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SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA


ENGINEERING CAMPUS

EAA 206/2
STRUCTURAL, CONCRETE AND FLUID MECHANICS
ENGINEERING LABORATORY

FLUID MECHANIC LABORATORY MANUAL

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

Code of
Experiment

Name of Experiments

EXPERIMENT 1 : REYNOLDS

H1

Page

1-9

NUMBER TEST

EXPERIMENT 2 : FLOW THROUGH

10-18

ORIFICE

EXPERIMENT 3 : CALIBRATION OF

H2

19-26

RECTANGULAR AND TRIANGULAR


NOTCH

EXPERIMENT 4 : BOURDON

27-30

PRESSURE GAUGE

H3

EXPERIMENT 5 : FLOW THROUGH A

31-41

VENTURI METER

SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING


UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA
ENGINEERING CAMPUS

EXPERIMENT 1 : REYNOLDS NUMBER TEST

1.0 OBJECTIVES

1.1

To demonstrate laminar, transitional and turbulent flow.

To calculate Reynolds number for each flow.

INTRODUCTION
When a fluid flows next to a solid boundary the nature of the flow depends on the

velocity relative to that boundary. At low velocities the layers of fluid move smoothly
over one another and this is termed laminar flow. However, as the velocity is increased
small disturbances cause eddies which mix-up the layers of fluid and produce a
different pattern of flow which is termed turbulent. This change has a marked effect on
the forces acting between the fluid and the solid boundary and an understanding of the
behaviour is of fundamental importance in the study of hydraulics and fluid mechanics.
The nature of flow over an aircraft wing affects the drag and hence determines the power
required to propel the aircraft forwards. Similarly, when fluid flows along a pipe the
nature of the flow determines the pressure loss and hence the power required to pump the
fluid along the pipe.
Before the advent of high speed transport, the most important application of fluid
mechanics was in the study of flow in pipes. Many engineers and scientists investigated
the behaviour of flow in pipes but it was a British physicist named Osborne Reynolds
(1842-1912) who first identified the variables controlling the flow and produced a

rational means of predicting the nature of flow. Reynolds showed that the behaviour
depends on the balance between inertia and viscous forces in the fluid. This led to the
definition of a non-dimensional parameter, now called Reynolds Number, which
expresses the ratio of inertia to viscous, forces and can be used to identify the conditions
under which the flow changes from laminar to turbulent. By experiment it was found that
the change always occurred at a similar value of Reynolds Number irrespective of the
fluid and the size of pipe.
The Reynolds Number and Transitional Flow Demonstration Apparatus has been
designed to demonstrated the kind of experiment which was conducted to show the
dependence of flow on Reynolds Number. The apparatus enables the nature of the flow in
a pipe to be studied by observing the behaviour of a filament of dye injected into the
fluid. The flow rate can be varied and the changed or transition between laminar and
turbulent flow can be clearly demonstrated. The effect of viscosity on the behaviour can
be demonstrated by varying the temperature using an optional temperature control
module, or by using different fluids.

1.2 THEORY
Consider the case of a fluid moving along a fixed surface such as the wall of a
pipe. At some distance y from the surface the fluid has a velocity u relative to the surface.
The relative movement causes a shear stress which tends to slow down the motion so
that the velocity close to the wall is reduced below u. It can be shown that the shear stress
produces a velocity gradient du/dy which is proportional to the applied stress. The
constant of proportionality is the coefficient of viscosity and the equation is usually
written :-

du
dy

..(1)

