Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Seminar Report
On
DURABILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURE AND
CORROSION MECHANISM
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement of degree of Bachelor of
Technology
In
Civil Engineering
2015-2016
Submitted To:
Submitted By:
12EVVCE090
CERTIFICATE
Submitted To:
Submitted By:
12EVVCE090
Date:
2
Place:
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is great pleasure for me to express my gratitude to Mr. Pradeep Kumar Jain (lecturer)
and all the members of civil department who had cooperated with me in Seminar report. I would
sincerely thank all the teachers & technician for their valuable guidance and cooperation which
helped us to gather the precious knowledge during my report. I thank them from the bottom of
my heart for devoting their precious time for me. My sincere thanks again to Mr. Pradeep
Kumar Jain (lecturer) for providing me wonderful seminar topic and for guiding me to draft
my seminar report.
This work of this magnitude could not have been accomplished without the valuable inputs of
Dr. BHAVNA TRIPATHI for providing all necessary help for this seminar work.
ABSTRACT
For a long time concrete was considered to be very durable material requiring a little or no
maintenance. The assumption is largely true, except when it is subjected to highly aggressive
environment. We forms concrete structures in highly polluted urban and industrial areas,
aggressive marine environments, harmful coastal areas and many other hostile conditions where
other materials of construction are found to be non durable.
The durability of concrete as a construction material and the durability of reinforced concrete
structures under different environmental conditions are probably the least understood attributes of
concrete. No simple theory applies and only incremental advancement based on experiences gained
through practice can be achieved. This paper addresses this issue, with particular emphasis on the
possible improvement of durability through better concrete mix design (or more specifically use of
high-performance concrete), more careful crack control, use of corrosion inhibitors and use of
protective coatings.
Reinforced concrete uses steel to provide the tensile properties that are needed in structural concrete.
It prevents the failure of concrete structures which are subjected to tensile and flexural stresses due to
traffic, winds, dead loads, and thermal cycling. However, when reinforcement corrodes, the
formation of rust leads to a loss of bond between the steel and the concrete and subsequently
delaminating and spalling. If left unchecked, the integrity of the structure can be affected. Reduction
in the cross sectional area of steel reduces its strength capacity.
Key words:
inhibitors.
LIST OF FIGURES
S.NO.
FIGURE NUMBER
DESCRIPTION
PAGE NO.
1.
1.1
CORROSION OF REINFORCEMENT
2.
2.1
CONSEQUENCES OF CORROSION
18
3.1
TYPES OF AGGREGATES
20
4.
3.2
CARBONATION
22
5.
3.3
CRACKS IN CONCRETE
23
6.
3.4
24
7.
3.5
25
8.
3.6
31
LIST OF SYMBOLS
S.NO.
SYMBOL
DESCRIPTION
W/C
20
CH
CALCIUM HYDRATE
29
CSH
29
PAGE NO.
D0
DEPTH OF CARBONATION
30
COEFFICIENT OF CARBONATION
30
TIME OF EXPOSURE
30
INDEX
CONTENT
PAGE NO.
CERTIFICATE
ACKNOWLDGEMENT
ABSTRACT
LIST OF FIGURE
LIST OF SYMBOLS
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
8-12
1.1 DURABILITY
1.3 CORROSION
10
13-18
2.1 HISTORY
13
17
19-34
19
19
26
27
27
29
34-42
34
36
40
41
43
REFERENCES
44
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 DURABILITY
The durability of a cement concrete structure is defined as its ability to resist weathering action,
chemical attack, abrasion, or any other process of deterioration. Durable concrete will retain its
original form, quality and serviceability when exposed to its environment.
1.2 IN GENERAL
The durability of a structure is its ability to serve its intended purposes for a sufficiently long period
of time, or at least during its expected service life. However, although a durable structure is expected
to serve without deterioration to the extent that major repair is required before expiry of its design
life, it must not be presumed that durability is a substitution for good maintenance. Even for a
structure that has been designed and constructed to a high durability standard, regular inspection and
routine maintenance to restore the fitness for purpose of the structure are needed. Hence, when we
come to the durability design of a structure, we must bear in mind the future need for maintenance
and take into account the cost of maintenance in the life cycle cost analysis of the structure.
