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INTRODUCTION TO QUALITY FOR STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS

Introduction
Every individual, group, company or organization must act and that action must be in
accordance with some expectation. The art and science of achieving that expectation in
terms of a defined Standard for the final product is called Quality Management. Quality
Engineering is that part of Quality Management that deals with the development and
application of quality systems for building and sustaining quality into the product, and is
associated with the comprehensive use of statistical and allied methods.

1.0 What is Quality

1.1 Defining Quality
The word quality is such a commonly used word that it can mean many things.
Therefore, in order to clarify the technical meaning of the term quality it is perhaps
most useful to begin by stating what quality is not.
One typical source of confusion is mistaking grade for quality. For example, between a
Mercedes Benz and a Nissan Sentra, which is the higher quality car? Most people would
say the Benz, but this would be wrong the Benz is a higher grade car in that it has more
features. The same holds for any product the product is available in a range of grades
from the basic to the premium. This also applies to services, so in quality terminology,
we include services when we speak of products. What then is the definition of Quality?
In the classical quality literature there are the 3 Quality Philosophies of Deming, Juran
and Crosby:
W. Edwards Deming (1900-1993) - Deming defines Quality (indirectly) as low statistical
variation of the products characteristics. Regarded as the father of quality technology,
and a major source of Japans economic success, Demings quality philosophy is
characterized by the use of long-term holistic approaches, and statistics to achieve and
control quality. He is also well known for his 14 Points for Management, and The 7
Deadly Diseases of Management. Deming emphasizes the process.
Joseph M. Juran (1904 - pres) Juran defines Quality as fitness for use by the customer.
Juran, who also visited Japan in the 1950s, advocates a philosophy of a universal way of
addressing quality called the Quality Trilogy: quality planning, quality control, and
quality improvement. Juran emphasizes the customer.
Philip B. Crosby (1928 - pres) Crosby defines Quality as conformance to requirements
or specifications. His quality philosophy is characterised by the drive for zero defects,
the development of his 14-Step Cost-of-Quality Method, and the focus on quality
assurance over quality control.
In its most rigorous form, quality is defined mathematically using Statistics and has been
a central theme of the earlier era of quality management where emphasis was on quality
control. In general, Statistics is applied to:

The definition of the product Specifications

The control of the process by which the product is produced
The Acceptance Sampling procedure of the product Inspection and Testing

Operations Research, Optimization, Experiment Design, and other mathematical tools are
also used to improve understanding of the process, and in problem-solving to remove
causes of variation.
It is noteworthy that since quality is conformance, the terms good quality or, bad
quality are meaningless. That is, the product either conforms or does not conform,
though the product can exceed or fall short of whatever defines conformance.

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Though the attainment of desired quality requires the commitment and participation of all
members of the organization, the responsibility for quality management belongs to top
management, who, it is acknowledged, contributes to 85% of the quality problems (also
called the common causes). Quality is a science of problem-solving.

1.2 The Primary Objective of Quality Minimizing the Cost of Quality

It may be said that the primary goal of Quality Technology is to minimize the cost of
quality by reducing failure costs. The Cost of Quality (COQ) is the sum of the
Prevention Cost, the Appraisal Cost, the Internal Failure Cost, and the External Failure
Cost.
Prevention Cost
Prevention costs are those expenses associated with steps taken to make sure the product
will be made to the required condition.
Examples of prevention cost items are: Project Quality Plan; Quality Planning; Quality
Control Plan; Quality Auditing; Assuring Vendor and Sub-Contractor quality; Reviewing
and Verifying Designs; Insurance, etc.
Appraisal Cost
Appraisal costs relate to expenses incurred while checking and inspecting the work to
confirm that it has achieved the required condition.
Examples of appraisal costs are: Receiving Inspection; Inspection and Non-Destructive
Testing; Procuring Inspection and Test Equipment; Materials consumed during
inspection and testing; Analysis and Reporting of Test and Inspection Results; Field
Performance Testing, etc.
Internal Failure Costs
These costs relate to expenses incurred within the company due to product failure and
inefficiencies.
Examples of internal failure costs are: Replacement, Rework or Repair; Scrap and Waste
Metal; Re-Inspection and Re-Testing; Defect Diagnosis; Down Time, etc.
External Failure Costs
These costs relate to expenses incurred outside the company, usually motivated by your
Client.
Examples of external failure costs are: Receiving and Actioning Complaints; Warranty
Claims; Products rejected and returned; Concessions; Loss of Future Sales; Increased
Marketing to replace lost clients; Recall costs, etc.
The criterion for success is that the increase in prevention costs over time due to the
adoption of quality technology, should be less than the reduction in failure costs.
The COQ has become a major measurement of quality and requires the development of a
Quality Information System (QIS) for tracking and reporting the changes in the quality
costs, among other related concerns.

