unmarried women cannot
prosecute either her husband or his adulteress. What is interesting here is that the section
itself expressly states that the unfaithful wife cannot be punished even as an abettor to the
crime. The offence of adultery therefore is an offence committed against the husband of the
wife and not against the wife.
Section 497 of the Indian Penal Code, 1870 states that,
Whoever has sexual intercourse with a person who is and whom he knows or has a
reason to believe to be the wife of another man without the consent or connivance of
that man. Such sexual intercourse not amounting to the offence of rape is the offence
of Adultery.
Object
50
K.I. Vibhute, Adultery in the Indian Penal Code: Need for a Gender Equality Perspective, (2001) 6 SCC 16
(J)
PROJECT REPORT 25
The main objective of this provision is that the social goodwill should be promoted between
the husband and wife by pertaining them to make up the matrimonial tie rather than to drag to
the criminal court.51 They may condone the offence of adultery by way of forgive and forget
and can live separately whether officially or unofficially.
Essentials
In order to attract the application of this provision there are certain essential ingredients
which are to be fulfilled.52 Such as:
1. there must be sexual intercourse
2. woman must be married
3. the offender has knowledge or reasonable belief that the woman is married
4. sexual intercourse was committed without the consent or connivance of the husband
of the woman
5. the offence must not amount to rape
Therefore, in order to prove adultery these ingredients must be identified and are explained in
briefly in the following section.
1. The adulterer must have had sexual intercourse with the wife of another man.
Clear indulgence in sexual intercourse must be proved on the part of the accused. In case, the
act does not involve actual sexual intercourse and ends at the stage of preparation itself, it
will not be attracted by this section. Thus, proof of sexual intercourse having taken place is
vital for conviction on adultery. There must be at least partial penetration for the act of
adultery to be proved. The attempt to commit adultery must not be confused with the act itself
and if there is no penetration, some lesser act or sexual gratification does not amount to
adultery.53 In the case of Kashuri v Ramaswamy, it was held that if the act of sexual
intercourse could not be conclusively proved, it must be inferable from the facts and
circumstances of the case.
51
52
Justice V.V. Raghvan, Law of Crimes, India Law House, New Delhi, 5th Ed., 2001, pg. 768
Ratanlal & Dhirajlal, The Indian Penal Code, Wadhwa & Company, Nagpur, 31st Ed., 2006, pg.2517
53
Ratanlal and Dhirajlal, The Indian Penal Code, Wadhwa and Company Nagpur, New Delhi, 31st Ed., 2006,
pg.2518
PROJECT REPORT 26
It must be clarified at the outset that Section 497 of the Indian Penal Code, 1870 is attracted
only in cases where the woman in the adulterous relationship is the wife of another man
through lawful marriage. The factum of marriage must be strictly proved for a man to be held
guilty of the offence of adultery as put forth in the Indian Penal Code, 1870. Sexual
intercourse with a prostitute, unmarried woman or a widow would not fall within the ambit of
this section.
2. The adulterer must have had knowledge or must have had enough reason to believe
that the woman is the wife of another man.
The section 497 uses two expressions knows or has reason to believe. The word
knowledge imports certainty and reason to believe means that the accused should entertain a
reasonable belief.54
The accused must have knowledge of marital status of the woman in such alleged adulterous
relationship. However if it may be proved that the accused had sufficient reason to believe the
woman to be the wife of another man, it may be deemed to be knowledge as mentioned
above. The term sufficient reason cannot be said to have common qualifying grounds for
all cases of adultery.55 It is a question of fact and not law and hence can be deduced
differently in different cases based on their facts and circumstances. It may also be noted that
the identity of the husband need not be necessarily known by the accused, but his mere
existence as the husband of the woman in sexual relationship with, would be sufficient to
prove knowledge.
3. The adulterer must have had sexual intercourse without the consent of or connivance
of the husband.
Consent means permission to the paramour on the part of the husband to have connection
with his wife.56 Connivance may be defined as the willing consent to a conjugal offence or
acquiescence in course of conduct likely to lead to the offence being committed. 57 It may be
laid down plainly that a husband on consenting to a relationship which may otherwise be
54
C.K. Thakkar (ed.), Rattan Lal and Dhiraj Lals Law of Crimes, Bharat Law House, New Delhi, Vol.2, 26th
Ed., 2010, pg.2712
55
http://legalservicesindia.com/article/article/legitimacy-of-adultery-laws-in-india-220-1.html
56
R.P. Kathuria, Law of Crimes and Criminology, Vinod Publications (P) Ltd., Delhi, Vol.4, 2 nd Ed., 2007, pg.
4390
57
S.K. Sarkaria, R.A. Nelsons Indian Penal Code, LexisNexisButterworths, NewDelhi, Vol.4, 9 th Ed., 2003,
pg.4596
PROJECT REPORT 27
termed an adulterous relationship absolves such relationship of adulterous nature. Therefore,

on acquiring knowledge, as understood above, if the husband of the woman involved in an
adulterous relationship fails to act upon such knowledge he is said to acquiesce. From the
fact, that the husband had left his wife about ten years of age and was living with his new
wife and did not care to take her back, no inference of connivance can be drawn.58 When a
man entered the house of another at night with the intent to commit adultery with his wife
and her husband was absent in the legitimate pursuit of his occupation, it was held that it may
safely be presumed that such husband neither consented to, nor convinced at, any adultery or
immorality on the part of his wife.59
4. The adulterer must have had such sexual intercourse that did not amount to rape.
The married woman must be above the age of 16 and a consenting party to the sexual
intercourse. It is necessary for the married woman to wilfully have sexual intercourse with
the man. If she does not consent to the act, it would amount to rape and not adultery. In such
a situation the husbands consent is immaterial. However, if the woman is below 16 years of
age, her consent to such sexual intercourse may also be immaterial and would constitute rape.
It has been held in the case of Gitabai v. Fattoo60 that adultery means consensual sexual
intercourse between a married person and another person of the opposite sex during the
subsistence of marriage.
An analysis of the characteristic features of the act of adultery and rape, it becomes clear that
the common element in the offence of rape and adultery is the sexual intercourse by a man
with a woman. The circumstances under which it is done and marital status of woman make
the difference. The mens rea in the both the offences make them differently punishable.61
Constitutional Validity of Section 497
Immediately after the commencement of the Constitution of India, Section 497 IPC which
defined adultery and provides punishment for the offence has also faced three constitutional
challenges. It was assailed on the ground that it goes against the spirit of equality embodied
58
Pothi Gillari v. Ghanni Mondal, AIR 1963 Ori 60