The above equation is derived in most text books and represents a model of a
situation in which layers of fluid move smoothly over one another. This is termed
viscous or laminar flow. For such conditions experiments show that Equation (1) is
valid and that is a constant for a given fluid at a given temperature. It may be noted
that the shear stress and the velocity gradient have a fixed relationship which is

determined only by the viscosity of the fluid. However, experiments also show that this
only applies at low viscosities. If the velocity is increased above a certain value, small
disturbances produce eddies in the flows which cause mixing between the high energy
and low energy layers of fluid. This is called turbulent flow and under these conditions it
is found that the relationship between shear stress and velocity gradient varies depending
on many factors in addition to the viscosity of the fluid. The nature of the flow is entirely
different since the interchange of energy between the layers now depends on the strength
of the eddies (and thus on the inertia of the fluid) rather then simply on the viscosity.
Equation (1) still applies but the coefficient no longer represents the viscosity of the
fluid. It is now called the Eddy Viscosity and is no longer constant for a given fluid and
temperature. Its value depends on the upstream conditions in the flow and is much greater
than the coefficient of viscosity for the fluid. It may be noted that this implies an increase
in shear stress for a given velocity and so the losses in the flow are much greater than for
laminar conditions.
We have seen that laminar flow is the result of viscous forces and that turbulent
flow is in some way related to inertia forces. This was realized by Reynolds who
postulated that the nature of flow depends on the ratio of inertia to viscous forces. This
led to the derivation of a non-dimensional variable, now called Reynolds Number, Re
which expresses this ratio. On physical grounds we may say that inertia forces are
proportional to mass times velocity change divided by time. Since mass divided by time
is the mass flow rate and this is equal to density times cross sectional area times
velocity, we may write:Inertia forces d 2u.u

(2)

Where d is the diameter of the pipe.


Similarly the viscous forces are given by shear stress times area so, using Equation (1),
we may write :-

Viscous forces

du 2
d
dy

u
d
d

..(3)

Dividing the inertia forces by the viscous forces we obtain Reynolds Number as :-

Re
The term

d 2u 2 du

.. (4)

is called the kinematic viscosity and it is often convenient to write

Equation (4) as :-

Re

ud

..(5)

It may be noted that the above equations can also be derived by dimensional analysis but
in either case it should be remembered that Re represents the ratio of inertia to viscous
forces.

1.3 PROCEDURE
1. The apparatus is free-standing and can be mounted on any suitable bench or
working surface. A water supply and drain are required so a convenient position
should be chosen where these services are available.
2. A bag of glass beads is supplied and this should be used to fill the lower part of
the constant head tank. The level of beads should be 10-15 mm below the top of
the bell-mouth and should be as flat as possible.
3. Fit the injector tube to the dye reservoir (if not already fitted) and position the
mounting plate on the top of the tank such that the injector tube is in the centre of
the bell-mouth.
4. Turn the dye control valve to off and pour suitable dye (e.g water soluble tank)
into the dye reservoir.
5. Stand the thermometer such that the bulb is resting on the stilling bed.
6. Turn on the water supply, and partly open the discharge valve at the base of the
apparatus.
6

7. Adjust the water supply until the level in the constant head tank is just above the
overflow pipe and is maintained at this level by a small flow down the overflow
pipe. This is the condition required for all tests and at different flow rates through
the tube the supply will need to be adjusted to maintain it. At any given
condition the overflow should only be just sufficient to maintain a constant head
in the tank.
8. Open the adjust dye injector valve to obtain a fine filament of dye in the flow
down the glass tube. If the dye is dispersed in the tube, reduce the water flow rate
by closing the discharge valve and adjusting the supply as necessary to maintain
the constant head. A laminar flow condition should be achieved in which the
filament of dye passes down the complete length of the tube without disturbance.
9. Slowly increase the flow rate by opening the discharge valve until disturbance of
the dye filament. This can be regarded as the starting point of transition of
turbulent flow. Increase the water supply as required maintaining constant head
conditions.
10. Record the temperature of the water using the thermometer, then measure the
flow rate by timing the collection of a known quantity of water from the discharge
pipe.
11. Further increase the flow rate as described above until the disturbances increase
such that the dye filament becomes rapidly diffused. Small eddies will be noted
just above the point where the dye filament completely breaks down. This can be
regarded as the onset of fully turbulent flow. Record the temperature and flow rate
as in step 10.
12. Now decrease the flow rate slowly until the dye just returns to a steady filament
representing laminar flow and again record the temperature and flow rate.