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TOTAL QUALITY
COST ($)

External Failure Costs

Internal Failure Costs

SAVINGS
External Failure Costs
Internal Failure Costs

Appraisal Costs

Prevention Costs

Appraisal Costs
Prevention Costs

TIME

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COST PER
GOOD UNIT

FAILURE
COSTS

TOTAL
QUALITY
COST

Optimum
Point

PREVENTION PLUS
APPRAISAL COSTS

100%
Bad

MODEL OF OPTIMUM QUALITY

100%
Good

The Quality Model shown above (Juran and Gryna, 1980) illustrates that as prevention
and appraisal costs increase, the failure costs will decrease until an optimum point is
reached. After this point, increases in appraisal and prevention costs will not be offset by
the decreased failure costs.
1.3 Quality Technology Definitions

Specification
A set of conditions and requirements, of specific and limited application, that provide a
detailed description of the procedure, process, material, product, or service for use
primarily in procurement and manufacturing. Standards may be referenced or included in
a Specification.

Standard
A prescribed set of conditions and requirements, of general and broad application,
established by authority or agreement, to be satisfied by a material, product, process,
procedure, convention, test method; and/or the physical, functional, performance, or
conformance characteristic thereof. A physical embodiment of a unit of measurement
(for example, an object such as the standard kilogram or an apparatus such as the cesium
beam clock). (U.S. Bureau of Standards, 1983)

Quality System
The organizational structure, collective plans, activities, and events that are provided to
ensure that a product, process, or service, will satisfy given needs. (ANSI/ASQC, 1987).
The ISO 9000 Series are standards for quality systems.
Quality Assurance
All those planned and systematic actions necessary to provide confidence that a product
or service will satisfy given needs. (ANSI/ASQC, 1987).

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Quality Control
The operational techniques and activities used to fulfill requirements for quality by both
monitoring a process (primarily by inspection and testing) and eliminating causes of
unsatisfactory performance at relevant stages.

Quality Plan
After analysis of the quality requirements, detailed documentation, called the Quality
Plan, is produced explaining how the company will assure that the product will meet the
clients requirement. A major part of the Quality Plan is the Quality Manual.

Quality Manual
The quality manual is a major component of the Quality Plan. It documents in detail all
the procedures, processes, checklists, etc. used to assure that quality is built into the
product. It is updated as quality improvements are made via the PDCA cycle.

ISO 9000-9004 (ANSI/ASQC 9000-9004)

Standards for a quality system. Provides a consistent reference framework for the global
economy thereby facilitating trade. Details what general factors shall be considered and
the structure of the documentation, without reference to a specific industry.
ISO 9000. Guidelines for selection and use of the standards.
ISO 9001. Quality systems model for quality assurance in design, development,
production, installation and servicing.
ISO 9002. Quality systems model for quality assurance in production, installation and
servicing.
ISO 9003. Quality systems model for quality assurance in inspection and testing.
ISO 9004. Guidelines for quality management and quality system elements. That is, for
internal quality assurance, whereas 9001 to 9003 are for external quality assurance.

