SEMICONDUCTORS

Properties
These are inorganic materials
made from elements in the fourth
column (Group IV) of the periodic
table. Semiconductors in Group IV
are called elemental
semiconductors.
Compound semiconductors are
made up of Group III and Group V
elements or Group II and Group VI
elements.
The name semiconductors is
because at certain temperatures
they are good electrical
conductors, and they are insulators
in other temperature ranges.

material
Ge

Lattice
structure
diamond

Lattice
constant
5.66

Energy
gap (eV)
0.66

Si

diamond

5.43

1.12

GaAs

zinc-blende 5.64

1.44

InP

zinc-blende 5.86

1.25

PbSe

zinc-blende 6.14

0.27

PbTe

zinc-blende 6.34

0.30

The most important semiconductor is Si because of its wide use in IC

and MEMS fabrication.

- Si crystallizes in diamond lattice.

- Each Si atom has four equi-distant nearest neighbors.
- The lattice constant for Si is 5.43 .

Diamond Lattice

Periodic Table

Dopants and impurities in semiconductors

WebElements: the periodic table on the world-wide web
http://www.shef.ac.uk/chemistry/web-elements/
1

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

hydrogen

11

boron

carbon

10

Ne

element symbol

9.012182(3)
magnesium

1995 atomic weight (mean relative mass)

10.811(7)
aluminium

12

13

scandium

19

20

21

Ca

Sc

40.078(4)
strontium

38

39

Rb

Sr

55

87.62(1)
barium

56

Cs Ba
88

Fr Ra

vanadium

chromium

manganese

iron

23

24

25

26

Ti V
40

Cr Mn

71

41

42

Zr Nb Mo
72

73

Lu Hf Ta

74

43

103

104

27

Fe Co

nickel

28

105

106

44

45

copper

zinc

29

30

14

[98.9063]
rhenium

75

16

26.981538(2) 28.0855(3) 30.973761(2) 32.066(6)

gallium
germanium
arsenic
selenium

31

32

33

63.546(3)
silver

46

47

65.39(2)
cadmium

48

69.723(1)
indium

49

72.61(2)
tin

50

76

190.23(3)
hassium

108

77

78

79

80

Ir Pt Au Hg

51

110

111

52

In Sn Sb Te
81

82

Tl Pb

192.217(3) 195.078(2) 196.96655(2) 200.59(2) 204.3833(2)

meitnerium ununnilium unununium
ununbium

109

34

74.92160(2) 78.96(3)
antimony
tellurium

101.07(2) 102.90550(2) 106.42(1) 107.8682(2) 112.411(8) 114.818(3) 118.710(7) 121.760(1)

osmium
iridium
platinum
gold
mercury
thallium
lead
bismuth

Re Os
107

15

Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se

Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd

174.967(1) 178.49(2) 180.9479(1) 183.84(1) 186.207(1)

lawrencium rutherfordiumdubnium
seaborgium
bohrium

89-102

cobalt

50.9415(1) 51.9961(6) 54.938049(9) 55.845(2) 58.933200(9) 58.6934(2)

niobium molybdenum technetium ruthenium
rhodium
palladium

88.90585(2) 91.224(2) 92.90638(2) 95.94(1)

lutetium
hafnium
tantalum
tungsten

57-70

132.90545(2) 137.327(7)
francium
radium

87

22

44.955910(8) 47.867(1)
yttrium
zirconium

37

85.4678(3)
caesium

titanium

oxygen

fluorine

12.0107(8) 14.00674(7) 15.9994(3)18.9984032( 20.1797(6)

silicon phosphorus
sulfur
chlorine
argon

Al Si

22.989770(2) 24.3050(6)
potassium
calcium

nitrogen

4.002602(2)
neon

element name

atomic number

Na Mg

39.0983(1)
rubidium

He

Key:
beryllium

Li Be
6.941(2)
sodium

IV

H
1.00794(7)
lithium

18
helium

83

17

18

Cl Ar
35.4527(9)
bromine

35

39.948(1)
krypton

36

Br Kr
79.904(1)
iodine

53

83.80(1)
xenon

54

Xe

127.60(3) 126.90447(3) 131.29(2)

polonium
astatine
radon

84

Bi Po

85

86

At Rn

207.2(1) 208.98038(2) [208.9824] [209.9871] [222.0176]

112

** Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Uun Uuu Uub

[223.0197] [226.0254]

[262.110]

lanthanum

57

*lanthanidesLa

cerium

58

Ce

[261.1089] [262.1144] [263.1186]

praseodymiu neodymium

59

60

**actinides Ac

90

61

91

Th Pa

92

europium

62

63

[144.9127] 150.36(3)
neptunium
plutonium

93

[265.1306]

samarium

Pr Nd Pm Sm

138.9055(2) 140.116(1) 140.90765(2) 144.24(3)

actinium
thorium
protactinium uranium

89

promethium

[264.12]

94

[268]

[269]

[272]

