DIELECTRIC CONSTANTS

References: - Bleaney and Bleaney Electricity and Magnetism, 2nd Ed., Chapter 17.
Duffin, Electricity and Magnetism, 4th Ed. p 298-9 (or 3rd Ed p 325-6).
Aims
The aim of this experiment is to measure the dielectric constants of a number of liquids
at high (optical) and low (audio) frequencies. These results are then used to obtain
values for the dipole moments of the molecules of the liquid. The experiment also
introduces the use of phase sensitive detectors.
The relative permittivity r of an insulating medium, which is also referred to as the
dielectric constant, may be defined by Cm /C0 = r where C0 is the capacitance of a
capacitor in vacuum and Cm is that of the same capacitor with the medium filling the
space between the capacitor plates. The fact that r is not unity is due to the
polarisation of the medium by the electric field. This polarisation can arise in a number
of ways. The electric field can induce dipoles by distortion of the electronic or ionic
distribution of an initial non-polar medium. With a polar medium it can orientate preexisting permanent molecular dipoles along the field direction. The time taken for such
re-orientation is much longer than that needed to induce dipoles. This can lead to r
being frequency dependent and this dependence can be used to measure the
permanent dipole moments of materials.
In this experiment the dielectric properties of toluene (C7H8) and chlorobenzene
(C6H5Cl) will be compared by measurement of r at a low (audio) frequency and very
high (optical) frequency. The two parts of the experiment can be done in any order.
There are only two sets of equipment for the optical measurements (which should take
less than one hour) and so students should co-operate in the timing of the use of the
equipment.
Audio Measurements
The low frequency measurements are made using parallel plate capacitors, which are
mounted in containers, which can be filled with liquid. The capacitance in air, CA, and
in the liquid, CL, is measured using a Schering capacitance bridge operating at 1 kHz
(see Appendix II). For safety reasons the chlorobenzene filled capacitor is in a sealed
container. This has been chosen to have exactly the same capacitance in air as the
other capacitors. The ratio CL /CA gives the ratio of the dielectric constants. r for air is
1.00058.
Optical Measurements

The refractive index of a substance at a particular frequency is given by n = ( rr ) .

For the liquids used in this experiment one can assume that the permeability r = 1. r
may therefore be obtained from a measurement of n. The refractive index of Toluene
is to be measured at an optical frequency (corresponding to = 5893) using the Abb
Refractometer. (See Appendix I). That of chlorobenzene, which again cannot be
measured for safety reasons is n = 1.525 at 20oC.

Calculating Dipole Moments

If it is assumed that any difference between the high and low frequency values of r is
due solely to the presence of permanent dipoles, which are unable to contribute to the
polarisation of the liquid at optical frequencies, one can calculate the values of the
dipole moments of the liquids, p, from the formula below:-

( s i )(2 s + i ) N 0 p 2
=
9M 0 k B T
s ( i + 2)2
where s = static (low frequency) dielectric constant. (This contains both induced and
permanent dipolar contributions to the polarisation). i = induced (high frequency)
dielectric constant, (i.e. the high frequency value where permanent dipolar
contributions are zero). N0 is Avogadro's number, = density, M = molecular weight,
0 = permittivity of free space, and kB is Boltzmann's constant. The value of p should
be expressed in Debye units. (1 Debye unit is 3.336 x 10-30 coulomb metre).
Additional considerations
Look up the dielectric constant for water and hence calculate its dipole moment. Why
are we unable to make a satisfactory measurement of r for water at low frequencies?
If water is such a good dielectric (optically clear), why do microwave ovens work so
well? Mathematically, what is the lock-in detector doing?

APPENDIX I
The Abb Refractometer
NOTE Great care must be taken not to damage the polished surfaces of the prisms
and test pieces used in this experiment. Surfaces are to be cleaned only with the
cotton buds or lens tissue provided. The Abb Refractometer is an instrument
designed to permit rapid measurement of the refractive index, n, and the dispersion of
liquids and solids. The instruments used in this experiment can measure in the range
1.30 < n <1.74, with the calibration being made relative to a wavelength   .
The instrument measures n by measuring the critical angle at which total internal
reflection occurs. The basic arrangements for measuring liquids and solids are shown
in Figures 1 (a) and (b).