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1.4 The Quality Cycle

PLAN

QUALITY
ANALYSIS AND
PLANNING
DO

ACT

QUALITY SYSTEM

ORGANISATIONAL
STRUCTURE

QUALITY PLAN
Quality Manual
Checklists, etc

CHECK
MANAGEMENT
PROCESSES

INTERNAL
PROCESSES

PRODUCT
PROCESSES

EXTERNAL
(SUPPLIER/VENDOR)
PROCESSES

QUALITY CONTROL PLAN

Inspection
Testing

THE DEMING (OR SHEWHART) CYCLE OF QUALITY IMPROVEMENT

PLAN Analyze the customer requirements and devise a quality system
DO
- Implement the quality system
CHECK - Observe the quality changes via a Quality Information System; use at least
COQ as the quality measurement
ACT
- Analyze the observed quality changes
Re-do in an infinite loop for continuous quality improvement.

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1.5 Summary of Quality

BASICS:
QUALITY IS CONFORMANCE TO CUSTOMER REQUIREMENTS (HENCE THERE IS
NO SUCH THING AS GOOD OR BAD QUALITY)
THE CUSTOMER IS WHOEVER YOU GIVE A PRODUCT TO AFTER YOU HAVE
PROCESSED SOME OTHER PRODUCT FROM A SUPPLIER
THE SUPPLIER IS WHOEVER GIVES A PRODUCT TO YOU THAT YOU WILL
PROCESS TO FORM ANOTHER PRODUCT
HENCE EVERYONE IS A CUSTOMER AND A SUPPLIER, INTERNAL OR EXTERNAL
TO AN ORGANISATION
A PRODUCT IS TANGIBLE OR INTANGIBLE; A SERVICE IS ALSO A PRODUCT
QUALITY IS A MOVING TARGET BECAUSE NEEDS AND CONDITIONS CHANGE
CONSTANTLY
TO PRODUCE PERFECT PRODUCTS REQUIRES AN INFINITE INVESTMENT
COST

QUALITY MANAGEMENT AND ENGINEERING INCREASES PROFITS

THRU

MAXIMISED WHEN
APPLIED TO

MINIMISATION OF FAILURE COSTS

THRU
THE STATISTICS OF FAILURE (AND HENCE
ACCPETANCE)
THRU
HENCE INFORMING THE
QUALITY MANUAL WHICH
CONTINUALLY EVOLVES

HENCE REQUIRING A QIS

FOR TRACKING PROGRESS
AND THE ASSOCIATED
COSTS

THE ENTIRE ORGANISATION

THIS IS TOTAL QUALITY
MANAGEMENT
IT RESTS ON 5 PILLARS:
ORGANISATION; PRODUCT;
PROCESS; LEADERSHIP;
COMMITTMENT

REDUCING VARIATION (IN THE PRODUCT

CHARACTERISTICS)
HOW?
CYCLICALLY (PDCA-PLAN/DO/CHECK/ACT)
IN A FEEDBACK LOOP THAT LEADS TO
CORRECTIVE ACTION BASED ON
UNDERSTANDING THE PROBLEM
(HENCE IMPROVEMENT IS CONTINUOUS AND
INFINITE (CHANGING REQUIREMENTS))

RATHER
THAN TO
THE BLUE COLLAR LEVEL ONLY

AND WHEN
THE FOCUS IS
ON

THRU
UNDERSTANDING THE CAUSES OF VARIATION
THRU
APPLICATION OF THE PROBLEM SOLVING
TECHNIQUES SUCH AS:
BRAIN STORMING; THE 7 Q/TOOLS; THE 7
MANAGEMENT TOOLS; EXPERIMENT DESIGN;
BOOTSTRAP; OPERATIONS RESEARCH; ETC.