[277]

gadolinium

terbium

dysprosium

holmium

erbium

67

68

64

65

66

Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho
151.964(1)
americium

95

thulium

69

Er Tm

ytterbium

70

Yb

157.25(3) 158.92534(2) 162.50(3) 164.93032(2) 167.26(3) 168.93421(2) 173.04(3)

curium
berkelium californiumeinsteinium fermium mendelevium nobelium

96

Np Pu Am Cm

97

98

99

100

101

102

Bk Cf Es Fm Md No

[227.0277] 232.0381(1)231.03588(2)238.0289(1) [237.0482] [244.0642] [243.0614] [247.0703] [247.0703] [251.0796] [252.0830] [257.0951] [258.0984] [259.1011]

Symbols and names

: the symbols of the elements, their names, and their spellings are those recommended by IUPAC. After some controversy, the names of elements 101-109 are 69,
now 24712473.
confirmed: Names
see Pure
have& not
Appl.
been
Chem.,
proposed
1997,as yet for the most r
elements 110112 so those used here are IUPACs temporary systematic names: see Pure 51,
& Appl.
381384.
Chem.,
In the
1979,
USA and some other countries, the spellings aluminum and cesium are normal while in the UK and elsewhere the usual spelling is sul
Periodic table organisation
: for a justification of the positions of the elements La, Ac, Lu, and Lr in the WebElements periodic table see W.B. Jensen, The positions of lanthanum (actinium) and lutetium (lawrencium) in the periodic table,
Group labels
:the numeric system (118) used here is the current IUPAC convention. For a discussion of this and other common systems see: W.C. Fernelius and W.H. Powell, Confusion in the
59, periodic
504508. table of the elements, J. Chem. Ed., 19
Atomic weights (mean relative masses)
: see Pure & Appl. Chem.,68,
1996,
23392359. These are the IUPAC 1995 values. Elements for which the atomic weight is contained within square brackets have no stable nuclides and are represented by one of the
elements thorium, protactinium, and uranium do have characteristic terrestrial abundances and these are the values quoted. The last significant figure of each value is considered reliable to 1 except where a larger uncertainty is giv
1998 Dr Mark J Winter
[University of Sheffield, webelements@sheffield.ac.uk]. For updates
http://www.shef.ac.uk/chemistry/web-elements/pdf/periodic-table.html
to this table see
.Version date:
1 March 1998.

For column IV elements (e.g., silicon)

valence III: one electron short, acceptor

boron, aluminum, gallium

valence V: one extra electron, donor

nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony

Intrinsic Silicon

Charge carriers in semiconductors are

electrons and positively charged holes
(magnitude of charge is the same as that
in electron).
In an intrinsic semiconductor, the
concentrations of electrons (n) and
holes (p) are equal to each other : n = p
= ni (intrinsic carrier concentration).
Resistivity, r, for an intrinsic
semiconductor is given by
" r = [nie(mn + mp)]-1,where mn(p) are the
electron (hole) mobility.
For Si, at room temperature:ni~ 1010
cm-3 , and mn(p) ~103 cm2/Vs. Hence,
r~105 W cm.

N-Type Silicon (Extrinsic Silicon)

In n-type Si electrical conduction is

carried out by electrons.
Dopants are atoms from Group V
elements, most common dopants
are P and As.
The dopant atoms are called donor
atoms since they donate their fifth
electron to the Si crystal.
The resistivity of an n-type Si
material can be several orders of
magnitude smaller than the
intrinsic resistivity of Si.

+4
Si

+4
Si

+4
Si

+4
Si

free
electron

+4
Si

+5
P

+4
Si

+4
Si
free
electron

+4
Si

+4
Si

+5
P

+4
Si

+4
Si

+4
Si

free
electron

+5
P

+4
Si

electron pair (bound electrons) in a covalen

P-Type Silicon (Extrinsic Silicon)

In p-type Si electrical conduction is

carried out by holes.
Dopants are atoms from Group III
elements, most common dopants
are B and Al.
The dopant atoms are called
acceptor atoms since each atom
accepts an electron and gives away
a free hole to the Si crystal.
The resistivity of a p-type Si
material can be several orders of
magnitude smaller than the
intrinsic resistivity of Si.

+4
Si

+4
Si

+4
Si

+4
Si

free hole

+4
Si

+3
B

+4
Si

+4
Si
free hole

+4
Si

+4
Si

+3
B

+4
Si

+4
Si

+4
Si

free hole

+3
B

+4
Si

electron pair (bound electrons) in a covalen

Si crystal orientation and Miller indices

Si crystal orientation and Miller

indices

Low Index Directions In Silicon

(Cubic, Diamond Structure)
(100)

(110)

2a

surface atomic density

a

surface
100

(
1atom+4 [14 atom])
=
a2

silicon:
100 = 6.8 x 1014 atoms / cm2

surface

110

2atoms + 4 [1 4 atom] + 2 [1 2 atom])

(
=
2 a a

(111) planes

(111) planes etch the slowest, tend to be cleavage planes

(1 1
1) a
tom

plane
tomic
a
)
1
1
(1

lan
(100) p

surface
=
111

a2

ane

3 [12 atom] + 3 [16 atom ]

3

ic p
l

silicon:
7.8 x 1014 atoms / cm2

surface atomic density

somewhat higher than
(100)