A reinforced concrete structure may deteriorate because of deterioration of the concrete itself
or because of corrosion of the steel reinforcing bars inside the concrete. Common causes of the
deterioration of concrete include alkali-aggregate reaction, chemical attack, freezing and thawing
action, abrasion and fire. There is often the misunderstanding that carbonation and chloride attack
would cause deterioration of concrete. In actual fact, carbonation and chloride attack would not cause
any harm to the concrete itself; they mainly cause de-passivation of the steel in concrete, which then
leads to steel corrosion. Deterioration of concrete is not a common problem. In most cases, if there is
any problem with the durability of a concrete structure, it is the corrosion of the steel reinforcing bars
that is most likely to be the major cause. This paper focuses on the durability of reinforced concrete
structures in relation to corrosion of steel reinforcement.
The corrosion of steel is an electro-chemical reaction, similar to what is happening in a galvanic cell
(i.e. a battery). When there exists a difference in electrical potential along the steel bar in concrete, an
electro-chemical cell is set up: there form anodic and cathodic regions, connected by the electrolyte
in the form of pore water in the hardened cement paste. The positively charged ferrous ions Fe
++
at
the anode pass into the pore solution while the negatively charged free electron e pass through the
steel into the cathode where they are absorbed by the constituents of the electrolyte and combine with
10
water and oxygen to form hydroxyl ions (OH) . These travel through the electrolyte and combine
with the ferrous ions to form ferrous hydroxide, which is converted by further oxidation to rust. The
electro-chemical reactions involved are as follows:
Anodic reactions:
++
Fe Fe + 2 e
++
It can be seen that oxygen is consumed and water is needed for the process to continue. There is no
corrosion in dry concrete probably below a relative humidity of 60% nor is there corrosion in
concrete fully immersed in water, except when water can entrain air, for example by wave action.
The optimum relative humidity for corrosion is 70 to 80%. At higher relative humilities, the diffusion
of oxygen through the concrete is considerably reduced. The differences in electro-chemical potential
can arise from differences in the environment of the concrete, for example when a part of it is
permanently submerged in sea water and a part is exposed to periodic wetting and drying. A similar
situation can arise when there is a substantial difference in the thickness of cover to the steel.
Fortunately, even with a continuous supply of oxygen and water, the steel in concrete does
not necessarily corrode. The concrete cover protects the steel from corrosion not just by hindering the
ingress of deleterious fluids but also by means of passivation. steel embedded in hydrating cement
paste rapidly forms a thin passivating layer of oxide, which strongly adheres to the underlying steel
and gives it complete protection from reaction with oxygen and water, i.e., from corrosion. This state
11
However, there is everywhere carbon dioxide, i.e.(CO 2). CO2, in the air. Carbon dioxide
reacts with moisture to form carbonic acid, which then reacts with the lime in the pore water of
concrete to form calcium carbonate, a neutral product. This is called carbonation. As a result, the
alkalinity of the concrete gradually drops and once the pH is reduced to below around 10, the
passivation protection to the steel will be gone and if there is oxygen and water, the steel will start to
corrode.
Apart from carbon dioxide, chloride ions may also destroy the protective passivity layer on
the surface of embedded steel thereby causing de-passivation. Chloride ions activate the surface of
the steel to form an anode, the passivated surface being the cathode. The reactions involved are as
follows:
++
Thus, the chloride ion Cl is regenerated so that the rust contains no chloride, although ferrous
chloride is formed at the intermediate stage.
Rust has a lower density than steel. Hence, as corrosion takes place, the volume increases and
since the expansion is restrained by the surrounding concrete, bursting stresses are induced, resulting
12
in cracking, spalling or delamination of the concrete cover. This makes it easier for aggressive agents
to ingress towards the steel, with a subsequent increase in the rate of corrosion. In other words, once
corrosion starts, it will accelerate.