Upper
Eyepiece

Solid

Grazing
Incidence

Light at
Grazing
Incidence
Liquid

Prism of high
Refractive
Index

M
(a) For solids

(b) For liquids

Similar
Prisms

Figure 1. Abb Refractometer (schematic)

The instrument supplied has a fixed lower prism. The upper prism is mounted in a box,
which can be swung open by releasing a toggle latch, to reveal the lower prism. The
mirror M is mounted on an arm together with a scale, so that by turning the large
control knob, M is rotated about a horizontal axis and light is reflected into the upper
eyepiece as in Fig. 1 (a). With monochromatic light one then expects to see a sharp
division between light and dark regions, as viewed in the upper eyepiece, at the critical
angle. When the cross-wires are directly on the light/dark borderline the scale can be
read directly in terms of refractive index. The scale, which is viewed through the lower
eyepiece, is illuminated when the instrument is switched on.
White light will be used in the experiment and the borderline viewed in the eyepiece
will normally appear coloured due to dispersion. To minimise the dispersion two Amici
prisms, which allow sodium yellow light to pass through them undeviated, are mounted
between M and the eyepiece. By means of a gear system operated by the graduated
control knob, the prisms can be rotated in opposite directions so that the dispersion of
light passing through the prisms may be varied. If the dispersions produced by the
prisms is in the opposite sense to that produced by the refraction at the specimenprism interface, then the resultant dispersion produced in the eyepiece will be reduced
to a minimum at a particular setting of the graduated knob. The colourless borderline
then seen in the eyepiece will correspond to that for light of wavelength 5893. The
setting of the graduated knob may be used to measure the dispersion due to a
specimen. Such measurements are important in distinguishing between two

specimens that may have the same value of n but different dispersions. The value of
the dispersion is not needed in this experiment.
The temperature at which each measurement is made should be noted, as the
refractive indices of some liquids are strongly temperature dependent.
Calibration
Check the scale calibration using the glass test pieces. The arrangement to be used
is that of Figure 1 (a); a fluorescent lamp will act as the light source. To ensure good
optical contact between the test-piece and the prism, a very small drop of
monobromonapthalene (n = 1.658) should be placed on the prism before the testpiece is placed upon the prism. The absolute minimum amount of the contact liquid
should be used to evenly cover the interface. (Note the contact liquid used must
always have a larger refractive index than that of the solid being investigated so that
the critical angle is determined by the value of n for the solid). If the scale error is
greater than of a division consult a demonstrator.
As additional experiments in the use of the Refractometer: (1)
(2)

Measure the refractive index of distilled water. This is frequently used as a test
substance to check the calibration of the instrument.
Examine the quartz test-piece and account for the appearance of two
borderlines in this case.

Appendix II
Schering Capacitance Bridge
Air capacitors have low values of capacitance and liquid filled capacitors may have
significant losses, which appear as series resistances. These two factors make the
accurate measurement of capacitance a little difficult. Using the Schering capacitance
bridge circuit of Fig 2 however, it is possible to achieve quite good sensitivity and to
independently determine both the capacitance and series loss resistance of the air
capacitors. The out-of-balance signals in the bridge are measured using a "Lock-in
Amplifier" (or "Phase Sensitive Detector"). This measures the AC voltage only at the
oscillator frequency and is also able to determine the phase of the out of balance
voltage.

C1 (Test

C2 (Fixed

Capacitor)

R1 (Resistor

Decade Box)

Capacitor
1500pF)

LOCK IN AMPLIFIER
Signal Input

Ref Input

FUNCTION
GENERATOR

Output
Input +

DIFERENTIAL
PRE- AMPLIFIER

Input




Output


Output

R4 (Resistor

Decade Box)

R3 (Resistor

Decade Box)

C4 (Capacitor
Decade Box)

Figure 2. Schering Bridge Schematic

C1 - test capacitor. This is a variable air capacitor, which should be used with the
plates fully overlapping to give maximum capacitance. Being able to open the plates
is useful for cleaning and drying the capacitor after immersion in toluene. The toluene
is kept in the fume cupboard. The capacitor plates must NOT be washed in water.
R1 - in some applications of the bridge this is just the series loss resistance of the
capacitor under test. In this experiment use a variable resistance box to increase this
resistance. This enables convenient values of other components, especially R3, to be
chosen. Note that R1 in the expressions below for the balance conditions is the series
loss resistance plus the value of dial box resistance.