Miller indices
[001]
[abc]

[010]
b

MEMS Design & Fab

ksjp, 7/01

[100]

[001]
[abc]

(abc)

1/c

c
[010]

1/a
[100]

MEMS Design & Fab

ksjp, 7/01

1/b

[001]

{100}
(001)

[010]

[100]

(100)
MEMS Design & Fab

ksjp, 7/01

(010)

[001]

[010]
(111)
(110)
MEMS Design & Fab

ksjp, 7/01

[100]

Typical 100 wafer

<111>
<100>

The wafer flat is oriented in the [110] direction

MEMS Design & Fab

ksjp, 7/01

Cross-section in (110) plane

Anisotropic Etching of Silicon

<100>
<111>
54.7

Anisotropic etches have direction dependent etch rates in crystals

Typically the etch rates are slower perpendicularly to the crystalline
planes with the highest density
Commonly used anisotropic etches in silicon include Potasium
Hydroxide (KOH), Tetramethyl Ammonium Hydroxide (TmAH), and
Ethylene Diamine Pyrochatecol (EDP)
MEMS Design & Fab

ksjp, 7/01

Silicon Substrate

Si crystal orientation: [100] and [110]

(100) and (111) planes

[100] and [111],

(
1 1 + 0 1 + 0 1)
cos =
=
1 12 + 12 + 12

= 54.74 o

1
3

Diamond structure
Si and Ge crystals have
diamond structure
The <111> planes have
fewer dangling bonds
=> <111> planes etches
slowly in some etchants
the etch-rate ratio can
exceed 1,000
Common anisotropic
etchants: Potassium
hydroxide (KOH), Ethylene
Diamine (EDP),
Tetramethyl Ammonium
Hydroxide (TmAH),

<111> plane

Etching of <110> Si
A subset of the <111>
planes are perpendicular
to the <110> planes
Rectangular holes, or slits,
with perpendicular side
walls can be etched!
Other <111> planes form
non-perpendicular
sidewalls at the ends of
the slits
Optical Applications: Thin
mirrors, cooling fins for
LDs

<110> plane

Wafer Identification
Orientation:
Miller index
{100}, {111},
Intercept plane with
crystallographic axes
Form reciprocal of the
three intercepts
Divide three numbers by
the gcd
Figure from D. M. Sherman, University of Bristol, UK.
Texas Christian University

Department of Engineering

Ed Kolesar

Wafer Identification
variations

Doping
n-type (e.g., Sb, As,
P, Bi) electron donors
(5 electrons in outer
shell)
p-type (e.g., B, Ga,
In) acceptors (3
electrons in outer
shell)

{111} n-type

{100} n-type

primary flat (110 plane)

{111} p-type

{100} p-type

Note primary and secondary flats.

12
12

Wafer Processing
There are only 3 basic operations* for
building microstructures:
Pattern Definition
Deposition
Removal
*There are always exceptions

Texas Christian University

Department of Engineering

Ed Kolesar

Wafer Processing
Deposition: thin films
(e.g., photoresist, Au,
Al, poly, SiO2, Si3N4, )

wafer

Pattern definition:
masking, lithography,

Removal: etching (e.g.,

wet, dry, an/isotropic, )

Chips

13
13

Piezoelectric effect
depends on polarization, P, in a material
symmetry of crystal is critical
for crystal with center of symmetry, application of external
stress does NOT produce a net polarization

Pi

Pi

Pi

Pi

v
Pi = 0

external applied stress

Pi

+
-

Pi

+
-

Pi

+
-

Pi

+
-

v
Pi = 0

Piezoelectric effect
depends on polarization, P, in a material
symmetry of crystal is critical
for crystal without simple center of symmetry application of
external stress DOES produce a net polarization

+
+

+
+

+
+

+
+

Pi

+
+

v
Pi = 0

external applied stress

+Pi +

+
+

v
Pi 0

Piezoelectric effect
reciprocity between applied voltage resulting in displacement
and applied force/displacement producing voltage
constants relating voltage to displacement have units of
charge/force

L = d xz V

L
t

W = d xz V

W
t

t = d xx V

x z
y

V = d xz

V = d xz

V
t

for force applied

along any axis,
voltage across
thickness is

Fz
L
Fy
W

V = d xx Fx

t
LW

Piezoelectric materials
unit check: d*V = (coul/newt)*volt = (C/N)*(Ncm/C) = cm
piezoelectric
constants
(10-12 C/N)

relative
permittivity

d/r

Youngs
modulus
(GPa)

dxx = 2.31

4.5

0.5

107

polyvinyledenefluoride (PVDF)

dxz = 23
dxx = - 33

12

1.9
-2.75

LiNbO3

dxz = - 4
dxx = 23

28

-0.14
0.82

245

1700

(thin films difficult)

dxz = 78
dxx = 190

0.04
0.1

lead zirconate
titanate (PZT)

dxz = - 171
dxx = 370

1700

-0.1
0.2

53

ZnO

dxz = 5.2
dxx = 246

1400

0.003
0.17

123

material

quartz
(thin films difficult)

(thin films difficult)

BaTiO3