2.1 HISTORY
Franois Coignet was a French industrialist of the nineteenth century, a pioneer in the
development of structural, prefabricated and reinforced concrete. Coignet was the first to use
iron-reinforced concrete as a technique for constructing building structures. In 1853 Coignet uilt
the first iron reinforced concrete structure, a four story house at 72 rue Charles Michels in the
13
suburbs of Paris.Coignet's descriptions of reinforcing concrete suggests that he did not do it for
means of adding strength to the concrete but for keeping walls in monolithic construction from
overturning
. In 1854, English builder William B. Wilkinson reinforced the concrete roof and floors in the
two-storey house he was constructing. His positioning of the reinforcement demonstrated that,
unlike his predecessors, he had knowledge of tensile stresses
Joseph Monier, a French gardener and known to be one of the principal inventors of reinforced
concrete, was granted a patent for reinforced flowerpots by means of mixing a wire mesh to a
mortar shell. In 1877, Monier was granted another patent for a more advanced technique of
reinforcing concrete columns and girders with iron rods placed in a grid pattern. Though Monier
undoubtedly knew reinforcing concrete would improve its inner cohesion, it is less known if he
even knew how much reinforcing actually improved concrete's tensile strength.
Before 1877 the use of concrete construction, though dating back to the Roman Empire and
reintroduced in the mid to late 1800s, was not yet a proven scientific technology.
American New Yorker Thaddeus Hyatt published a report titled An Account of Some
Experiments with Portland-Cement-Concrete Combined with Iron as a Building Material.
14
G. A. Wayss was a German civil engineer and a pioneer of the iron and steel concrete
construction. In 1879 Wayss bought the German rights to Monier's patents and in 1884 started
the first commercial use for reinforced concrete in his firm Wayss & Freytag. Up until the 1890s
Wayss and his firm greatly contributed to the advancement of Monier's system of reinforcing and
established it as a well-developed scientific technology.
Ernest L. Ransome was an English-born engineer and early innovator of the reinforced concrete
techniques in the end of the 19th century. With the knowledge of reinforced concrete developed
during the previous 50 years, Ransome innovated nearly all styles and techniques of the previous
known inventors of reinforced concrete. Ransome's key innovation was to twist the reinforcing
steel bar improving bonding with the concrete. Gaining increasing fame from his concrete
constructed buildings Ransome was able to build two of the first reinforced concrete bridges in
North America.One of the first concrete buildings constructed in the United States, was a private
home, designed by William Ward in 1871. The home was designed to be fireproof for his wife.
One of the first skyscrapers made with reinforced concrete was the 16-storey Ingalls Building in
Cincinnati, constructed in 1904
Three physical characteristics give reinforced concrete its special properties:
1.The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete is similar to that of steel, eliminating large
internal stresses due to differences in thermal expansion or contraction.
2.When the cement paste within the concrete hardens, this conforms to the surface details of the
steel, permitting any stress to be transmitted efficiently between the different materials. Usually
steel bars are roughened or corrugated to further improve the bond or cohesion between the
concrete and steel.
15
3.The alkaline chemical environment provided by the alkali reserve (KOH, NaOH) and
the portlandite (calcium hydroxide) contained in the hardened cement paste causes
apassivating film to form on the surface of the steel, making it much more resistant
to corrosion than it would be in neutral or acidic conditions. When the cement paste is exposed to
the air and meteoric water reacts with the atmospheric CO 2, portlandite and the Calcium Silicate
Hydrate (CSH) of the hardened cement paste become progressively carbonated and the high pH
gradually decreases from 13.5 12.5 to 8.5, the pH of water in equilibrium with calcite (calcium
carbonate) and the steel is no longer passivated. As a rule of thumb, only to give an idea on
orders of magnitude, steel is protected at pH above ~11 but starts to corrode below ~10
depending on steel characteristics and local physico-chemical conditions when concrete becomes
carbonated. Carbonatation of concrete along with chloride ingress are amongst the chief reasons
for the failure of reinforcement bars in concrete. The relative cross-sectional area of steel
required for typical reinforced concrete is usually quite small and varies from 1% for most beams
and slabs to 6% for some columns.Reinforcing bars are normally round in cross-section and vary
in diameter. Reinforced concrete structures sometimes have provisions such as ventilated hollow
cores to control teir moisture & humidity.Distribution of concrete (in spite of reinforcement)
strength characteristics along the cross-section of vertical reinforced concrete elements is
inhomogeneous.Mechanism of composite action of reinforcement and concreteA heavy
reinforced concrete column, seen before and after the concrete has been cast in place around the
rebar cage.The reinforcement in a RC structure, such as a steel bar, has to undergo the same
strain or deformation as the surrounding concrete in order to prevent discontinuity, slip or
separation of the two materials under load. Maintaining composite action requires transfer of
load between the concrete and steel. The direct stress is transferred from the concrete to the bar
16
interface so as to change the tensile stress in the reinforcing bar along its length, this load transfer
is achieved by means of bond (anchorage) and is idealized as a continuous stress field that
develops in the vicinity of the steel-concrete interface.