Khanoon Ram v. Emperor, AIR 1920 Lah 62
60
AIR 1966 MP 130
61
C.K. Thakkar (ed.), Rattan Lal and Dhiraj Lals Law of Crimes, Bharat Law House, New Delhi, Vol.2, 26th
Ed., 2010, pg.2713
59
PROJECT REPORT 28
in the Constitution. It has argued that it is violative of Article 14 62, 1563 and 2164 of the
Constitution. It is so because with the passage of time the society has undergone many
changes such as women empowerment, sexual freedom, liberal values, change in socioeconomic conditions, and have diluted the constitutionality of this provision.
The question of constitutional validity of section 497 IPC was first initiated in the case of
Yusuf Abdul Aziz v. State65. In 1951, one Mr Yusuf Abdul Aziz, charged with adultery,
contended before the Bombay High Court that Section 497 IPC is unconstitutional as it, in
contravention of Articles 14 and 15 of the Constitution, operates unequally between a man
and a woman by making only the former responsible for adultery. It, thereby, he argued,
discriminates in favour of women and against men only on the ground of sex.
Recalling the historical background of Section 497 and the then prevailing social conditions
and the sexual mores oppressive to women, and the unequal status of women, the High Court
of Bombay upheld the constitutional validity of the provision. Chagla, C.J., observed:
"What led to this discrimination in this country is not the fact that women had a sex
different from that of men, but that women in this country were so situated that
special legislation was required in order to protect them, and it was from this point of
view that one finds in Section 497 a position in law which takes a sympathetic and
charitable view of the weakness of women in this country." 66
Article 14 - Equality before law - The State shall not deny to any person equality before the
law or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of India.
63
Article 15- Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of
birth - (1) The State shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion,
race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them.
(2) No citizen shall, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of
them, be subject to any disability, liability, restriction or condition with regard to
(a) access to shops, public restaurants, hotels and places of public entertainment; or
(b) the use of wells, tanks, bathing ghats, roads and places of public resort maintained
wholly or partly out of State funds or dedicated to the use of the general public.
(3) Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from making any special provision for
women and children.
64
Article 21- Protection of life and personal liberty - No person shall be deprived of his life or
personal liberty except according to procedure established by law.
65
AIR 1951 Bom 470
66
Id. at 472
62
PROJECT REPORT 29
The Court also opined that the alleged discrimination in favour of women was saved by the
provisions of Article 15(3) of the Constitution which permits the State to make "any special
provision for women and children".67
Yusuf Abdul, on appeal to the Supreme Court in the matter of Yusuf Abdul Aziz v. State of
Bombay68, argued that Section 497, by assuming that the offence of adultery could only be
committed by a man and mandating a court that the adulteress wife be not punished even as
an abettor offended the spirit of equality enshrined in Articles 14 and 15 of the Constitution.
Such immunity assured to the adulteress wife for her willing participation in the adulterous
sexual activity, it was argued, did amount to a sort of licence to her to commit and abet the
offence of adultery.
Justice Vivian Bose, speaking for the Constitutional Bench (comprising M.C. Mahajan, C.J.,
Mukherjea, S.R. Das and Ghulam Hasan, JJ.) was not impressed by the appellant's
interpretation of Section 497 as well as of Articles 14 and 15. His Lordship, like Chagla, C.J.,
relying heavily upon Article 15(3), held that Section 497 is a special provision made for
women and therefore is saved by clause (3) of Article 159. To the argument that Article 15(3)
should be confined only to provisions which are beneficial to women and should not be used
to give them a licence to commit and abet a crime with impunity 69, the Apex Court
responded:
"We are not able to read any such restriction into the clause; nor are we able to agree
that a provision which prohibits punishment is tantamount to a licence to commit the
offence of which punishment has been prohibited."
More than three decades after the Supreme Court's pronouncement in Yusuf Abdul Aziz case,
constitutional vires of Section 497 came to be re-agitated in the case of Sowmithri Vishnu v.
Union of India70. It was contended that Section 497, being contrary to Article 14 of the
Constitution. It was challenged on the following three grounds71:
67
Ratanlal and Dhirajlal, The Indian Penal Code, Wadhwa and Company Nagpur, New Delhi, 31st Ed., 2006,
pg.2520
68
AIR 1954 SC 321
69
Ibid
70
AIR 1985 SC 1618
71
R.P. Kathuria, Law of Crimes and Criminology, Vinod Publications (P) Ltd., Delhi, Vol.4, 2 nd Ed., 2007, pg.
4394-95
PROJECT REPORT 30
(i)
confers upon the husband the right to prosecute the adulterer but it does not
confers corresponding right upon the wife to prosecute the woman with whom her
husband has committed adultery,
(ii)
does not confer any right on the wife to prosecute the husband who has
committed adultery with another woman, and
(iii)
does not take in its ambit the cases where the husband has sexual relations with
unmarried women, with the result that the husbands have a free licence under the
law to have extramarital relationship with unmarried women.
The Supreme Court rejected these arguments and ruled that Section 497 does not offend
either Article 14 or Article 15 of the Constitution. The Apex Court also brushed aside the
argument that Section 497, in the changed social transform72.
It must be mentioned here that all of the above decisions of the Supreme Court had restricted
their scope to the determination of Constitutional validity of Section 497 as it stands. They
should not be taken as an authority over the question whether Section 497 is required at all.
Adultery cannot be committed without a womans consent. Yet, the section burdens man
alone for the offence. Though the reasons for this may be justifiable, the woman here is
always treated as a victim of the offence. Hence, this section does not contemplate a situation
where the same married woman has sexual intercourse with more than one person other than
her husband without her husbands consent. It is highly implausible that even in such a
situation the woman would always be the victim and not the person who provokes the
offender for the crime. No doubt that the law, as it stands, is inadequate.
72
http://www.lawyersclubindia.com/experts/Section-497-IPC-is-unconstitutional--9441.asp
PROJECT REPORT 31
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------CHAPTER 5 - INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Having found that sexual values change from society to society and time to time, it becomes
necessary to survey legal position on adultery in other countries. It helps outline the emerging
trends with respect to the subject, around the globe.
5.1 Position in United States of America
In United States of America, position varies from state to state. There exits four types of
formulations under the State law: the Common law view; the Canon law view and two hybrid
views.73 Under common law, adultery takes place if the woman is married. Both the parties
are held liable. Under the canon law, adultery is voluntary sexual intercourse of a married
person with a person other than offenders husband or wife, the married person is guilty.
Under the majority hybrid rule followed by 20 states of either spouse has sexual intercourse
with third party, both violators are guilty.
Across the country, some social conservatives are fighting for what they view as a critical
article of faith: criminal adultery laws. In the U.S., in the year 2010, people can still be
prosecuted for breaching their marital vows.74 The laws are some of the last remnants of our
Puritanical past, where infidelity was treated as not only a marital but also as a criminal
matter. While the laws have been challenged as unconstitutional, many people are resistant to
the idea of removing such "morality crimes" from law books.
In New Hampshire, for instance, legislators are trying to repeal a 200-year-old adultery law
that is widely viewed as unconstitutional.75 Social conservatives, however, insist that such
laws are needed to back up moral dictates with criminal sanctions. A 1997 poll showed that
73
Available at: http://www.usatoday.com/news/opinion/forum/2010-04-26-column26_ST_N.htm (visited on

