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Role of nanotechnology in agriculture with

special reference to management of insect
pests
Mahendra Rai & Avinash Ingle

Applied Microbiology and

Biotechnology
ISSN 0175-7598
Volume 94
Number 2
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2012)
94:287-293
DOI 10.1007/s00253-012-3969-4

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Author's personal copy

Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2012) 94:287293
DOI 10.1007/s00253-012-3969-4

MINI-REVIEW

Role of nanotechnology in agriculture with special reference

to management of insect pests
Mahendra Rai & Avinash Ingle

Received: 19 December 2011 / Revised: 12 February 2012 / Accepted: 13 February 2012 / Published online: 3 March 2012
# Springer-Verlag 2012

Abstract Nanotechnology is a promising field of interdisciplinary research. It opens up a wide array of opportunities in
various fields like medicine, pharmaceuticals, electronics and
agriculture. The potential uses and benefits of nanotechnology
are enormous. These include insect pests management
through the formulations of nanomaterials-based pesticides
and insecticides, enhancement of agricultural productivity
using bio-conjugated nanoparticles (encapsulation) for slow
release of nutrients and water, nanoparticle-mediated gene or
DNA transfer in plants for the development of insect pestresistant varieties and use of nanomaterials for preparation of
different kind of biosensors, which would be useful in remote
sensing devices required for precision farming. Traditional
strategies like integrated pest management used in agriculture
are insufficient, and application of chemical pesticides like
DDT have adverse effects on animals and human beings apart
from the decline in soil fertility. Therefore, nanotechnology
would provide green and efficient alternatives for the
management of insect pests in agriculture without harming the nature. This review is focused on traditional
strategies used for the management of insect pests,
limitations of use of chemical pesticides and potential
of nanomaterials in insect pest management as modern
approaches of nanotechnology.
Keywords Nano-pesticide . Sustainable agriculture .
Precision farming . Chemical pesticide

M. Rai (*) : A. Ingle

Department of Biotechnology,
Sant Gadge Baba Amravati University,
Amravati 444 602 Maharashtra, India
e-mail: mkrai123@rediffmail.com

Introduction
The term nanotechnology is based on the prefix nano
which is from the Greek word meaning dwarf. More precisely, the word nano means 109 or one billionth part of a
metre. The word nanotechnology is generally used for materials having size range between 1 and 100 nm; however, it is
also inherent that these materials should display different
properties from bulk (or micrometric and larger) materials as
a result of their size. These differences include physical
strength, chemical reactivity, electrical conductance, magnetism and optical effects. Nanobiotechnology is the multidisciplinary integration of biotechnology, nanotechnology,
chemical processing, material science and system engineering
into biochips, molecular motors, nanocrystals and nanobiomaterials (Huang et al. 2007).
Nanotechnology is usually represented by two different
approaches, top-down and bottom-up. Top-down refers
to making nanoscale structures from smallest structures by
machining, templating and lithographic techniques, for example photonics applications in nanoelectronics and nanoengineering. Whereas bottom-up, or molecular nanotechnology,
applies to building organic and inorganic materials into defined structures, atom by atom or molecule by molecule, often
by self-assembly or self-organization, which are applicable in
several biological processes. Biologists and chemists are actively engaged in the synthesis of inorganic, organic, hybrid
and metal nanomaterials including different kinds of
nanoparticles having unusual properties like optical,
physical, biological, etc. Due to these properties, nanoparticles have enormous applications in many fields like
electronic, medicine, pharmaceuticals, engineering and
agriculture (Elibol et al. 2003; Salata 2004).
Nanotechnology has the potential to change the entire
scenario of the current agricultural and food industry with