Anchorage (bond) in concrete: Codes of specifications
Because the actual bond stress varies along the length of a bar anchored in a zone of tension,
current international codes of specifications use the concept of development length rather than
bond stress. The main requirement for safety against bond failure is to provide a sufficient
extension of the length of the bar beyond the point where the steel is required to develop its yield
stress and this length must be at least equal to its development length. However, if the actual
available length is inadequate for full development, special anchorages must be provided, such as
cogs or hooks or mechanical end plates. The same concept applies to lap splice length mentioned
in the codes where splices (overlapping) provided between two adjacent bars in order to maintain
the required continuity of stress in the splice zone.
Corrosion inhibitors, such as calcium nitrite [Ca(NO2)2], can also be added to the water mix
before pouring concrete. Generally, 12 wt. % of [Ca(NO2)2] with respect to cement weight is
needed to prevent corrosion of the rebars. The nitrite anion is a mild oxidizer that oxidizes the
soluble and mobile ferrous ions (Fe2+) present at the surface of the corroding steel and causes
them to precipitate as an insoluble ferric hydroxide (Fe(OH)3). This causes the passivation of
steel at the anodic oxidation sites. Nitrite is a much more active corrosion inhibitor than nitrate,
which is a less powerful oxidizer of the divalent iron.
17
18
19
Chapter 3
RESEARCH AND METHODOLOGY
3.1 Factors affecting durability of structure and responsible for the
deterioration of the structure
Disintegration of concrete and corrosion of reinforcement is the sign of deterioration of concrete
structure. Many researchers have identified, after laboratory investigation and extensive studies
on existing concrete structures, a number of factors affecting the deterioration of reinforced
concrete in such an aggressive environment. The factors may be as follows:
1, improper design of the structure
2, bad detailing of the structure
3, poor material quality
4, bad construction practice
5, accidental loading on the structure
6, aggressive environment
20
that normal weight concrete subjected to freezing and thawing in a moist condition should have
a maximum W/C ratio of:
- 0.45 in case of curbs, gutter, guard rail or their sections and
- 0.50 for other elements.
4) Cement Type
The resistance of concrete against the action of various aggressive agencies depends to a great
extent on the type and proportion of cement. Ordinary Portland and pozzolana and sulfate
resisting cement are the various types mainly used in marine concrete construction. Various
researchers assessed the performance of these cements individually by either exposing the mortar
and concrete specimens in the seawater or in its constituent salt solution, to study their strength
and durability characteristics.
5) Air Entrainment
Harden concrete containing entrained air is more uniform, has less absorption and permeability
and is more resistant to the action of freezing and thawing. Normally, about 4-6% of air by
volume of concrete is entrained which is dispersed throughout, the concrete in the form of
minute, disconnect bubble. It has been reported that the amount of entrained air necessary for
imparting the highest resistance to concrete to frost action in the seawater is in the range of 1020% which is more then twice as large as concrete with 3-6% air entrained when exposed to
plain water in similar environment. However, the amount of air entrained 10-20% reduces the
compressive strength of concrete to about one-half of the strength without air entrainment.
22
6) Carbonation Process
The hydrated concrete has a tendency of combining with carbon dioxide, CO2present in the
atmosphere and forming carbonates, which partly neutralizes the alkaline nature of concrete.
This process is known as carbonation. When carbonation depth exceeds depth of cover to the
reinforcement, the salt ions find a suitable environment leading to greater corrosion.