QUALITY ASSURRANCE:
GETTING IT RIGHT THE FIRST
TIME, EVERY TIME
(MINIMUM TESTING)

RATHER
THAN ON

QUALITY CONTROL:
CHARACTERISED BY MUCH
TESTING AFTER PRODUCTION,
AND HENCE REPRESENTATIVE
OF A POOR QUALITY PLAN

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2.0 Product Quality

Product Standards/Specifications
Almost any product has an associated standard published by an international organization
and frequently several organizations offer standards for the same product. At the local
level, there is typically a central body responsible for developing standards for the
particular local conditions. For example in Trinidad and Tobago, there is the Trinidad
and Tobago Bureau of Standards (TTBS).
Standards define the acceptable characteristics or properties of the product (e.g. physical
and chemical properties), and depending on the product, the process under which it is to
be manufactured. The word standard can be an umbrella term that includes other
related documents. Associated with standards are Codes of Practice, Guidelines, and
Regulations. A Code of Practice is a statement of criteria for properly performing an
action. Guidelines are less comprehensive that standards but may evolve to become a
standard. Regulations are legal requirements of municipalities or states.
The development of a standard takes place along a rigorous and well-defined process in
which the proposed document is exposed to much review and adjustment before launch.
Even then, Standards evolve over time so it is important that the particular version of the
standard be referenced. Standards can also be withdrawn or renamed.
The following are just a few of the main international sources of Standards, Guidelines
and Codes of Practice:

ISO International Standards Organization

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
BSI British Standards Institute
EN Euro Norm

Professional bodies, Trade Groups, and other interest groups also offer publications that
though not standards, can be used to build Specifications or Contract Documents. Given
the length of time before a standard is revised, theses sources often reflect the state-ofthe-art and influence the revision of standards.
Quality Systems for The Product Production Process
Given the international impact of Quality many organizations have published Quality
Systems or Quality Assurance/Control Plans for products and services. For example, the
ASQ has published the Quality Handbook for the Architectural, Engineering, and
Construction Community by Roger D. Hart.

3.0 Special Inspections and Tests Required for Seismic Construction

Chapter 17 of the IBC requires that at the time of applying for approval, the owners
representative must submit a statement of Special Inspections to be undertaken. Such
Special Inspections are required irrespective of seismic conditions.
For seismic conditions, the following is noteworthy, but the reader must refer to the IBC
for details and the complete information.
1. For structural steel in SDC C, D, E, or F, continuous special inspection is
required for structural welding in accordance with AISC 341, except for fillet
welds less than 7.9mm, and except for floor and roof deck welding.
2. For engineered masonry in SDC C, D, E or F and Occupancy Category I, II, or
III, certificates of compliance must be submitted, as well as verification of fm,
prior to construction. If the O.C is IV, than in addition, the proportions of
materials used in mortar and grout must be verified.
3. For structures in SDC C, D, E, or F, for reinforcing and prestressing steel,
certified mill test reports shall be provided for each shipment of reinforcing steel

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used to resist flexural, shear, and axial forces in reinforced intermediate frames,
special moment frames, and boundary elements in of special reinforced concrete
or reinforced masonry shear walls. Where ASTM A 615 reinforcing steel is
used to resist earthquake-induced flexural and axial forces in special moment
resisting frames and in boundary wall elements of shear walls in structures
assigned to SDC D, E, or F, the testing requirements of ACI 318 shall be met.
Where ASTM A 615 reinforcing steel is to be welded, chemical tests shall be
performed to determine weldability in accordance with Section 3.5.2 of ACI
318.
4. For structures in SDC C, D, E, or F, the testing contained in the quality
assurance plan shall be as required by AISC 341and the additional requirements
below. The acceptance criteria for NDT shall be as required in AWS D1.1.
Base metal thicker than 38 mm, where subjected to through-thickness weld
shrinkage strains, shall be ultrasonically tested for discontinuities behind and
adjacent to such welds after joint completion. Any material discontinuities shall
be accepted or rejected at least on the basis of ASTM A 435 or ASTM A 898
(Level 1 criteria).
5. Structural Observation is the visual observation of the structural system by a
registered design professional for general conformance to the approved
construction documents at significant construction stages and at completion of
the structural system. Structural Observation shall be provided for those
structures included in SDC D, E, or F, where one or more of the following
conditions exist:
a. The structure is classified as O.C III or IV.
b. The height of the structure is greater than 22.86 m above the base.
c. The structure is assigned to SDC E, is classified as O.C II or III, and is
greater than two stories in height.