MATH1131 Calculus

7.1: Title

MATH1131
MATHEMATICS 1A
CALCULUS
Chapter 7
Curve sket hing

MATH1131 Calculus

7.2: Introduction

Sketching graphs is a very important skill in calculus,

because many properties of functions can be seen clearly from
a well drawn graph. You can obtain a highly accurate plot of
a graph from any one of numerous software packages; however,
these plots can be misleading unless you know what you are
looking for.
x2 + 4x + 3
.
Exercise. Find all the asymptotes of y =
2x + 1
y
50
100

50
0

50

100

50

Answer. From the above computergenerated plot, the graph

clearly has no asymptotes.

Exercise. Try to get Maple to produce a graph of

y=

1
sin(1/x)

for

1x1 .

You could begin with plot(1/sin(1/x),x=-1..1); but you

will need to think of some way to improve the output from
this command.

MATH1131 Calculus

7.3: Generalities

Always remember that sketching a graph is not the same

as plotting points: the purpose of a sketch is to draw a
reasonably accurate graph with minimum possible
work.
A sketch should always be
large: minimum

1
4

page;

neat:
straight lines should be straight;
vertical lines should be vertical, and horizontal lines
should be horizontal;
smooth curves should be smooth;
curves which get closer to asymptotes should keep
getting closer;
labelled:
label the axes and the origin;
intercepts, turning points, asymptotes etc;
the curve should be labelled with its equation.

MATH1131 Calculus

7.4: Checklist

We suggest that you consider the following items in order to

help you sketch graphs.
Domain, range, continuity.
Intercepts on the x and y axes.
Symmetries; even and odd functions.
Asymptotes: horizontal, vertical and oblique.
Turning points, points of inflexion, concavity.
Always remember, however, that you are unlikely to obtain
a good graph with minimum work if you just follow these
points step by step! You should find out what you can easily
about the graph, sketch it out roughly, and see what extra
information would be helpful. When you are satisfied that you
know the features of the graph sufficiently well, draw a large,
neat, labelled diagram.
We shall illustrate the above ideas by sketching a few graphs
without any computer assistance. For further examples please
see the calculus notes, pages 129132.

MATH1131 Calculus

x2 + 4x + 3
Example. Sketch y =
.
2x + 1

7.5: Example 1

MATH1131 Calculus

sin(x2 )
Example. Sketch y =
.
x2

7.6: Example 2

MATH1131 Calculus

Example. Sketch y = (x2 1)ex .

7.7: Example 3

MATH1131 Calculus

7.8: Parametrically defined curves

Some curves have extremely complicated equations if they are

written in terms of x and y, but relatively simple ones if both
x and y are written in terms of a third variable, known as a
parameter. You have studied some examples of this in school:
see pages 134135 of the notes if you need to revise the topic.
The circle x2 + y 2 = a2 with centre at the origin and
radius a can be described by the equations
x = a cos t ,
The equations

x = 2at ,

y = a sin t .
y = at2

x2
form a parametrisation of the parabola y =
.
4a
The hyperbola x2 y 2 = 1 can be parametrised by
x = sec t ,

y = tan t ,

or by

et et
et + et
, y=
.
()
x=
2
2
Notice that there may be more than one useful way to
parametrise a curve. In Chapter 10 we shall learn much
more about the expressions used in ().
As you have learned in MATH1131 Algebra, a line in R2
or R3 (or Rn ) has the parametric equation
x = a + tv
for certain fixed vectors a and v. If you dont like to see
vectors in calculus you can write these equations as
x = a1 + tv1 ,
and so on.

y = a2 + tv2

MATH1131 Calculus

7.9: abc

In fact, it is quite easy in these examples to write the equation

of the curve explicitly, that is, without using a parameter.
Lets look at some harder examples.
Problem. Sketch the curve given parametrically by
x = cos t ,

y = sin 3t .