24.03.11 at 2:34 p.m.)
74
Available at :
http://www.icsworld.com/papers_and_press/infidelity_and_adultery_laws_and_court_decisions.aspx (visited on
24.03.11 at 2:30 p.m.)
75
Available at: http://www.leaderu.com/orgs/probe/docs/adultery.html (visited on 24.03.11 at 2:15 p.m.)
PROJECT REPORT 32
35% of Americans believe adultery should be a crime, and similar efforts to decriminalize
adultery have met with opposition in states such as Illinois and Minnesota.76
For many civil libertarians, it is an equally important moment when our nation can finally
move beyond laws that require citizens to comply with the moral dictates of their neighbours.
About two dozen states still have criminal adultery provisions. While prosecutions remain
rare, they do occur. And beyond the criminal realm, these provisions can be cited in divorce
proceedings, custody disputes, and employment cases and even to bar people from serving on
juries. Though many people might not be prosecuted, these laws could be cited in any divorce
proceedings to show not just infidelity but also possible criminality in his lifestyle.
5.2 Position in England, France, Germany
Sexual deviance in early modern England was manifested in various offenses, which were
punished in a number of ways. Among these offenses were adultery, bastardy, and
prostitution. The underlying dilemma of female sexual misconduct was the inversion of
power that it created; through acts of sex, women violated social order by failing to uphold
their expected qualities of marital obedience and sexual morality. Sexuality gave women
transient power over men, who, in turn, resented being so affected by those they
dominated77. Women were thus considered the source of the negative aspects of sex,
including immoral desire and venereal disease. Sexual conduct was appropriate only for the
purpose of procreation, and it was a prevalent notion that women had a bigger sexual appetite
than did men. Men and women, who sought sexual satisfaction in and of it, without the direct
purpose of procreation, could be found guilty of fornication, which the Oxford English
Dictionary defines as "voluntary sexual intercourse between a man and an (unmarried)
woman."78
Adultery was considered a particularly wayward act for a woman. Chastity and honesty were
among the most valued qualities of proper women and this transgression was a violation of
both. The offense also offers an idea of the two concepts of order that were at play in early
modern English society. In elite society, women guilty of adultery could be punished by
76
Supra note 73
Burford, E.J. and Sandra Shulman. Of Bridles and Burnings: The Punishment of Women, New York: St.
Martins Press, 1992.
78
Available at: http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/adultery (visited on 02.04.11 at 11.10 p.m.)
77
PROJECT REPORT 33
death. In popular culture, however, adulteresses as well as their cuckolded male counterparts
were often subject to public shaming in the form of a skimmington.79
Skimmingtons were common manifestations of moral outrage at married couples who
violated social norms. The public procedures often involved effigies of the couple being
paraded through town on a cart, while townspeople banged on pots and pans. The word
skimmington is believed to originate from skimming ladles, wielded by furious wives in early
illustrations.
In England, adultery is not a criminal offence and in some European countries, it is mildly
punishable. In France, the guilty wife is punishable with imprisonment or a period ranging
from three months to two years. 80 However, serving of sentence may be ended by her
husband by agreeing to take her back. The adulterer is also punished similarly. In Germany, if
the marriage dissolved on the ground of adultery, the guilty spouse and the guilty partner both
are punishable by imprisonment for a period not less than six months. 81 However, the
prosecution must be launched by the aggrieved person.
5.3 Position in Korea
In the traditional societies of Korea, the principle of clan exogamy has been strictly
established. There is no difference between the punishment when the junior commits adultery
with seniors wide or concubine and when senior commits adultery with juniors. 82 Both the
parties are given the same punishment. They are given the punishment of 100 blows and three
years penal servitude is prescribed for those committing adultery with relations in the fourth
degree and 100 blows between relations more remote than the fourth degree.83
5.4 Position in Muslim Countries
In Pakistan, adultery is a crime under the Hudood Ordinance. The Ordinance sets a maximum
penalty of death, although only imprisonment and corporal punishment have ever actually
been imposed. The Ordinance has been particularly controversial because it requires a
woman making an accusation of rape to provide extremely strong evidence to avoid being
79
Available at: http://www.duke.edu/web/rpc/women_and_sexuality/punadultery.html (visited on 04.04.11 at