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the help of new tools developed for the treatment of plant

diseases, rapid detection of pathogens using nano-based
kits, improving the ability of plants to absorb nutrients,
etc. Nanobiosensors and other smart delivery systems will
also help the agricultural industry to fight against different
crop pathogens. It is assumed that in the near future nanostructured catalysts will be available which will increase the
efficacy of commercially available pesticides and insecticides and also reduce the doses level required for crop plants
(Joseph and Morrison 2006).
The current global population is about seven billion with
50 % living in Asia. A large proportion of those living in
developing countries face daily food shortages as a result of
environmental impacts on agriculture including storms,
droughts and flood (Joseph and Morrison 2006). Similarly,
agricultural production continues to be constrained by a
number of biotic and abiotic factors. For instance, insect
pests, diseases and weeds cause considerable damage to
potential agricultural production. Evidences indicate that
pests cause 25 % loss in rice, 510 % in wheat, 30 % in
pulses, 35 % in oilseeds, 20 % in sugar cane and 50 % in
cotton (Dhaliwal et al. 2010). Therefore, for developing
countries like India, the crop yield can be maximized by
developing drought- and pest-resistant crops (Joseph and
Morrison 2006).
Insects are found in all types of environment and occupy
little more than two thirds of the known species of animals
in the world. Insects fed on all kinds of plants including crop
plants, forest trees, medicinal plants and weeds. They also
infest the food and other stored products in godowns, bins,
storage structures and packages causing huge amount of loss
to the stored food and also deterioration of food quality.
Insects inflict injury to plants and stored products either
directly or indirectly in their attempts to secure food. Insects
that cause less than 5 % damage are not considered as pests.
The insects which cause damage between 5 and 10 % are
called minor pests and those that cause damage above 10 %
are considered as major pests (Dhaliwal et al. 2010). Pimentel
(2009) reviewed that worldwide insect pests caused an
estimated 14 % loss, plant pathogens cause a 13 % loss and
weeds a 13 % loss. The value of this crop loss was estimated to
be US $2,000 billion per year. This review is focused on
limitations of chemical pesticides, traditional strategies
available for the management of insect pests and role of
nanomaterials and nanotechnology as modern approaches
for the management of insect pests in agriculture.

Traditional strategies for sustainable agriculture

Traditional strategies like crop rotation, healthy crop variety,
manipulations in sowing dates, integrated pest management
(IPM), etc. have been commonly used by farmers for the

Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2012) 94:287293

management of insect pest in agriculture. Among these

integrated pest management is the most popular approach.
The term integrated pest management was formalized by
the US Academy of Sciences in 1969. IPM was introduced
as a solution to avoid the side effects of pesticide, which
combines the use of different pest control strategies (cultural, resistant varieties, biological and chemical control). IPM
is thus more complex for the producer to implement, as it
requires skill in pest monitoring and understanding of the
pest dynamics, besides the cooperation of all among the
producers for effective implementation (Dhawan and Peshin
2009; Peshin et al. 2009).
In the 1960s when the IPM began to be promoted as a
pest control strategy, there were only few IPM technologies
available for field application. In the 1970s, extensive research on the management of insect pest generated some
novel products and knowledge for successful implementation of IPM in crops like rice, cotton, sugar cane and
vegetables. However, the exaggerated expectations about
the possibility that dramatic reduction in pesticide use could
be achieved without significant decline in crop yields as a
result of adoption of IPM could not be realized (Dhawan
and Peshin 2009).
IPM is an ecologically based strategy that focuses on
long-term solution of the pests through a combination of
techniques such as biological control, habitat manipulation,
modification of agronomic practices and use of resistant
varieties. Embracing a single tactic to control a specific
organism does not constitute IPM, even if the tactic is an
essential element of the IPM system. Integration of multiple
pest suppression techniques has the highest probability of
sustaining long-term crop protection. Pesticides may be
used to remove/prevent the target organism, but only when
assessment with the help of monitoring and scouting indicates that they are needed to prevent economic damage. Pest
control tactics, including pesticides, are carefully selected
and applied to minimize risks to the human health, beneficial and non-target organisms, and environment (Dhawan
and Peshin 2009).
In the context of crop protection, sustainability refers to
the substitution of chemicals and capital with farm-grown
biological inputs and knowledge, aimed at reduction in the
cost of production without lowering the yields. Sustainability builds on the current agricultural achievements, adopting
a sophisticated approach that can maintain high yields and
farm profits without degrading the resources. Sustainable
agriculture is a reality based on the human goals and on the
understanding of the long-term impact of human activities
on the environment and on other species. This philosophy
combines the application of prior experience and the latest
scientific advancements to create integrated, resourceconserving, equitable farming systems. The systems
approach minimizes environmental degradation, sustains

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agricultural productivity, promotes economic viability in

both the short and long run, and maintains quality of the
life (Francis and Youngberg 1990). Sustainable farming
practices commonly include:
&

&

&
&

Crop rotations that mitigate weeds, disease, insect and

other pest problems; provide alternative sources of soil
nitrogen; reduce soil erosion and risk of water contamination by agricultural chemicals
Pest control strategies include integrated pest management techniques that reduce the need for pesticides by
practices such as scouting/monitoring, use of resistant
cultivars, timing of planting and biological pest controls
Increased mechanical/biological weed control, more soil
and water conservation practices, and strategic use of
green manures
Use of natural or synthetic inputs in a way that poses no
significant hazard to humans or the environment.