24
8) Age of Immersion
The age of immersion also referred to, as period of procuring is the time duration of concrete
commencing immediately after casting up to the formal curing. In a marine environment,
procuring of concrete can be done with either sea water of fresh water. The dissolved salts start
reaching with the concrete affecting its rate of gain in strength when procuring is done with
seawater.
25
26
13) Compaction
The concrete as a whole contain voids can be caused by inadequate
compaction. Usually it is being governed by the compaction equipments
used, type of formworks, and density of the steelwork.
14) Chloride Resistance and Steel Corrosion:
Chloride present in plain concrete that does not contain steel is generally not a durability
concern. Concrete protects embedded steel from corrosion through its highly alkaline nature. The
high pH environment in concrete (usually greater than 12.5) causes a passive and noncorroding
protective oxide film to form on steel. However, the presence of chloride ions from deicers or
seawater can destroy or penetrate the film. Once the chloride corrosion threshold is reached, an
electric cell is formed along the steel or between steel bars and the electrochemical process of
carrionsbegins.
15) Curing
It is very important to permit proper strength development aid moisture
retention and to ensure hydration process occur completely.
27
17) Permeability
It is considered the most important factor for durability. It can be noticed that
higher permeability is usually caused by higher porosity .Therefore, a proper
curing, sufficient cement, proper compaction and suitable concrete cover
could provide a low permeability concrete
2.
3.
1.
2.
Sulphate Attack
Sulfate attack is a chemical breakdown mechanism where sulfate ions attack components of the cement
paste. The compounds responsible for sulfate attack are water-soluble sulfate-containing salts, such as
alkali-earth (calcium, magnesium) and alkali (sodium, potassium) sulfates.
29
Chloride Ingress
Chloride attack is particularly important aspect of durability as it primarily cause the corrosion of
the reinforcement. Statistics have indicated that over 40% of failure of structures is indirectly due
to chloride attack or corrosion of reinforcement.
4.
Corrosion of reinforcement
30
b.
Extreme Temperature
c.
Extreme Humidity
d.
Abrasion
2. Internal Causes
a) Physical
Volume change due to difference in thermal properties of aggregates and cement paste
Frost Action
b) Chemical
Alkali Carbonate Reaction
31
Carbonation, i.e. the reaction of the alkalis in concrete with the carbon dioxide in air, does not cause
deterioration of concrete but it has important effects on the durability of reinforced concrete
structures. It gradually reduces the alkalinity of concrete to a pH value of about 9 and once the pH of
the concrete surrounding the steel drops to below 10, the steel will become de-passivated and if water
and oxygen are available the steel will start to corrode.
Carbonation takes place even at small CO 2 concentrations such as are present in rural air,
where the CO2 content is about 0.03%. In an unventilated room, the content may rise to above 0.1%.
In large cities it is on average 0.3% and exceptionally up to 1%. The highest concentration of CO 2 is
probably encountered by the lining of vehicle tunnels. Carbonation occurs progressively from the
outside of concrete exposed to CO 2 but does so at a decreasing rate because CO 2 has to diffuse
through the pore system, including the already carbonated surface zone of concrete. Such diffusion is
a slow process if the pores in hydrated cement paste are filled with water because diffusion of CO 2 in
water is 4 orders of magnitude slower than in air. On the other hand, if there is insufficient water in
the pores, CO2 remains in gaseous form and does not react with the hydrated cement. It follows that
the rate of carbonation depends on the moisture content of the concrete.
The highest rate of carbonation occurs at a relative humidity of around 70% (very close to the yearly
average ambient relative humidity of Hong Kong). Under steady conditions, the depth of carbonation
increases in proportion to the square root of time, as depicted by the following equation:
dc = Ct
Apart from the environmental conditions, the carbonation coefficient is dependent mainly on the
quality, particularly the diffusivity, of concrete. Broadly speaking, in concrete with a W/C ratio of
0.6, a depth of carbonation of 15 mm would be reached after 15 years, but in concrete with a W/C
ratio of 0.45, the same depth of carbonation would not be reached until after 100 years.
32
Since the diffusivity is a function of the pore system of the hardened cement paste, the type of
cement, the W/C ratio and the degree of hydration are the relevant factors influencing carbonation.