Figure 1.1 : Schematic diagram of the Reynolds Number apparatus

Figure 1.2 : Typical flow patterns at various flow


conditions

Figure 1.3: Variation of some properties of water with temperature

1.4 RESULT
Initial water temperature

Final water temperature

Mean water temperature

Kinematic viscosity of water at above temperature,

Diameter of pipe, dp

Cross sectional area of pipe, Ap

10

Table 1.1: Result for different type of flows


No.

1
2
3
4

Type of
flow

Time for
200 ml

Velocity,
(u)

Flow rate
(Q)

(s)

(m/s)

(x 10-6
m3/s)

Kinematic
viscosity
()
(x 10-6
m2/s)

Re

Laminar
Transition
Turbulent
Laminar

1.5 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS


1. From Table 1.1, determine the Re for each type of flow.

QUESTION FOR FURTHER DISCUSSION


1. What suggestions do you have for improving the apparatus?

11

SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING


UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA
ENGINEERING CAMPUS
EXPERIMENT 2 : FLOW THROUGH ORIFICE

2.0 OBJECTIVE

To determine Cd , Cc and Cv for orifice.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
It often happens that when a fluid passes through a constriction, such as through a
sharp-edged hole or over a weir, the discharge is considerably less than the amount
calculated on the assumption that the energy is conserved and that the flow through the
constriction is uniform and parallel. This reduction in flow is normally due to a
contraction of the stream which takes place through the restriction and continues for
some distance down-stream of it, rather than to a considerable energy loss.
In this experiment, arrangements are made to measure the extent to the reduction in flow,
contraction of the stream and energy loss, as water discharges into the atmosphere from a
sharp-edged orifice in the base of a tank (Figure 2.1).

12

Figure 2.1: Arrangement of apparatus

2.2 THEORY
Figure 2.2 shows the essential features of flow through the orifice. The tank is
assumed to be sufficiently large for the velocity of flow in it to be negligibly small except
close to the orifice. In the vicinity of the orifice, the fluid accelerates towards the centre
of the hole, so that as the jet emerges it suffers a reduction of area due to the curvature of
the streamlines, as typified by the streamline MN indicated on the figure. The reduction
of area due to this local curvature may be taken to be complete at about half the orifice
diameter downstream of the plane of the orifice; the reduced section is usually referred to
as the vena contracta.
The pressure everywhere on the surface of the jet is atmospheric; but within the jet
pressure does not fall to atmospheric until the acceleration is complete, i.e. until the vena
contracta is reached.

13

Consider now the total head of the water at points M and N of a typical stream-line, M
being in the surface and N being in the plane of the vena contracta.

Figure 2.2: Diagrammatic sketch of flow through orifice

From Bernoulli, the total head at M is

Vm
P
m zm
2g w

and at N is

Vn
P
n zm
2g w

so that, if the energy were conserved, ie., if there were no loss of total head:
2

Vm
P
V
P
m zm n n zn
2g w
2g w

(1)

In this equation, Pm and Pn are equal (both being atmospheric) and U m is negligibly
small according to our assumption. Moreover,

zm zn H o

(2)

So that, from Equation (1) and (2), the ideal velocity at N is given by
14

Vn
Ho
2g

(3)

This result applies to all points in the plane of the vena contracta, so changing the
notation to let Vo be the ideal velocity in the plane of the vena contracta, which would
occur if there was no energy loss.
2

Vo
Ho
2g

.(4)

Because of the energy loss, which in fact takes place as the water passes down to the tank
and through the office, the actual velocity Vc in the plane of the vena contracta will be
less than Vo , and may be calculated from the Pilot tube reading by the equation :

Vc
H c
2g

...(5)

It is clear that H o H c represent the energy loss. The ratio of actual velocity Vc and
ideal velocity Vo is often referred to as the coefficient of velocity Cv of the orifice. From
the Equation (4) and (5), we obtain :

Cv

Vc

Vo

Hc
Ho

...(6)