Evolutionary trends and limitations in chemical-based

pest management
Until the beginning of the twentieth century, farmers relied
exclusively on cultural practices such as crop rotation,
healthy crop variety, manipulations in sowing dates, etc. to
manage the insect pests. Use of pesticides although began in
the 1870s with the development of arsenical and copperbased insecticides. Discovery of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroacetic acid (DDT) having pesticidal properties during the
World War II revolutionized the pest control. DDT was
effective at low concentration against almost all insect species, less expensive and supposed to be harmless to the
human beings, animals and plants (Davies et al. 2007).
Therefore, farmers were amazed with its effectiveness and
started to use it increasingly particularly during the green
revolution era. As a result of increasing demand, the
pesticide industry rapidly expanded its research towards
development of synthetic organic insecticides and other
chemicals controlling the pests. The negative externalities
of chemical pesticides, however, started emerging soon after
the introduction of DDT. Producers then turned to the more
recently developed, and much more toxic, organophosphates and pyretheroid insecticides, which resulted in the
development of resistant strains. Most of the pesticides were
originally based on the toxic heavy metals such as arsenic,
mercury, lead and copper (Davies et al. 2007).
Pesticides often kill the natural enemies along with the
pests. With natural enemies eliminated, it was difficult to
prevent recovered pest populations from exploding to higher
and more damaging levels and often developing resistance
to chemical pesticides. Initially the benefits from pest control were not huge due to use in low amount. Very soon

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DDT became popularits use was increased enormously

which resulted in the increase in yields, but on the other
hand, their adverse effects on the environment and human
health also soon became apparent. During the early 1960s,
the public concerns about these effects were galvanized by
Rachel Carson in her classic Silent Spring, published in
1962 (Dhawan and Peshin 2009).
Indiscriminate, excessive and continuous use of pesticides creates a powerful selection pressure for altering the
genetic make-up of the pests. Naturally resistant individuals
in a pest population were able to survive onslaughts of the
pesticides, and the survivors could pass on the resistance
traits to their generations. This resulted in a much higher
percentage pest population being resistant to pesticides
(Biyela et al. 2004; Levy 2002). The number of weed
species resistant to herbicides was estimated to be 270,
and plant pathogens resistant to fungicides were 150. Resistance to insecticides was common, and more than 500 insect
species have acquired resistance to the pesticides. Due to
these limitations of chemical pesticides and their hazardous
effects on human beings, animals and on fields like loss of
fertility due to its excess use and killing of beneficial soil
microflora, researchers turned towards the search of new
potential agents against insect pest having minimum or no
side effects.

Biological control of insect pests

Natural enemies of insect pests play a key role in reducing the
levels of pest populations below those causing economic
injury. Both natural and applied biological control tactics are
important in successful management of pest populations. Biological control has the advantage of being self-perpetuating
once established and usually does not harm non-target organisms found in the environment. In addition, it is non-polluting
or as disruptive to the environment as chemical pesticides, nor
does it leave residues on food, a concern of many people
today. However, the use of biological control does require
detailed knowledge of the pests biology and the natural
enemies associated with the pest and their impact.
Many biological agents have been used for the biocontrol
of insect pests, but only bacteria and fungi are most important. Bacteria used for biological control infect insects via
their digestive tracts. Bacillus thuringiensis is the most
widely applied species of bacteria used for biological control of lepidopteran (moth, butterfly), coleopteran (beetle)
and dipteran (true flies, Frederick and Caesar 2000).
Fungi that cause disease or infection in insects are known
as entomopathogenic fungi, including at least 14 species of
entomophthoraceous fungi attack aphids. Species of the
genus Trichoderma are used to manage some soil-borne
plant pathogens. Beauveria bassiana is used to manage

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different types of pest such whiteflies, thrips, aphids and

weevils (Thungrabeab and Tongma 2007). Some examples
of entomopathogenic fungi are:
&
&
&
&
&

B. bassianaused against white flies, thrips, aphids and

weevils;
Paecilomyces fumosoroseusused against white flies,
thrips and aphids;
Metarhizium sp.used against beetles, locusts, Hemiptera,
spider mites and other pests;
Lecanicillium lecaniiused against white flies, thrips
and aphids and
Cordyceps speciesused against wide spectrum of
arthropods.