Solution. We shall use some of the same ideas as we did

in sketching curves given explicitly. First we note that the
formulae for x and y make sense for any real t; but we need
only consider t , since going beyond this interval will
merely give the same points repeatedly. We have
x = cos t [ 1, 1 ] and y = sin 3t [ 1, 1 ] ,
and so the whole graph is contained within the square
1 x 1, 1 y 1. In fact, if the parameter t gives a
point (x, y) then the parameter t gives (x, y). This means
that the graph is symmetric about the xaxis, so we can
sketch the part with 0 t and then reflect it to obtain
the complete graph.
If we change t just a little bit then the point (x, y) will also
change just a little bit; also, the values t = and t =
give the same (x, y). Therefore the graph is a continuous
closed curve.
To find the points of intersection with the axes we have
x=0
y=0

t = 21

t = 0, 31 , 23 ,

y = 1

x = 1, 12 , 12 , 1 .
. . . continued

MATH1131 Calculus

7.10: . . . continued

If t goes from 0 to then x = cos t is always decreasing.

For the same t values, y starts at 0 and increases to 1 when
t = 61 . It then decreases, passing through 0 when t = 31
and reaching 1 when t = 21 . So we draw a continuous curve
through the points in the following table.
t

1
6

1
3

1
2

2
3

5
6

1
2

21

It looks as if the curve should be vertical at the points with

x = 1. Lets check this: we have
dy/dt
3 cos 3t
dy
=
=

dx
dx/dt
sin t

as t 0+ ,

with similar results as t 0 , t and t + .

Exercise. Can you find the equation of this curve in terms of
x and y? Could you sketch the graph using only this equation?
Comment. Maple will handle parametric plots with a
command like
plot([cos(t),sin(3*t),t=-Pi..Pi]);
make sure you get all the brackets right! Try using Maple to
plot x = cos 17t, y = sin 31t.

MATH1131 Calculus

7.11: Cycloid

The cycloid. A fascinating and important curve is given by

the parametric equations
x = a(t sin t) ,

y = a(1 cos t) ,

where a is a positive constant.

These formulae define x and y for any real t. If t then
x , so x can take any real value, while 0 y 2a.
If y = 0 then t = 2k and so x = 2ka; these are the intercepts
of the curve with the xaxis. Obviously (0, 0) is a yintercept,
but it is not clear whether or not there are any others.
If t is increased by 2 then x will increase by 2a while y will
remain unchanged. Therefore the graph repeats periodically in
the x direction, and we need only concentrate on the domain
0 t 2.
Do the parametric equations define y as a function of x? We
have
dx
= a(1 cos t) 0 ,
dt
so x is an increasing function of t. This means that for each x
value there is only one t value, and therefore only one y value.

. . . continued

MATH1131 Calculus

We have

7.12: . . . continued

dy
dy/dt
sin t
=
=
.
dx
dx/dt
1 cos t

This is zero when t = , and so there is a stationary point at

x = a, y = 2a. This must be a maximum since y is never
dy
is zero; but the
greater than 2a. If t = 0 the numerator of dx
denominator is also zero, so we need to be careful. We have
dy
sin t 1 + cos t
1 + cos t
=
=

dx
1 cos t 1 + cos t
sin t

as t 0+

and so the graph is vertical at x = 0, y = 0. (Exercise.

Confirm this by using LHopitals Rule.) A similar limit shows
that the graph is vertical at x = 2a, y = 0.
The curve appears to be symmetric. Is this really true? We
have
x(t) = a(t sin t) = x(t) ,
y(t) = a(1 cos t) = y(t) ;

thus, if (x, y) is on the curve then so is (x, y), and yes, it

really is symmetric.

MATH1131 Calculus

7.13: Properties

This curve is called a cycloid and it has many wonderful

properties.
Consider a circle of radius a with a point on the circumference
highlighted, and let this circle roll along a straight line. The
path traced out by the highlighted point is a cycloid.
y

2a

4a

The area under one arch of the cycloid is three times the
area of the generating circle, and the length of one arch of the
cycloid is four times the diameter of the generating circle.
y
A = 3a2
L = 4(2a)
0

If a cycloid is turned upside down it has two amazing physical

properties. It is a tautochrone: two particles released at
different points on the cycloid and allowed to slide down it
under the influence of gravity (and neglecting friction) will
reach the bottom at the same time! It is also a brachistochrone:
if we want a point to slide along a wire from a point A to a
point B not directly below A in the shortest possible time,
then we should give the wire the shape of a cycloid.
See www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/
Brachistochrone.html for some history on these problems.