C2 - this must be a very low (ideally zero) loss capacitor. A mica capacitor of about
1500pF is supplied. (Check the value on the Aim LCR Databridge ).
R3 and R4 are variable resistance decade boxes and C4 is a variable capacitor
decade box.
Since we have both resistance and reactances in the circuit, the currents flowing
through the components of the bridge will not generally be in phase with the voltage
supplied by the oscillator. For a pure resistance the current is in phase with the
voltage and for a pure capacitance it is 900 out of phase. It is useful to write the
currents and voltages as vectors related by complex impedances (see Duffin
"Electricity and magnetism" Ch.10 for example)
V =Z .I
1

for a capacitor, where & is the angular frequency.

j&C
In a simple Wheatstone bridge (as Fig 2 but with C2 replaced by R2 and C1 and C4
removed) the condition for balance is R1/R3 = R2/R4 , as the two arms of the bridge act
as voltage dividers.
Z = R for a resistor and Z =

With reactances present this becomes:

Z1 Z 3
=
Z2 Z4

(1)

For the Schering bridge of Figure 2

1

1
1
R4
; Z 2=
; Z 3 = R3 ; Z 4 = + j C4 =
Z 1 = R1 +
1 + j C4 R4
j C1
j C2
R4

Inserting these impedances into equation 1 and rearranging gives two conditions:
1+ 2 C 1 C 4 R1 R 4 C1 R 3
=0

2 2 2
1+ C 4 R 4 C 2 R 4

(2)

j ( C1 R1 C 4 R 4 )
=0
( 1 + 2 C 24 R 24 )

(3)

and

corresponding to balancing the in-phase and out-of-phase voltages.

From (3):
and inserting this into (2) then gives:

C1R1= C4 R4

(4)

C1R3 = C2 R4

(5)

(4) and (5) then give the final balance conditions:

C1 =

R4C2
R3

(6)

and
R1 =

R3C4
C2

(7)

The best way to balance the bridge is to choose the values of R1 and R3 of a few k 
and then adjust R4 and C4 for balance. Initially, almost all of the voltage across the
PSD will be out of phase with the oscillator voltage since the reactances of C1 and C2
are very large. Therefore, start by adjusting R4 to obtain a balance with the PSD
measuring the signal at 90o to the reference (90o phase button in). Then balance the
in-phase signal (button out) using C4. Repeat the balances with R4 and C4 until the
out-of-phase and in-phase signals are minimised. Note: the bridge is balanced when
the meter registers zero.
Operation of the Lock-in amplifier (Phase Sensitive Detector (PSD))
A high sensitivity is possible using a phase sensitive detector because noise, at
frequencies other than that at which the bridge is operated, is not detected. In
particular, harmonics of the driving frequency, generated by non-linear components in
the bridge, are not detected. Furthermore, a PSD can also measure the phase of the
signal relative to that of a reference signal. The EG&G model 5101 Lock-in amplifier
operates by comparing the input signal which is to be measured with a reference
signal. It "locks into" that part of the input signal which is both at the same frequency
as the reference and in phase with the reference. The front panel is sub-divided into
three sections input, reference and output.
Reference: The reference signal in this experiment is taken from the 600 RXWSXWRI
the oscillator, which is in phase with that from the 50 output. The phase of the signal
to be detected relative to this reference signal can be adjusted with the 10 turn
potentiometer and the two buttons below this. It is best to set the potentiometer to
zero and use the button to select in phase ( = 0o) or out of phase ( = 90o). The F, 2F
button should be on F as the 2F selects a signal at twice the reference signal.
Input: The detected input signal at the frequency and phase of the reference is
displayed on the panel meter. The sensitivity can be varied from 1mV to 250mV fullscale deflection (FSD). A differential amplifier with a gain of x100 first amplifies the
output from the bridge. This has a very high input impedance and isolates the bridge
circuit from the Lock-in. This pre-amplification increases the sensitivity but can
overload the Lock-in if the voltage from the oscillator is too large (normally about 3-5
volts is sufficient).
Output: The time constant knob gives the time over which the measured signal is
averaged. The response of the Lock-in to changing signals is slower for longer time
constants but noise is reduced. A time constant of about 0.1 seconds should be best.
The offset and post filter are not used.