Management of insect-pests using nanotechnology:

as modern approaches
The above-mentioned limitations and less efficiency of traditional methods lead to the development of new and modern approaches for management of insect pest which is the
need of hour. Keeping in the mind the applications of
nanotechnology in agriculture, it can be suggested that the
use of nanomaterials will result in the development of efficient and potential approaches for the management of insect
pest in agriculture. Literature available on this topic bring to
close conclusion that only few researchers all over the world
are working in this area, and hence, there is a pressing need
to apply nanotechnology and thus warrants detailed study.
The research studies carried out related to management of
insect pest have been reviewed here, which can be used as
an efficient and potential modern approach.
Previous studies confirmed that metal nanoparticles are
effective against plants pathogens, insects and pests. Hence,
nanoparticles can be used in the preparation of new formulations like pesticides, insecticides and insect repellants
(Barik et al. 2008; Gajbhiye et al. 2009; Goswami et al.
2010; Owolade et al. 2008). Torney (2009) reviewed that
nanotechnology has promising applications in nanoparticlemediated gene (DNA) transfer. It can be used to deliver
DNA and other desired chemicals into plant tissues for
protection of host plants against insect pests.
Porous hollow silica nanoparticles (PHSNs) loaded with
validamycin (pesticide) can be used as efficient delivery
system of water-soluble pesticide for its controlled release.
Such controlled release behaviour of PHSNs makes it a
promising carrier in agriculture, especially for pesticide
controlled delivery whose immediate as well as prolonged
release is needed for plants (Liu et al. 2006). According to
Wang et al. (2007), oil in water (nano-emulsions) was useful
for the formulations of pesticides and these could be effective against the various insect pests in agriculture. Similarly,

essential oil-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles were also useful for the formulations of nano-pesticides (Liu et al. 2006).
Nano-silica, a type of unique nanomaterial, is prepared
from silica. It has many applications in medicine and drug
development as catalyst and most importantly is that it can
be used as nano-pesticide. Barik et al. (2008) reviewed the
use of nano-silica as nano-pesticide. The mechanism of
control of insect pest using nano-silica is based on the fact
that insect pests used a variety of cuticular lipids for protecting their water barrier and thereby prevent death from desiccation. But nano-silica gets absorbed into the cuticular
lipids by physiosorption and thereby cause death of insects
purely by physical means when applied on leaves and stem
surface. Surface charged modified hydrophobic nano-silica
(35 nm) could be successfully used to control a range of
agricultural insect pests and animal ectoparasites of veterinary importance (Ulrichs et al. 2005).
Yang et al. (2009) demonstrated the insecticidal activity
of polyethylene glycol-coated nanoparticles loaded with
garlic essential oil against adult Tribolium castaneum insect
found in stored products. It has been observed that the
control efficacy against adult T. castaneum was about 80
%, presumably due to the slow and persistent release of the
active components from the nanoparticles.
Goswami et al. (2010) studied the applications of different kind of nanoparticles viz. silver nanoparticles (SNP),
aluminium oxide (ANP), zinc oxide and titanium dioxide
in the control of rice weevil and grasserie disease in silkworm (Bombyx mori) caused by Sitophilus oryzae and baculovirus BmNPV (B. mori nuclear polyhedrosis virus),
respectively. In their study they performed bioassay, in
which they prepared solid and liquid formulations of the
above-mentioned nanoparticles; later, they applied these
formulations on rice and kept in a plastic box with 20 adults
of S. oryzae and observed the effects for 7 days. It was
reported that hydrophilic SNP was most effective on the
first day. On day 2, more than 90 % mortality was obtained
with SNP and ANP. After 7 days of exposure, 95 and 86 %
mortality were reported with hydrophilic and hydrophobic
SNP and nearly 70 % of the insects were killed when the rice
was treated with lipophilic SNP. However, 100 % mortality
was observed in case of ANP. Similarly, in another bioassay
carried for grasserie disease in silkworm (B. mori), a significant decrease in viral load was reported when leaves of B.
mori were treated with ethanolic suspension of hydrophobic
alumino-silicate nanoparticles (Goswami et al. 2010).
Bhattacharyya et al. (2010) reviewed that nanotechnology will revolutionize agriculture including pest management
in the near future. It is also forecasted that over the next two
decades, the green revolution would be accelerated by
means of nanotechnology. One of the examples of this
technology is nano-encapsulation. It is currently used as
the most important and promising approach for protection