As these factors influence also the strength of concrete, it is often said that the rate of carbonation
may be simply taken as a function of the strength grade of concrete. Whilst this postulation applies
quite satisfactorily to laboratory cured concrete, in field cast concrete, which is usually provided with
33
less than ideal curing, the curing conditions also have great effects on the rate of carbonation.
34
35
With mineral admixtures (also called supplementary cementitious materials), such as pulverized fuel
ash (PFA) and condensed silica fume (CSF), added to the concrete mix, the contents and dosages of
mineral admixtures also have significant effects on the rate of carbonation. Mineral admixtures are
basically pozzolanic materials, which can react with Ca(OH) 2 to produce gel in the cement paste.
Consequently, a concrete containing mineral admixtures will have a lower Ca(OH) 2 content in the
hardened cement paste so that a smaller amount of CO 2 is required to carbonate all the Ca(OH)2 and
the depth of carbonation will tend to increase at a faster rate. On the other hand, however, the
addition of mineral admixtures generally results in a denser microstructure of the hardened cement
paste so that its diffusivity is reduced and the depth of carbonation will tend to increase at a slower
rate. The question is: which of the above two opposing effects is dominant? Conflicting test results
have been obtained by different researchers and according to Neville (Properties of Concrete, 4
th
Edition, 1995), the key factor is the quality of curing. Since the pozzolanic reaction of mineral
admixtures is generally slower than the hydration reaction of cement, concrete mixes incorporating
mineral admixtures generally require longer periods of curing but the required curing was not always
provided in previous tests thereby leading to misleading test results. No general conclusion can be
made. But for concrete with up to 30% PFA added and with actual strength higher than 35 MPa, there
should be no increase, or only a marginal increase, in depth of carbonation compared to that of
concrete containing no PFA, if adequate curing has been provided. However, if the required
prolonged curing has not been provided, the carbonation resistance of concrete containing PFA could
be worst.
Like carbonation, chloride attack does not harm the concrete. Chlorides lead to corrosion of
steel inside concrete and it is the corrosion that causes deterioration of reinforced concrete structures.
There are two possible sources of chlorides: internal from the ingredients of the concrete mix and
36
external from the environment. The use of ingredients containing chlorides for concrete is nowadays
severely restricted and thus it may be assumed that the major source of chlorides is from outside.
Two major types of structures are subjected to chloride attack: highway structures treated
with de-icing salts and marine structures in contact with seawater. De-icing salts are not used and
thus only marine structures need to be considered here. However, land structures at close proximity
to the sea have also been found to be contaminated with chlorides, which probably were raised from
the sea by turbulence and carried by wind in the form of air-borne seawater droplets. Air borne
chlorides can travel substantial distances and up to 2 km has been reported (Neville, 1995). The first
author had himself encountered this air-borne chloride problem at a distance of 30 m from the coast.
Hence, it may be advisable to design all land structures within, say, 100 m from the seashore to a
marine structure standard. Field tests are needed to find out the actual variations of the air-borne
chloride content with the height of the sampling location and with the distance of the structure from
the shore so that a more scientific solution can be worked out.
37
CHAPTER 4
CORROSION INHIBITORS AND CONTROL OF DURABILITY
38
Material selection entails picking an engineering material either metal alloy or non-metal
that is inherently resistant to the particular corrosive environment and also meets other criteria.
Variables that will affect corrosion are established along with materials that may provide suitable
resistance for those conditions. Obviously other requirements such as cost and mechanical
properties of the potential materials must be considered.
Data needed to thoroughly define the corrosive environment include many of its chemical and
physical characteristics plus application variables such as its velocity (or is it ever stagnant?) and
possible extremes caused by upset conditions. Non-corrosion considerations include mechanical
strength, type of expected loading and possibly the compatibility of the different candidates with
the required fabrication method. After these criteria and other more unique ones are considered
the list of materials that can generally satisfy all requirements usually becomes short. Final
selection is then made but trade-offs from optimal meeting of each criterion often are necessary.