MATH1131 Calculus

7.14: Tangents

Gradient and tangents. As we have seen in the previous

two examples, if a curve is specified parametrically by giving
x and y in terms of t, then the gradient at the point with
parameter t is
dy
dy/dt
=
,
dx
dx/dt
provided that dx
dt 6= 0. Another way of saying this is that the


dy
vector dx
,
dt dt is tangent to the curve at the point (x, y).
Examples.
The equations
x = 4 cos t ,

y = 7 sin t for

describe an ellipse.
Find the tangent to the ellipse at the


48 35
point 13 , 13 . Solution. We have
cos t =
and

12
13

sin t =

5
13

dy/dt
7 cos t
21
dy
=
=
=
.
dx
dx/dt
4 sin t
5

So the tangent is
y

35
13

= 21
5 x

48
13

which simplifies to 21x + 5y = 91.

Exercise. Find the equation of the normal to the ellipse
at the same point.
. . . continued

MATH1131 Calculus

7.15: . . . continued

Find the point on the first arch of the cycloid (page 11)
where the gradient is 1. Solution. We need
dy/dt
=1,
dx/dt
that is,
a sin t = a(1 cos t) ,
with 0 t 2. There are two solutions,
t = 0 and t = 12
(exercise: give the working for this). But we must reject
t = 0 since then dx
dt = 0 and (as we have seen before) the
cycloid is vertical. So the point where the gradient is 1 is
given by
x = a( 12 1) , y = a .

MATH1131 Calculus

7.16: Polar coordinates

Cartesian coordinates locate a point by saying how far it is

across and how far up from a chosen origin. If you were
standing on a street corner in a large city and someone asked
you how to get to another place this would be a sensible
way to answer, for example, two blocks east and five blocks
north. On the other hand, if you were in a large open plain
without obstructions it would probably be better to point out
their destination and say 500 metres in that direction. This
is the idea behind polar coordinates.
We set up polar coordinates by choosing an origin O and a ray
from O, known as the polar axis. In diagrams we shall usually
draw the polar axis to the right of the origin. The location of
a point P is given as a pair (r, ), where r is the distance of P
from O and is the angle from the polar axis to the interval
OP , measured anticlockwise and in radians.
P
r
O

Note that these conventions are the same as those governing

modulus and argument of a complex number. In fact, polar
coordinates are very similar to the polar forms of complex
numbers.
Comment. There are also threedimensional versions of
polar coordinates. You may learn about these in second year.

MATH1131 Calculus

7.17: PolarCartesian

We shall often want to interrelate polar and Cartesian

coordinates. To do this we shall take the polar axis to be the x
axis. Looking at the preceding diagram suggests the following.
Definition. If a point P has Cartesian coordinates (x, y), and
if r and are real numbers such that
x = r cos ,

y = r sin ,

then (r, ) is said to be a pair of polar coordinates for P .

MATH1131 Calculus

7.18: Many values

Example. If P has Cartesian coordinates (1, 2) then we

find its polar coordinates by solving r cos = 1, r sin = 2.
Note that there will be many solutions! although a given
point has only one possible pair of Cartesian coordinates, it
has many polar coordinates. We have
r2 = (r cos )2 + (r sin )2 = x2 + y 2 = 5 ,

so r = 5 ; also,
tan =

r sin
y
= = 2 ,
r cos
x

so = tan1 2 + k for some integer k. If r = 5 we need

cos > 0, sin < 0, so is in the fourth quadrant and k
must be even; if r = 5 then cos < 0, sin > 0, so is
in the second quadrant and k is odd. So all possible polar
coordinates for P are given by

1
5 , tan 2 + 2n ,
5 , tan1 2 + (2n + 1)
with n Z.
The fact that a point has many different polar coordinates is
sometimes (not always) a problem.
From now on in MATH1131 we shall always assume that
r 0. (In future subjects you may have to allow negative
r as well.)
We may sometimes obtain a unique pair of polar
coordinates by insisting that < (compare the
principal argument of a complex number), although this
still doesnt help much if P is the origin.