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of host plants against insect pests. Nano-encapsulation

includes the use of a different kind of nanoparticles with
insecticide. In this process a chemical such as an insecticide
is slowly but efficiently released to a particular host plant for
insect pest control. Nano-encapsulation with nanoparticles
in form of pesticide allows for proper absorption of the
chemical into the plants unlike the case of larger particles
(Scrinis and Lyons 2007).
Teodoro et al. (2010) for the first time studied the insecticidal activity of nanostructured alumina against two insect
pests viz. S. oryzae L. and Rhyzopertha dominica (F.), which
are major insect pests in stored food supplies throughout the
world. They reported significant mortality after 3 days of
continuous exposure to nanostructured alumina-treated wheat.
Therefore, as compared to commercially available insecticides, inorganic nanostructured alumina may provide a cheap
and reliable alternative for control of insect pests, and such
studies may expand the frontiers for nanoparticle-based
technologies in pest management.

Other applications of nanotechnology in the field

of agriculture
Nanotechnology has the potential to revolutionize the different sectors of the agricultural and food industry with
modern tools for the treatment of diseases, rapid disease
detection, enhancing the ability of plants to absorb nutrients,
etc. Smart sensors and smart delivery systems will help the
agricultural industry combat viruses and other crop pathogens (Rickman et al. 1999). In the near future, nano-based
catalysts will be available which will increase the efficiency
of pesticides and herbicides, allowing lower doses to be
used. Nanotechnology will also protect the environment
indirectly through the use of alternative (renewable) energy
supplies, and filters or catalysts to reduce pollution and
clean up existing pollutants (Tungittiplakorn et al. 2005).
Recently, Bhattacharyya et al. (2011) reviewed applications
of nanotechnology in different fields like nano-food, nanofood packaging and nano-farming and also emphasized on
nanoparticles and their effects on ecological balance.
Precision farming
Precision farming has been a long-desired goal to maximize
output (i.e. crop yields) while minimizing input (i.e. fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, etc.) through monitoring environmental variables and applying targeted action. Precision
farming makes use of computers, global satellite positioning
systems and remote sensing devices to measure highly localized environmental conditions, thus determining whether
crops are growing at maximum efficiency or precisely identifying the nature and location of problems. Precision