Coatings are the most widely used method for controlling corrosion. The possibilities cover a
wide range and include such things as paints of many types, electroplating, weld overlays and
bonding a thin, corrosion-resistant metal or non-metal onto a stronger substrate metal that is
susceptible to corrosion. In many cases the coating simply acts as a barrier between the corrosive
environment and the substrate material. In some cases such as in galvanized steel the coating
(zinc in this case) provides a barrier but it also acts as a sacrificial anodic material to protect the
steel below by preferentially corroding instead of the steel. This effect is cathodic protection.
The coating selection, surface preparation, application and proper quality control throughout the
process to attain an optimal coating for the given application requires special experience. This is
because like selecting inherently resistant materials by the first method there are many
variables to be considered.
39
When using Organic And Inorganic Paint coatings there are engineering standards that aid the
coating specialist. For those coatings the specific surface preparation required on the substrate is
often critical to final success depending on the type of coating being used.
surface, although some also act to reduce the permeability of the concrete. Corrosion inhibitors
are generally used as admixtures in concrete for new construction, but they can also be used
repairs by being admixed into concrete for patches, sprayed or painted onto the surface of the
concrete or applied by saturation treatment (Virmani and Clemena 1998).
41
Corrosion inhibitors are typically divided into three categories: anodic inhibitors, cathodic
inhibitors, and organic inhibitors. Anodic inhibitors, made up of chromates, nitrites, molybdates,
alkali phosphates, silicates, and carbonates, act by minimizing the anodic part of the corrosion
reaction. These inhibitors form an insoluble protective film on anodic surfaces to passivate the
steel. Some anodic inhibitors, such as nitrites, can cause accelerated corrosion and pitting if they
are not used in large enough quantities. Cathodic inhibitors, consisting of zinc, salts of antimony,
magnesium, manganese, and nickel, form an insoluble film on the cathodic surfaces of the steel.
They are usually less effective than anodic inhibitors, but are also safer. Organic inhibitors,
including amines, esters, and sulfonates, block both the anodic and cathodic reaction on the
entire surface of the metal (Virmani and Clemena 1998). Organic corrosion inhibitors have been
used in the oil and gas industries for years, but they were not developed for use in reinforced
concrete until the early 1990s. (Nmai et al. 1992) Organic inhibitors can also act as pore
blockers, reducing the permeability of the concrete.
Corrosion Inhibitors are solid, liquid or gaseous compounds that are added in small quantities to
the given corrosive environment to change its interaction with the metal to be protected.
Corrosion is an electrochemical process that consists of an oxidation reaction on the anodic site
(or sites) of the metal plus one or more reduction reactions on the cathodic site (or sites). These
two types of reactions must always occur at the same rate. An effective inhibitor functions by
chemically changing one or both of the two reactions so as to slow their rates. Thus the rate of
the overall corrosion reaction is reduced to practical levels when a proper inhibitor is applied.
Persons that specify inhibitors must have in-depth knowledge. They need to thoroughly
understand what corrosion reactions occur without the use on an inhibitor in a given application,
42
which inhibitors will have the desired control affect in that application and whether or not a
given inhibitor will have extraneous, undesirable effects in the application. Using and
maintaining the correct concentration of inhibitor is essential. Using too much or too little can
each have negative consequences. Inhibitors are most often used in circulating cooling water
systems or to treat steam boiler feedwater before usage in a boiler.
Corrosion Inhibitors are solid, liquid or gaseous compounds that are added in small quantities to
the given corrosive environment to change its interaction with the metal to be protected.
Corrosion is an electrochemical process that consists of an oxidation reaction on the anodic site
(or sites) of the metal plus one or more reduction reactions on the cathodic site (or sites). These
two types of reactions must always occur at the same rate. An effective inhibitor functions by
chemically changing one or both of the two reactions so as to slow their rates. Thus the rate of
the overall corrosion reaction is reduced to practical levels when a proper inhibitor is applied.
Persons that specify inhibitors must have in-depth knowledge. They need to thoroughly
understand what corrosion reactions occur without the use on an inhibitor in a given application,
which inhibitors will have the desired control affect in that application and whether or not a
given inhibitor will have extraneous, undesirable effects in the application. Using and
maintaining the correct concentration of inhibitor is essential. Using too much or too little can
each have negative consequences. Inhibitors are most often used in circulating cooling water
systems or to treat steam boiler feedwater before usage in a boiler.