8:37 a.m.)
80
Available at: http://articles.latimes.com/2001/jan/26/news/cl-17058 (visited on 09.04.11 at 3:28 a.m.)
81
Available at: http://www.jstor.org/pss/837694 (visited on 25.03.11 at 2:12 p.m.)
82
Justice Sang Hyun Song, Introduction to the Law and Legal System of Korea, Seoul, pg. 1063
83
Frank A. Schubert, Introduction to the Law and Legal System, 8th Ed., pg. 456
PROJECT REPORT 34
charged with adultery herself.84 A conviction of a man for rape is only possible with evidence
from no less than four witnesses. In recent years high-profile rape cases in Pakistan have
given the Ordinance more exposure than similar laws in other countries. Sex beyond marriage
is a crime in Pakistan and punished by death as per Islamic Laws. The punishment however,
has not been officially meted out. Similar laws exist in some other Muslim countries, such
as Saudi Arabia.
Article 146 of Sudans 1991 Penal Code states that, anyone having sex outside marriage
shall be published with stoning when the offender is married. 85 Section 154 of the Uganda
Penal Code decriminalises adultery.86 Article 83 of the Penal Code is flogging for unmarried
male and female offenders.
An abolitionistic trend is discernible as in England; it has ceased to be an offence. In some
countries, it is highly punished. In Muslim countries, no definite pattern emerges but the
extreme penalty of death has been prescribed for adultery. Under Sharia law, the married or
divorced person found guilty of Zinaa executed by stoning.87
84
Available at: http://www.allamaiqbal.com/publications/journals/review/oct06/7-The%20Quran%20and

%20Hudood%20Legislation.htm (visited on 05.04.11 at 6:00 p.m.)
85
http://www.ips.org/africa/2010/10/sudan-rape-is-not-adultery/ (visited on 23.03.11 at 7:49 p.m.)
86
Available at: http://www.iijd.org/News%20and%20Publications%20NEWSLETTER%20ARTICLES
%20folder/Newsletters/Uganda%20High%20Court%20overturns%20discriminatory%20adultery%20law.html
(visited on 23.03.11 at 7:40 p.m.)
87
Available at: http://www.religioustolerance.org/isl_adul1.htm (visited on 05.04.11 at 6:20 p.m.)
PROJECT REPORT 35
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------CHAPTER 6 - RECENT ISSUES AND DEBATES

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------6.1 Recommendations of various Committees and Commissions
The section 497 IPC which provides punishment for adultery, has been a subject matter of
considerable debate. It is so because the section has been criticised for excluding the married
woman from criminal liability for committing adultery. Although the Supreme Court of India
has always upheld the validity of section 497 IPC, the recommendations of Law Commission
of India and Malimath Committee go against the law laid down in section 497 IPC, so far as
exemption of married woman from criminal liability is concerned.
6.1.1 Forty Second Report, the Law Commission of India
The Law Commission of India in its 42nd Report on Indian Penal Code in 1971, dealt with
offences relating to marriage under Chapter XX. Adultery has been discussed at length by the
Law Commission of India. It surveyed the position in USA, Britain, France, Germany and
other European countries. It also noted the view of Lord Macaulay and other framers and
found that this section did not find any place in the first draft penal code. However, in 1860
the section 497 took its present form. The Commission also remarked that from factual and
practical point of view the position today was not appreciably different from that pointed out
by Lord Macaulay, 130 years ago. Thus, after analysing the position in other countries with
regards to the law relating to adultery and conditions of the society the Commission proposed
the revision of the section 497 IPC.88
6.1.2 Committee on Reforms of Criminal Justice System (Dr. Justice V.S. Malimath
Committee)
The Committee on Reforms of Criminal Justice System under the Chairmanship of Justice
V.S. Malimath and remarkable participation by Prof. Madhav Menon, has also recommended
various changes in the criminal justice system. The Committee as dealt with the provision of
section 497 IPC under Part IV of the Report under the heading Crime and Punishment. The
principle aim of the Committee was to remove gender bias in the law by recommending
88
Refer to Annexure
PROJECT REPORT 36
similar treatment to both men and women offenders. It said that the object of the provision is
to preserve the sanctity of marriage and the society abhors marital infidelity.
It has been noted by the Committee that, as a man can be punished under Section 497 of the
IPC for adultery, for having sexual intercourse with a wife of another man, it stands to reason
that wife should likewise be punished if she has intercourse with another married man.89
The Committee therefore suggests that Section 497 I.P.C should be suitably amended to the
effect that whosoever has sexual intercourse with the spouse of any other person is guilty of
adultery ...90
6.1.3 National Commission for Women
The National Commission for Women (NCW) has shot down proposals for amending Section
497 of the Indian Penal Code, which provides expressly that the wife cannot be punished
even as an abettor, based on the reasoning that the woman, who is involved in an illicit
relationship with another man, is a victim and not the author of the crime.
The commission, according to its sources, does not think that by merely prescribing
punishment for women by amending Section 497, marriage can be protected or saved.
In its recommendations forwarded to the Government, which asked it to review Section 497,
the NCW has stated that considering the relatively socially underpowered position of women,
no amendments have been suggested. The existing IPC provision is based on the mindset that
the wife is a personal possession of the husband, who is solely aggrieved by adultery.91
The Commission has, however, recommended suitable amendments to Section 198(2) of the
Criminal Procedure Code (Cr.PC), which disqualifies a woman from prosecuting her husband
for his promiscuity. As already the woman can take action against her husband under various
other legal provisions such as Section 498A of the IPC, there is no reason that she should be
barred from initiating prosecution under Section 198 of the Cr.PC. The wife, in such cases,
ought to be the person aggrieved and competent to file a complaint under Section 198.92
89
Available at: http://pucl.org/Topics/Law/2003/malimath-recommendations.htm (visited at 05.04.11 at 1.12