291

farming can also help to reduce agricultural waste and thus

keep environmental pollution to a minimum. Although not
fully implemented yet, tiny sensors and monitoring systems
enabled by nanotechnology will have a large impact on
future precision farming methodologies. Ultimately, precision farming, with the help of smart sensors, will allow
enhanced productivity in agriculture by providing accurate
information, thus helping farmers to make better decisions
(Cioffi et al. 2004).
Nanomaterials: antimicrobial agents for plant pathogens
Antimicrobial activity of different metal nanoparticles particularly copper and silver nanoparticles has been investigated by some researchers against the plant pathogens.
Cioffi et al. (2004) reported the antifungal activity of
polymer-based copper nanocomposite against plant pathogenic fungi. Park et al. (2006) studied the efficacy of nanosized silicasilver (silicasilver nanoparticles) in the control
of plant pathogenic fungi viz. Botrytis cinerea, Rhizoctonia
solani, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Magnaporthe grisea and Pythium ultimum. They also demonstrated the effect
of nano-based product prepared from these nanoparticles
against the powdery mildew disease of pumpkin and found
that the disease-causing pathogens were disappeared from
the infected leaves within 3 days of spraying of this product.
Kim et al. (2009) investigated the antifungal activity of
three different types of silver nanoparticles against the fungus Raffaelea sp., which was responsible for the mortality of
a large number of oak trees in Korea. Growth of fungi in the
presence of silver nanoparticles was significantly inhibited.
Effectiveness of combination of different forms of nanoparticles was also studied. It was found that silver nanoparticles caused detrimental effect not only on fungal
hyphae but also on conidial germination. Copper nanoparticles in soda lime glass powder showed efficient antimicrobial activity against gram-positive, gram-negative bacteria
and fungi (Esteban-Tejeda et al. 2009). According to Jo et
al. (2009), silver nanoparticles were effective against plant
pathogenic fungi like B. sorokiniana and M. grisea. Similarly, Gajbhiye et al. (2009) reported the antifungal activity
of silver nanoparticles against most important plant pathogenic fungi like Fusarium, Phoma, etc.
Nano-pesticides, nanofungicides and nanoherbicides are
being used in agriculture (Owolade et al. 2008). Many
companies made formulations which contain nanoparticles
within the 100250-nm size range that are able to dissolve
in water more effectively than existing ones (thus increasing
their activity). Some other companies employ suspensions
of nanoscale particles (nano-emulsions), which can be either
water or oil based and contain uniform suspensions of
pesticidal or herbicidal nanoparticles in the range of 200
400 nm, which have multiple applications for preventative

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measures, treatment or preservation of the harvested product

(Goswami et al. 2010; Rickman et al. 1999). Apart from
these important applications, nanotechnology can be used in
sectors like food packaging, gene transfer for crop improvement, nano-food, etc. (Bhattacharyya et al. 2011, Fig. 1).
In the future, nanoscale devices with novel properties
could be used to make agricultural systems smart. For
example, devices could be used to identify plant health
issues before these become visible to the farmer. Such
devices may be capable of responding to different situations
by taking appropriate remedial action.
Agriculture is the backbone of most developing
countries, with more than 60 % of the population reliant
on it for their livelihood and also for developing improved
systems for monitoring environmental conditions and delivering nutrients or pesticides as appropriate; nanotechnology
can improve our understanding of the biology of different
crops and thus potentially enhances yields or nutritional
values. In addition, it can offer routes to added value crops
or environmental remediation.

al. 2008). Many of these nanoparticles have a fairly short

lifespan because they tend to agglomerate or dissolve in
water. In addition, the human body has developed various
mechanisms for filtering out or removing some of these
particles (Lin 2007).
The effects of exposure to engineered nanoparticles may
be different from the effects caused by naturally occurring
nanoparticles. Engineered nanoparticles may be better able
to evade the bodys defenses because of their size or protective coatings. Moreover, the health and environmental
risks raised due to the exposure to engineered nanoparticles
need further study. At present, research efforts in nanotoxicology are just beginning, and less than 4 % of all current
U.S. governmental research expenditures on nanotechnology are targeted at studying effects on human health and the
environment (Lin 2007). Again the potential environmental
impacts of exposure to nanomaterials are even less well
understood than the human health effects. Therefore, extensive
studies are required to understand the mechanism for nanomaterials toxicity and their impacts on natural environment.

Regulatory demands in nanotechnology

Conclusion

In a general sense, exposure to nanoparticles is not a new

problem. Human beings have been exposed to nano-sized
particles since immemorial time to the natural sources of
nanoparticles such as forest fires and anthropogenic sources
such as industrial pollution. Recently, it has been proved
that Bhasmas used in Ayurveda and homeopathic medicines are present in the form of nanoparticles (Bhowmick et

Nanotechnology has the potential to revolutionize the existing technologies used in various sectors including agriculture. Nanotechnology may have concrete solutions against
many agriculture-related problems like insect pest management using traditional methods, adverse effects of chemical
pesticides, development of improved crop varieties, etc.
Nanomaterials in different forms can be used for efficient

Fig. 1 Applications of
nanotechnology in different
fields of agriculture

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Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2012) 94:287293

management of insect pests and formulations of potential

insecticides and pesticides. Nanoparticle-mediated gene transfer would be useful for the development of new insect resistant
varieties. Therefore, it can also be concluded that nanotechnology can provide green and eco-friendly alternatives for
insect pest management without harming the nature.

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