43
Level of Reinforcement
3
(Bentur et al. 1997) Calcium Nitrite Dosage (l/m )
3
(kg/m )
10
3.6
15
5.9
20
7.7
25
8.9
30
9.5
44
Because calcium nitrite raises the corrosion threshold at the reinforcement rather than blocking
chloride ions from entering concrete, it is important that quality concrete be used to keep the
chloride level at the reinforcement from getting too high. A maximum w/c ratio of 0.45 is
recommended for concrete with calcium nitrite (Kaiser 2000). recommended calcium nitrite
dosages needed to protect reinforcement from corrosion for different chloride ion contents.
Cathodic protection is a corrosion control technology with a long history. It functions due to a
fundamental characteristic of corrosion, i.e., when the electrochemical process of corrosion
occurs there is a flow of DC electric current from the surface being attacked. Cathodic protection
(often known as CP) provides a flow of DC current onto the protected surface to counteract
corrosion current flow. The resulting rate of corrosion is greatly reduced to allow practical, longterm use of the protected metal, e.g., for 10 to 20 years or more, although corrosion is not
stopped. The amount of current necessary to be supplied to the surface to control the rate to
practical levels depends on the area exposed. Thus CP is most often used in conjunction with
some type of coating. This greatly lowers the current needed for protection. No coating is 100%
free of small areas where the substrate is exposed. Using CP with a coating means current is only
needed at these bare spots.
There are two types of CP. One is the sacrificial anode (also called galvanic) type in which a
metal more susceptible to corrosion in the given electrolyte is electrically connected to a less
susceptible metal to be protected. The former metal becomes the anode and is consumed over
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time while the latter metal becomes the cathode in a galvanic corrosion cell. Thus the zinc on
galvanized steel is the anode while the steel substrate as the cathode is protected. The second
type of CP is impressed current CP. Here an electric power rectifier is used to lower the voltage
of AC line voltage feed to it while changing the AC to DC current. The rectifier is connected to
non-consumable anodes that supply DC current to the metal surface to be protected. Each type of
CP has its separate advantages and disadvantage.
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The durability of the concrete is an important aspect for determining the life span of the concrete.
Various factors affect the durability of the concrete and as a result of which corrosion of the
reinforcement bar is the common failure.
Corrosion is the process of oxidizing the material in the presence of water content or moisture
contents as the material forms the oxide taking the oxygen from the moisture and hence the
deterioration takes place.
Sulphate attack, carbonation, sulphonation, permeability of concrete, chloride ingress etc are the
main phenomenon which are responsible for the deterioration of the concrete structure.
So to provide a better life span to a concrete structure it is necessary to find out the durability of the
concrete in that particular region knowing the exposure conditions and providing the different
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methods for the prevention of corrosion in the steel reinforcement such as cathodic protection, by
coating, or by providing corrosion inhibitors.
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Strength Properties Of Glass Fibre Concrete Asian Research Publishing Network VOL.5,NO.4,APRIL
2010
[2] Deshmukh S.H., Bhusari J. P, Zende A. M. (2012) Effect of Glass Fibres on Ordinary Portland
cement Concrete IOSR Journal of Engineering June. 2012, Vol. 2(6) pp: 1308-1312 |
[3] Dr. H. Sudarsana Rao, Dr.Vaishali. G.Ghorpade , Dr. H. M. Somasekharaiah (2012) Durability
(January-December, 2012) |
[5] J.A.O.Barros, J.A.Figueiras and C.V.D.Veen (2002) Tensile behaviour of glass fibre reinforced
concrete. |
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[6] J.P.J.G Ferreria And F.A.B Brance (2007) The Use Of Glass Fibre Reinforced Concrete As A
Reinforced Highly Flowable Cement Paste The 3rd ACF International Conference- ACF/VCA 2008 |
[8] P. Sangeetha (2011) Study On The Compression And Impact Strength Of GFRC With Combination
European Journal of Scientific Research ISSN 1450-216X Vol.84 No.2 (2012), pp.156 - 167 |
[10] Surendra P. Shah, James I. Daniel, Darmawan Ludirdja (1987) Toughness of Glass Fibre Reinforced
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