In a similar sense, the coefficient of contraction Cc is defined as the ratio of cross-section


of the vena contracta Ac , to the cross section of the orifice Ao ,

Cc

Ac
Ao

..(7)

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Finally, the coefficient of discharge Cd is defined as the ratio of the actual discharge to
that which would take place if the jet discharged at the ideal velocity without reduction of
area. The actual discharge Q is given y:

Q Vc Ac

(8)

and if the jet discharged at the ideal velocity Vo over the orifice area Ao the discharge Qo
would be :

Qo Vo Ao Ao 2 gH o

.(9)

So, from the definition of the coefficient of discharge,

Cd

Q Vc Ac

Qo Vo Ao

.(10)

or in terms of quantities measured experimentally,

Cd

Q
Ao 2 gH o

..(11)

From Equations (6), (7) and (10) it follows immediately :

Cd CvCc

..(12)

2.3 PROCEDURE
1. The experiment may be divided into two parts, firstly, the measurement of

Cd , Cv , and Cc at a single constant value of H o , and secondly, measurement of


discharge at a number of different values of H o .
2. The equipment is set on the bench and leveled so that the base of the tank is
horizontal.
3. The flexible supply pipe from the bench control valve is connected to the inlet
pipe of the apparatus which is positioned to discharge directly back to the weigh
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tank and the overflow of the apparatus is directed onto the bench top. To obtain
the steadiest readings the vertical position of the inlet pipe should be adjusted to
be just submerged. The diameter of the sharp-edged orifice is noted.
4. In the first part of the experiment, water is admitted to the tank to allow it to fill to
the height of the overflow pipe and the inflow is regulated so that a small steady
discharge is obtained from the overflow. This ensures that the level in the tank
remains constant while the measurements are made.
5. To measure Cd the discharge is obtained by collection of a known weight of
water from the orifice in the weighing tank, and recording the value of head H o
on the orifice.
6. To measure C v , the Pitot tube is inserted into the emerging jet close to the
underside of the tank, and the values of Pitot head, H c and head, H o on the
orifice are noted.
7. To measure Cc , it is necessary to find the diameter of the jet at the vena
contracta.
8. This is done by utilizing the sharp-edged blade attached to the head of the Pitot
tube, the plane of the blade being normal to the direction of traverse of the tube.
9. The blade is brought to each edge of the jet in turn, just below the tank, and the
positions of the tube as read on the lead screw and graduated nut read in each
case. The difference of the readings represents the diameter of the jet.
10. In the second part of the experiment the inflow to the tank is reduced to lower the
level in the tank in stages, the discharge from the orifice being measured at each
stage.
11. Care should be taken to allow the level to settle to a steady value after the inflow
to the tank has been changed, and it is advisable to read this level several times
while the discharge is being collected and to record the mean value over the time
interval.
12. About 6-8 different flow rates should be sufficient to establish the relationship
between discharge and head on the orifice.

17

2.4 RESULT
Diameter of Orifice, do

= 0.013 m

Area of Orifice,

Ao

d2
4
m2

=
dc

= Diameter of jet

Ac

= Area of jet

Cc

= Coefficient of contraction

Table 2.1 : Data recorded and the calculations of flow rate, Q.


No.

(1)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Stop watch reading


Initial End
Time
(s)
(s)
(s)

(2)

(3)

(4)

Volumetric tank reading


Initial End Volume
(m3)
(m3)
(m3)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Q
=V/t
x 104
(m3/s)

dj = dc
(mm)

(8)

(9)

Coefficient
of
contraction,
A
Cc c
Ao
(10)

Average Value of Cc =

18

Table 2.2: Data recorded and the estimation of Cv .


No.

Head of tank

Ho
(m)
(1)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Head of pitot tube

Ho
(m1/2)

(2)

(3)

Hc
(m)
(4)

Coefficient
of velocity,

Hc
(m1/2)

Hc

Cv

(5)

Ho

(6)

Average Value of Cv =

Table 2.3 : Calculation of Cd , Cc and Cv for orifice


No.
(1)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Average

Q
x10-4
(m3/s)

Ho
(m1/2)

Cv

(2)

(3)

(4)

Qo Ao 2 gH o
x 10-4
(m3/s)
(5)

Cd

Q
Qo

(6)

Cc

Cd
Cv

(7)

Average Value of Cv =
Average Value of Cd =
Average Value of Cc =

19

2.5 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS

1.

