Hydraulic Fracturing: How Natural Gas Is

Extracted from Shale Formations

Introduction
The United States is the worlds largest producer of natural gas and petroleum products. In the past
decade, the country has seen an unprecedented increase in production due to the commercial use of
hydraulic fracturing, more commonly known as fracking. While a simplified use of this practice has
been around since the mid-1900s, it wasnt until recently that it sparked a national debate (A Brief
History). While fracking has helped revolutionize the oil and natural gas industry, many
environmentalists question the effect it has on nearby water resources.
Hydraulic fracturing is a method of using controlled explosives and highly pressurized water to fracture
rock formations deep below the surface in order to recover the gas trapped inside of the rok. This method
allows for petroleum engineers to extract resources that would otherwise be trapped inside shale
formations. Due to the very limited pore space in shale formations, it is necessary to fracture, or break
up, the rock to give the gas a path to escape to the surface. A large amount of water is then used to help
bring this gas to the surface where it can be prepared for sale. In order to hydraulically fracture a
formation, it must be drilled, cemented, perforated, injected with water, and afterwards, the produced
water created through this process must then be disposed.
Drilling the Wellbore and Cementing the Casing Layers
Initially, a drilling rig will drill deep underground to reach gas-rich formations, such as shales. Shales are
rocks, mainly composed of mud, that contain extremely small openings, or pores, for gas to be stored in.
These small pockets of gas have no room to move and without outside activity would be trapped in the
rock. The wells drilled to reach these shales could be vertical or
horizontal, depending on the engineers design.
Shale reserves could be anywhere from 5,000 8,000 feet below
the surface. As the well is drilled, cement layers, otherwise known
as casing layers, are placed around the wellbore in order to
maintain the wellbore integrity, ensuring that fluid does not flow
in or out of the hole (A Brief History). Typical casing layers
found in wells can be seen in Figure 1. The number of casing
layers will vary, but regardless, they are the reliable separation
between the gas being produced in the wellbore and the water,
coal, or other nearby resources. While all of the layers serve a
purpose, the production casing layer will run nearly the entire
length of the well and is vital to the fracking process.
Perforating the Pay Zone
The well is drilled to the pay zone, an area where engineers
Figure 1: Cemented Casing Layers (COGA)
believe most of the gas is located. Once the well is drilled to the
pay zone, and the production casing cement is in place, the well is
ready to be perforated. In order to be perforated, an explosive device will be lowered into the well until it
reaches the section where the gas is located (Oil & Gas Fundamentals). When triggered, the explosives
will create a series of holes that extend through the cement and into the formation. As Figure 2 illustrates,

after creating the series of openings in the wellbore,

the explosives will be removed from the hole. These
tiny holes create a path for gas to enter the wellbore.
Hydraulic Water Pumps Inject Fluid into the
Formation
Once the well is perforated, hydraulic pumps, located
on the surface, inject a mixture of water and chemicals
into the formation at extremely high pressures. The
fluid mixture rushes through the wellbore until it
reaches the perforated sections at the bottom of the
well. Figure 3 illustrates the process of injecting water Figure 2: Explosives Creating Tiny Holes in a Wellbore
(MPG Petroleum)
into the well. When it reaches these sections, it exits
through the openings created by the explosives with
great force (What Is Hydraulic). The rock is unable to absorb the large quantities of water coming
through the perforations. This causes for the rock to crack, or fracture.
The fractures, or fissures, created will break up the surrounding rock. While often portrayed as large,
tree-like structures in figures, the fractures in reality are thin cracks that stretch out perpendicular to the
wellbore. The purpose of these newly formed openings in the rock are to free the formerly trapped gas
and to create a channel in which this gas can travel.

Figure 3: Hydraulic Pumps Creating Fractures in the Formation (ProPublica)

Water Additives
The fluid pumped downhole is 99.5% comprised of water and sand (Energy and Opportunity).
Sand is mixed with the water to increase production. The tiny sand grains are able to enter the
fractures and then prop them open in order to allow gas to exit the rock formation. That way, once
the water leaves, they will continue to stay open and serve as a means of transportation for the gas
escaping the formation.