p.m.)
90
Refer to Annexure
91
Available at: http://www.hindu.com/2006/12/26/stories/2006122603270900.htm(visited at 05.04.11 at 1.12
p.m.)
92
Refer to Annexure
PROJECT REPORT 37
In another important recommendation, the Commission has said adultery should be treated as
a civil wrong and not as criminal offence.
There may be many instances in which the woman wants to save marriage and sees the
adulterous relationship as an aberration. The issue of adultery should be viewed as a breach
of trust and treated as a civil wrong rather than as a criminal offence.
In a nutshell the Commission made the following observations93:
Adultery should be converted from a criminal offence, as it currently stands, to a civil

offence.
This should be done only after a national consensus on the issue.
Women should continue to remain free from criminal action for adultery, as they now
are, because they are always victims and can never commit any crime.
Section 198 of the Criminal Procedure Code should be amended in order to allow women to
file complaints against unfaithful husbands and prosecute them for their promiscuous
behaviour.
On the basis of these reports and recommendations, it can be concluded that there are two
major issues with respect to the offence of adultery which are igniting the debate. These are
the issue of female criminality by which the supporters want that the woman adulterer should
also be held equally liable as the male counterpart. The second issue relates to the
decriminalisation of the act of adultery, rather make it a civil or social wrong.
6.2 Female Criminality
Prima facie unequal treatment is meted out by the law to men & women, theres an inherent
flaw in the law. It makes the offence punishable for men but not the wife, to punish the man
severely and to let the women who was an equal part to go scot free is unreasonable on the
face of it, it is discriminatory that for the same act the man becomes the manifestation of evil
but the woman still is considered to retain her virtues and is treated as a victim.
93
Available at: http://www.tribuneindia.com/2007/20070120/saturday/main1.htm (visited on 06.04.11 at 9:30

p.m.)
PROJECT REPORT 38
The guiding principle of the law is that all persons and things similarly circumstanced should
be treated alike in both the privileges conferred and liabilities imposed. Again the evil
attempted to be prevented is the an extra marital relationship, however what the law achieves
is only placing a deterrent on the man while the other party to the affair is not brought within
the legal restrictions. Hence there neither appears an intelligible differentia nor a nexus with
the object to be achieved. That is why the constitutional validity of the act has been
questioned, challenging the law as being violative of the fundamental right of equality.
Another similar complaint that has plagued the use of this law is the fact that under this law
only the husband of the wife is entitled to prosecute. The wife of the adulterous man cannot
use section 497 to bring an action against either her unfaithful husband or the women
involved with her husband, while the husband of an adulterous wife can bring an action
against the man involved in the affair.
Another malady is that in case the man is married and the woman, with whom he has
established adulterous relations, is not in an active wedlock, then in such a case the law may
not be used at all. What strikes one as absurd is the fact that the law punishes one and permits
another equally unchaste relationship. The wrong that is supposed to be punished is that one
should not have relations with someone in an active wedlock.
Breaking a matrimonial home is something that should be looked at sternly. Not only does
such an act take two people apart but also has everlasting impact on the psyche of the
innocent children, if any. Again, the trauma and emotional damage suffered by the wife of an
adulterous male is equal to that of the husband of an adulterous woman, yet while the
husband has been given the right to bring action upon the man breaking the purity of his
home, the wife is denied such a right.
It is unexplainable that for the same wrongful act the man is presumed by the law to have a
mens rea while no such presumption is attributed in reference to the woman. The consent or
the willingness of the woman is no impediment to the application of this section, and, as
generally happens, she is quite aware of the purpose for which she is quitting her husband
and is an assenting party to it.
Considering the present day situation and the vast transformation which the society has
undergone, blindly assuming that man is the seducer and not the women would be a
PROJECT REPORT 39
dangerous proposition. The boot is on the other leg these days, in a variety of cases. The law
makes an irrational classification between man and woman, in restricting the class of
offenders to men, where women or wife is an equal partner and it also violates constitutional
provisions enshrined in Articles 14, 15 & 21.
The justification taken by the framers of the Code, and the retentionists lobby for this
aberration is that owing to the atypical social conditions, it would not be just & proper to
punish women equally, as they were a subjugated and exploited lot, but same is not the
situation today.
In 1951 in the case of Yusuf Abdul Aziz v. State of Bombay94 challenged the constitutional
validity of the provision. However, Bombay High Court Chief Justice M. C. Chagla, upheld
the provision saying the Constitution permitted such special legislation for women, it was
held in this case that this section does not contravene any of the fundamental rights laid down
in the Constitution of India, and therefore it is not bad or void under Constitutional
provisions.
This was again unsuccessfully challenged in 1985 by a woman, Sowmitra Vishnu, in the case
of Sowmithri Vishnu v. Union of India95 on the ground that the law resulted in treating the
woman as a property. She argued that the criminal law of adultery (Section 497, Indian Penal
Code) conferred upon the husband the right to prosecute the adulterer but it did not confer
any right upon the wife to prosecute her husband or the woman with whom her husband has
committed adultery. She argued that the provision was a kind of `romantic paternalism',
which stemmed from the assumption that women, like chattels, are the property of men.
The Supreme Court's responses to these arguments were unfortunate. It ruled that the above
arguments "have a strong emotive appeal but they have no valid legal basis to rest upon". It
said the offence of adultery, by its very nature, can be committed by a man and not by a
woman. It is commonly accepted that it is the man who is the seducer and not the woman.
Further, in completely excluding any participation of the woman in the extra-marital sexual
relations, the Supreme Court said the wife, who is involved in a sexual relationship with
another man, is a victim and not the author of the crime. The offence of adultery, in their
94
95
AIR 1954 SC 321