MATH1131 Calculus

7.19: Graphs

Sketching graphs in polar coordinates. First some easy

ones.
If a is a positive constant, then the polar equation r = a
describes all points at distance a from the origin. That is,
a circle with centre O and radius a.
If is any constant, then = is a ray starting at the
origin and making an angle with the polar axis.
It is easy to sketch
r=

c
a cos + b sin

by converting it to Cartesian form: we have

ar cos + br sin = c ,
that is, ax + by = c, which is a straight line. Actually its
not quite that easy: can you pick a hole in this argument?

MATH1131 Calculus

7.20: Cardioid

For harder examples we use the same kind of techniques as

we did earlier in this chapter: periodicity and symmetry will
often be especially important.
Example. Sketch the curve which has polar equation
r = 4 + 4 cos .

MATH1131 Calculus

7.21: Symmetries

Symmetry. Suppose that r is given as a function of , say

r = f (). If f is an even function, that is, f () = f () for
all , then the curve r = f () is symmetric about a horizontal
axis. Hopefully this is clear from a diagram.
r = f ()

It is not helpful to consider odd f as we have ruled out

negative values of r. However, further diagrams
r = f ()

O
show that if f () = f ( ) for all , then the curve will have
vertical symmetry, and
r = f ()
+
O

if f () = f ( + ) then there will be rotational symmetry

about the origin.

MATH1131 Calculus

7.22: Summary

Summary of symmetry properties of curves in polar

coordinates. Consider the curve with polar equation r = f ().
If f () = f () for all the curve has horizontal
symmetry.
If f () = f () for all the curve has vertical symmetry.
If f () = f ( + ) for all the curve has rotational
symmetry about the origin.
Exercise. There are many more symmetry indicators! Try to
work out for yourself what sort of symmetry is possessed by
the curve r = f () if
f () = f ( 21 );

f () = f ( + 12 ).
Note. If the above rules do not hold, you cannot conclude
that the curve is not symmetric. For example, consider

r = f () = 2 + sin
.
2
Here we have
f () = 2 sin


2

which in general is not equal to f (); but it can be shown that

the curve does have horizontal symmetry.

Exercise (not easy!). Sketch the curve r = 2 + sin
.
2

MATH1131 Calculus

7.23: Tangents

To find slopes and tangents associated with polar curves we

have to revert to Cartesian coordinates. We have
dy
dy/d
=
;
dx
dx/d
if r is a function of then

and so

x = r cos

y = r sin

dx
dr
= r sin +
cos
d
d
dr
dy
= r cos +
sin
d
d

dr
r cos + d
sin
dy
=
.
dr
dx
r sin + d
cos

MATH1131 Calculus

7.24: An example

Example. Find the gradient of the cardioid r = 4 + 4 cos

at the origin. Also, find the polar coordinates of the highest
point on this curve.
Solution. For this curve,
dr
= 4 sin
d
and therefore
dy
(4 + 4 cos ) cos 4 sin2
cos + cos 2
=
=
.
dx
(4 + 4 cos ) sin 4 sin cos
sin + sin 2
The cardioid reaches the origin when = ; by LHopitals
Rule (exercise: give the details) we have
lim

dy
sin + 2 sin 2
= lim
= 0.
cos + 2 cos 2
dx

So the cardioid has a horizontal cusp at the origin.

For the second question it is (fairly?) clear that the curve
is smooth except at the origin, so the highest point will occur
dy
when dx
= 0. Using a doubleangle formula and solving a
quadratic,
cos + cos 2 = 0

2 cos2 + cos 1 = 0
cos = 1 or 21 .

For the highest point we need 0 < < , so cos =

point has polar coordinates

r=6, = .
3
See also calculus notes, pages 144146.

1
2

and the

MATH1131 Calculus

Example. Sketch the curve r = 3 + 2 sin .

7.25: Another graph

MATH1131 Calculus

7.26: Maple

Maple will plot graphs in polar coordinates, but you must

remember that Maple allows r to be negative, so the graphs
may not look exactly as we would sketch them. Try something
like these:
plot([sin(4/7*t),t,t=-7*Pi..7*Pi],coords=polar);
plot([4+cos(1/4*t),t,t=-4*Pi..4*Pi],coords=polar);
To make polar plots look nice it is often a good idea to ensure
that Maple uses the same scale on both axes. This can be
forced by inserting the option scaling=constrained into the
above commands.