Figure 4: Components of Fluid Used in Hydraulic Fracturing ("Energy And Opportunity")

The small percentage of the mixture remaining is made up of chemicals and additives that are
specific to each company. The breakdown of typical fluid components is illustrated in Figure 4.
Many of these additives are common items found in residences such as chemicals found in
detergents, cosmetics, and deodorant. These chemicals are used to increase production by helping
ensure that fractures remain open, to assist gas in moving to the surface, or a variety of other
means of increasing the efficiency of the process (COGA).
Water Returning to the Surface
Typical shales could require up to 8 million gallons of water to fracture and complete, making water the
most vital resource when fracking a well. The water used in this process could be from nearby fresh water
sources such as lakes and rivers, or from ground water (A Brief History). Hundreds of tankers are
required to transport this water to the site and often
dozens of pump trucks are needed to pump the
pressurized mixture down the wellbore. However,
after the water is pumped downhole, the process
isnt over. Figure 5 illustrates the complete
hydraulic fracturing water cycle. While most of the
water stays in the formation, between 20% and
40% of the water is brought back to the surface (A
Brief History). This water returning to surface,
commonly known as flowback water, contains a
variety of different chemicals and naturally
occurring substances. Due to the chemical content
of the water, it needs to be either treated or
disposed in order to ensure that it is not placed back
in the environment where it would contaminate the
surrounding area. Before it is transported, it is first
stored on site, typically in tanks or pits (EPA).
Figure 5: Flowback Water Path (EPA)

Flowback water can be effectively disposed using three main methods:

1. Disposal by underground injection Underground injection involves pumping wastewater
deep underground to a rock formation where it cannot escape to contaminate the nearby
environment (EPA).
2. Treatment followed by disposal to surface water bodies The wastewater is treated in order
to remove all harmful chemical additives. This water is cleaned until it safe to place into surface
water bodies such as rivers, lakes, and ponds (EPA).
3. Recycling for use in future fracking operations The wastewater is treated until it is at a
quality that is acceptable to be used again in hydraulic fracturing operations. This recycling
process helps conserve the amount of water used (EPA).
Gas Extraction
The purpose of the hydraulic fracturing process is to increase the amount of gas that can be produced
from shales or similar formations. Gas that is released from the rock formation using this process will
flow up the wellbore to the surface. At the surface it will be sent through a series of equipment that ensure
that the gas is ready for sale. The gas that is produced from hydraulic fracturing is then stored on site until
it is ready for transport. Transportation is typically done by the use of a series of underground pipelines.
The pipelines will take the gas from the fracking site to the buyer.
Conclusion
While this newly-adapted technology has brought the United States dominance over the petroleum
industry, environmentalists still question the effects that it could have on drinking water resources. The
concern is that the fractures created in this process may create a pathway to nearby groundwater sources,
and the chemicals pumped downhole or the gas in the formation may use those fractures as a gateway to
contaminate the drinking water. However, these reports are still highly speculative and there have been no
confirmed reports of it happening. Regardless, this technology has become increasingly popular in the
country with discoveries such as the gas-rich Marcellus Shale Formation in Western Pennsylvania.
Without the process of hydraulic fracturing resources such as the Marcellus Shale would still be thought
to be unattainable.

Works Cited
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Web. 23 Mar. 2016.
"Energy and Opportunity." Hydraulic Fracturing. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Mar. 2016.
"Hydraulic Fracturing." HowStuffWorks. HowStuffWorks.com, n.d. Web. 23 Mar. 2016.
"Hydraulic Fracturing." Speight/Handbook of Hydraulic Fracturing Handbook of Hydraulic Fracturing (2016):
125-64. The Basics: Hydraulic Fracturing. COGA. Web.
"Oil & Gas Fundamentals Petroleum Oil and Gas Prospecting Fundamentals. MPG Petroleum, n.d. Web. 23
Mar. 2016.
"The Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle." EPA. Environmental Protection Agency, n.d. Web. 23 Mar. 2016.
"What Is Hydraulic Fracturing?" Top Stories RSS. ProPublica, 13 Nov. 2008. Web. 23 Mar. 2016.