AIR 1985 SC 1618
PROJECT REPORT 40
opinion, is an offence against the sanctity of the matrimonial home. Therefore, men who
defile that sanctity are brought within the net of the law.
We must keep in mind that these reasons and defences were given decades ago. The most
important reason for debate to get re-ignited is the drastic change in the social status of
women. Gone are the days when women were a suppressed or subjugated lot. The practices
of sati, child marriage, polygamy, etc, have been done away with in almost all the parts of the
country.
Today there are laws against these evils and also laws providing effective relief against
heinous acts such as domestic violence, dowry and others. Almost all professional colleges
have a quota for women. Thus women today are in no way inferior to men or suppressed, and
are at par with the opposite sex. The effective implementation of these laws and other women
friendly provisions in the constitution insures that women, today, have an edge in the society.
All this has resulted in them gaining the power of choice. They can no longer be classified as
victims in cases of adultery.
The law of adultery as it stands in India punishes only man, and assumes that in all cases
man is the seducer and the women, who is an equal participant is viewed as a victim. There
have been numerous debates about the discriminatory stance of the provision, The insistence
of the National commission for women and the report of the Prof. Madhav Menon committee
& the 42nd Report of the Law Commission of India, have breathed a new lease of life in the
dying controversy. The law relating to adultery as existing in the Indian penal code under
section 497 has been criticized ever since its commencement. Its validity both on the
constitutional grounds as well as philosophical grounds has been challenged time and again.
But the law still stands as it is.
The Union home ministry is, however, plodding away at generating feedback and data
necessary to amend the law. A few months back, the Maharashtra government received a
letter from the home ministry seeking its "views'' on the recommendation. State law secretary
M N Gilani confirmed that the state's views have been sought in an all-India exercise to
include `wife' in the offence of adultery.96
96
Available at: http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-12-14/india/27942327_1_disempoweredposition-adultery-home-ministry (visited on 23.03.11 at 10:58 p.m.)
PROJECT REPORT 41
Thus the law, in the present state, is defective, either it should not declare the breaking of a
matrimonial alliance a crime at all or it must punish all equivalent relationships a crime too.
6.3 Decriminalisation of Adultery
The changing social conditions depict that polygamy in all religions except Muslims, who are
legally allowed to have four wives, has ceased to exist and become illegal. Men now have
only one wife who has no rivals for her husbands love and affection. Today, not only a
person having two wives can be prosecuted for bigamy but his second marriage is void abinitio.97 Unlike the past when it was required to prove that the husband lived in adultery to
obtain a divorce, even a single instance of sexual intercourse with anyone other than the
spouse entitles the other spouse for divorce.
Now, wives are not deprived of their husbands love and care and spouses can hardly
maintain any polygamous or extramarital relations without inviting any legal action. Even the
definition of adultery in civil law is much wider in scope than in criminal law. The personal
laws, which did not exist in the present form at the time this law was passed, have not only
become operational but also given somewhat of a level playing field for both, the husband
and the wife. Naturally, these factors have made the then object of Section 497 obsolete.
Furthermore, marriage is a bond between two individuals who are over the age of majority
and are of sound minds. The discretion to maintain any relationship with someone other than
ones spouse therefore, should be given to the parties involved. However, such discretion
should be restricted to the sanction imposed by personal law i.e., a valid ground for divorce.
Marriage is found to be within the ambit of personal laws under which it can be a valid
ground for divorce and hence it seems rather redundant that Criminal Law must be used to
meet out an added punishment. This proposition has also been supported by the National
Commission for Women (NCW) which recommends that civil remedies must be ensued for
perpetrators of adultery and not criminal sanctions as mixing personal law with criminal law
is unwarranted.
The recommendation of the Malimath Committee and that of the National Commission for
Women have raised the issue of decriminalising adultery. They have taken the altered social
factors into account and on that basis mooted for the removal of adultery from a crime and its
97
Refer to Chapter 4 dealing with personal laws
PROJECT REPORT 42
conversion into a social wrong. Implementation of this proposal would be in consonance with
the social scenario of our country today. The recourse to divorce shall still be available to the
aggrieved party as shall be the other recourses in civil law such as damages for mental
trauma. The wife who indulges in adultery is not entitled to maintenance. Thus the aggrieved
individual can seek redress under other areas of law. Hence converse to popular believes the
deterrent shall still exist. Nevertheless removal of adultery from the status of a crime would
greatly reduce the deterring effect. Instead of limiting the degeneration of morals and values
from the society making adultery a social wrong would unconsciously promote the evil of
infidelity.
Therefore, adultery cannot be said to be a criminal offence as the act of adultery is simply
effected by ones personal life, whereas, a crime is an offence against the State. Hence, by
rethinking the purpose behind the criminalization of adultery, and eventually disregarding it
as legitimate law the progress of women from being perceived as helpless to being on par
with men and equally self-sufficient, can be achieved.
PROJECT REPORT 43
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------CHAPTER 7 CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------After undertaking a detailed research analysis of the present topic starting from merely
defining the term adultery and further moving on to the gravest intricacy related to it, the
conclusion can be drawn in a multipronged approach. There are several views and opinions
on every aspect of the topic. Beginning with the defining part, though there are not much
differences in the various definitions but yes there are minor differences in all the definitions
given to the term adultery, which cannot be ignored.
Since, adultery is considered an act against morals so historically in every religion it was
regarded as a very heinous crime and was treated brutally. Then with the developments of the
society the forms of punishing this act became liberal and different legal system around the
world made this act as punishable with imprisonment or flogging (in some Muslim
countries).
Though the punishments and treatment towards adultery were liberalised but the criminal
nature attached to the act of adultery has not yet been removed by many countries. This has
become a highly debatable issue, because the offence of adultery directly the pounces upon
the institution of marriage which has been very well recognised by all the legal systems. So, it
is proposed that the criminality attached to it shall be removed because it is already
recognised as moral, social and civil wrong.
Besides decriminalising adultery, another issue pertaining to female criminality is also being
argued from a long period of time. It must be kept in mind that adultery was drafted into the
Indian Penal Code, 1870 during the existence of the Colonial Rule in India. The prevailing
conditions at this time were such that a woman was looked at as being the mere property of a
man. However, in the present day, women are not mere chattel whose identities are defined
by the men surrounding them, but by their own individual personalities. Law, being dynamic
in nature, must evolve with society. Therefore, the dubious logic behind the adultery laws in
India cannot be accepted in todays continuously evolving society.
In light of the above critical analysis, it is very much apparent & beyond doubt, that the
prevailing law is not in consonance with the changed times, the law is neither socially apt nor
PROJECT REPORT 44
does it stand to the principles of equality, from absolute conservatism to absolute liberty. The
social fabric of our country has undergone a drastic change. The unequal treatment meted out
to men and women has been questioned frequently. What seems arbitrary is the fact that the
law may be used to punish the man while allowing the woman, who had equally been
involved in the act, to go absolutely free. It appears discriminatory that for the same act the
man becomes the manifestation of evil but the woman still is considered to retain her virtues.
It is high time that Recommendations made by the Justice Malimath Committee and the 42nd
Report of the Law Commission be taken into consideration religiously, and necessary
amendments are made to Sec. 497 IPC, so as to do away with the irregularities, and in the
interest of doctrine of equality.
Recently, a Sessions Court at Villupuram, in Tamil Nadu, wherein a murder case was tried,
witnessed such a pathetic case. A woman, who was living in adultery with her paramour,
killed her husband by pouring kerosene on him, when her husband came to know about her
adultery. Unfortunately, the woman's crime was witnessed by her own 7 years old son and 12
years old daughter. Both of them were put into the witness box and they categorically
deposed that their mother was living an immoral life and killed their father.
The woman was convicted with life imprisonment and when the news of her punishment was
made known to her, she wailed tremendously and repented for what she had done. She also
pleaded not guilty for fear of leaving her children uncared for like orphans, when she
becomes a life convict. Now a real question mark hangs over the future of the two of her
young children who are not even teens. Hence, when we view adultery in the background of
the above case history, it is a heinous crime since it always encourages the commission of yet
another horrible crime.
PROJECT REPORT 45
BIBLIOGRAPHY
STATUTES
Constitution of India, 1950

Criminal Procedure Code, 1973
The Dissolution of Muslim Marriage Act, 1939
The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955
The Indian Divorce Act, 1869
The Indian Penal Code, 1860
The Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act, 1936
The Special Marriage Act, 1954
BOOKS
1. Aiyar K.J., Judicial Dictionary, 14th Ed., LexisNexis Butterworths, New Delhi,
2007.
2. Bhattacharya Dinesh Chandra, Penances and Vows, in The Cultural Heritage of
India, Calcutta, 1993.
3. Blood Robert P., Marriage, 2nd Ed., The Free Press, New York, 1969.
4. Burford, E.J. and Sandra Shulman. Of Bridles and Burnings: The Punishment of
Women, New York: St. Martins Press, 1992.Chopra P. N., Some Experiments in
Social Reforms in Medieval India, in The Cultural Heritage of India, Calcutta, 1993.
5. Dr. Diwan Paras, and Peeyushi Diwan, Family Law: Law of Marriage and Divorce
in India, 9thh Ed., Allahabad Law Agency, 2005.
6. Jois M. Rama, Ancient Indian Law Eternal Values in Manu Smriti, Universal Law
Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd, 2007.
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Co. Pvt. Ltd., 2010.
8. Justice Raghvan, V.V. Law of Crimes, 5th Ed., India Law House, New Delhi, 2001.
9. Justice Song Sang Hyun, Introduction to the Law and Legal System of Korea, Seoul,
PROJECT REPORT 46
10. Kathuria R.P., Law of Crimes and Criminology Exhaustive and Critical Commentary
on Indian Penal Code, Vol. 1, 2nd Ed., Vinod Publication(P) Ltd, Delhi, 2007.
11. Mayne J. D., A Treatise on Hindu Law and Usage, 13th Ed., Nabu Press, 1991.
12. Pandey R. B., Hindu Sanskaras Socio Religious study of Hindu Sacrament, 2 nd
Ed., Motilal Banarsidas, Delhi, 1976.
13. Quadri S. M. A., Ahmad Siddiques Criminology: Problems and Perspectives, 5 th
Ed., Eastern Book Company, Lucknow, 2005.
14. Raghvan V., The Manu Samhitas, in 2nd Ed., The Cultural Heritage of India,
Calcutta,. 1959
15. Ratanlal & Dhirajlal, The Indian Penal Code, 32nd Ed., LexisNexis Butterworths
Wadhwa Nagpur, Gurgaon, 2010.
16. Sarkaria S.K., R.A. Nelsons Indian Penal Code, 9 th Ed., LexisNexisButterworths,
NewDelhi, Vol.4, 2003.
17. Schubert Frank A., Introduction to the Law and Legal System, 8th Ed.
18. Thakkar C.K.,(ed.) Ratanlal & Dhirajlal Law of Crimes- A Commentary on Indian
Penal Code, 1860, 26th Ed., Bharat Law House, New Delhi, 2010.
19. Verma Paripuranand, Sex Offences in India and Abroad, 1st Ed., B.R. Publishing
Corporation, New Delhi, 1979. \
20. Vibhute KI, PSA Pillais Criminal Law, 10th Ed., LexisNexis Butterworths Wadhwa
Nagpur, Gurgaon, 2008.
DICTIONARY & ENCYCLOPEDIA
Garner, Bryan A., Blacks Law Dictionary, West Publishing Company, 8th Ed. 2004.
The New International Websters Comprehensive Dictionary
REPORTS
42nd Law Commission Report.

Report Volume 1 submitted by Committee on Reforms of Criminal Justice System
(Dr. Justice V.S. Malimath Committee)
PROJECT REPORT 47
Report submitted by National Commission for Women recommending Amendment in

Criminal Procedure Code, 1973
WEB SOURCES
www.indiankanoon.org
www.manupatra.com
www.scconline.com
http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/adultery?show=0&t=1302444990
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/6618/adultery
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collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/hastlj38&div=12&id
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http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01163a.htm
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http://www.articlesbase.com/parenting-articles/adultery-and-its-long-history-
2778748.html
http://www.adultery-etc.com/index.php/9
http://ezinearticles.com/?Adultery:-Problems,-People,-and-Pain&id=56580
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woman/28237738_1_male-prostitution-boys-easy-money
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1.html
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9441.asp
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http://www.icsworld.com/papers_and_press/infidelity_and_adultery_laws_and_court_
decisions.aspx
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%20and%20Hudood%20Legislation.htm
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%20ARTICLES%20folder/Newsletters/Uganda%20High%20Court%20overturns
%20discriminatory%20adultery%20law.html
PROJECT REPORT 48
http://www.religioustolerance.org/isl_adul1.htm
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PROJECT REPORT 1

Liability in Case of Adultery in India: A Critical Study

1.2 Aims and Objective of the Study

What should be the definition of the term adultery?

What remedial measures should be taken to check adultery in society?

1.3 Research Methodology

Liability in Case of Adultery in India: A Critical Study

Liability in Case of Adultery in India: A Critical Study

CHAPTER 2 - CONCEPTUAL PERSPECTIVES

Websters Comprehensive Dictionary, 21 (1995), available at

Liability in Case of Adultery in India: A Critical Study

Corpus Juris Secundum, 410 (2003)

Liability in Case of Adultery in India: A Critical Study

Liability in Case of Adultery in India: A Critical Study

Adultery by itself is an anti-social and an illegal act; naturally any peace-loving

Liability in Case of Adultery in India: A Critical Study

2.2.1 Hindu Period

Liability in Case of Adultery in India: A Critical Study

Liability in Case of Adultery in India: A Critical Study

Available at: http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?

Liability in Case of Adultery in India: A Critical Study

Available at: http://openlibrary.org/subjects/adultery_(roman_law) (visited on 28.03.11 at 1:37 p.m.)

Liability in Case of Adultery in India: A Critical Study

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------CHAPTER 3 - CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF ADULTERY

Liability in Case of Adultery in India: A Critical Study

Available at: http://www.adultery-etc.com/index.php/9 (visited on 30.03.11 at 5:02 p.m.)

Liability in Case of Adultery in India: A Critical Study

Available at: http://ezinearticles.com/?Adultery:-Problems,-People,-and-Pain&id=56580 (visited on 30.03.11

Liability in Case of Adultery in India: A Critical Study

case with extreme chronic illness or disability.

incompatibility with in laws, and career oriented issues.

and contribute to the affair.

Liability in Case of Adultery in India: A Critical Study

In many professional positions, there is a possibility for termination of employment if

Liability in Case of Adultery in India: A Critical Study

Liability in Case of Adultery in India: A Critical Study

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------CHAPTER 4 - ANALYSIS OF LAWS RELATING TO ADULTERY IN

Liability in Case of Adultery in India: A Critical Study

4.1.1 The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955

Section 10, The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955

Liability in Case of Adultery in India: A Critical Study

1997 (3) Kar LJ 531

Liability in Case of Adultery in India: A Critical Study

Section 27, Special Marriage Act, 1954

Liability in Case of Adultery in India: A Critical Study

Liability in Case of Adultery in India: A Critical Study

Liability in Case of Adultery in India: A Critical Study

Liability in Case of Adultery in India: A Critical Study

termed an adulterous relationship absolves such relationship of adulterous nature. Therefore,

Pothi Gillari v. Ghanni Mondal, AIR 1963 Ori 60

Liability in Case of Adultery in India: A Critical Study

Liability in Case of Adultery in India: A Critical Study

Liability in Case of Adultery in India: A Critical Study

Liability in Case of Adultery in India: A Critical Study

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------CHAPTER 5 - INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE

Available at: http://www.usatoday.com/news/opinion/forum/2010-04-26-column26_ST_N.htm (visited on

Liability in Case of Adultery in India: A Critical Study

Liability in Case of Adultery in India: A Critical Study

Available at: http://www.duke.edu/web/rpc/women_and_sexuality/punadultery.html (visited on 04.04.11 at

Liability in Case of Adultery in India: A Critical Study

Available at: http://www.allamaiqbal.com/publications/journals/review/oct06/7-The%20Quran%20and

Liability in Case of Adultery in India: A Critical Study

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------CHAPTER 6 - RECENT ISSUES AND DEBATES