Plot graph Q versus

H o . The flow rate through the orifice is stated as:


QK H

where

K Cd A 2 g

The plotted gradient line will represent K value while Cd can be computed using
the equation below:

Cd K / A 2 g
The above equation represent the Cd value of the orifice.

2.6

QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER DISCUSSION


1. What suggestions have you for improving the apparatus?

20

SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING


UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA
ENGINEERING CAMPUS
EXPERIMENT 3 : CALIBRATION OF RECTANGULAR
AND TRIANGULAR NOTCH

3.0 OBJECTIVE

To calibrate the rectangular and triangular notch by using the hydraulic bench and
panel

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Weirs are commonly used to regulate flow in rivers and in other open channels.
The purpose is often to maintain water depth for some purpose such as navigation, but a
weir may also be used to measure the flow rate.
In many cases, the rate of flow over the weir depends solely on the water level
just upstream of the weir (the relationship between flow rate and water level being
sometimes known as the rating curve). However, the water level downstream of the
weir may rise sufficiently as to affect the conditions of flow, so that the flow rate now
becomes a function not only of the upstream water level but also of the water level
downstream. The weir is then referred to as being suppressed or drowned.
The cross-section of a weir is usually determined by considerations of strength
and stability in relation to the conditions of the site, and availability of materials. The
crest is frequently rounded or broad as shown in Figure 3.1 (a) and (b). For such weirs,
the flow usually remains attached to the downstream surface. In the case of the sharp
crested weir shown in Fig 3.1 (c), however, the flow separates at the crest to form a
curved jet which plunges into the downstream pool. In plan view, the weir may be
straight or curved to suit site condition, or on grounds of aesthetics. Frequently, the crest
21

level is not uniform along the whole of the length. For instance, just part of the whole
length may used to carry normal flow, the reminder of the weir having a higher crest, so
that it comes into use only at higher flow rates.

a) Round crested

b) Broad crested

c) Sharp edged
Fig 3.1 Examples of various weir profiles
A form of weir, particularly suitable for flow measurement, is the notch, so
called because it comprises a sharp edged notch cut out of a metal plate. The cut out may
of course be of any shape, but rectangular and V-shaped notches.

22

3.2 THEORY

Rectangular Notch Panel

Peak level
H
P

Figure 3.2 : Front and side view of a rectangular notch


The relationship for the flow rate (Q) of a rectangular notch is :
Q 2 / 3Cd ( 2 g )1 / 2 ( L nH / 10) H 3 / 2 .(1)

Where :

n = number of end contractions (= 2 for this case)


L = width of the crest
H = head over the weir

If end contraction is negligible, then:


Q ( 2 / 3)Cd ( 2 g )1 / 2 LH 3 / 2

(2)

Q k1H 3 / 2

....(3)

or

Equation (2) and (3) shows that the value of Q and H3/2 should be plotted in a graph as a
straight line. The gradient of the graph will represent k1 value. Cd can be obtained using
the equation below :
Cd 3k1 /[ 2( 2 g )1 / 2 ]L

(4)
23

Equation (2) also can be expressed as :

Q k1 (2 g )1 / 2 LH 3 / 2

(5)

k1 0.4 0.05( H / P)
Cd (3 / 2) * [0.4 0.05( H / P)] (6)
Where :
P is the height of the weir crest above from the base of the tank. Equation 6 is only valid
for H/P values up to 10 as long as the weir is well ventilated.

Triangular Notch Panel

Peak level

H
P

Figure 3.3 : Front and side view of triangular notch (V-Notch) panel
The relationship for the flow rate (Q) of a triangular notch is :
Q (8 / 15)Cd tan( / 2)( 2 g )1 / 2 H 5 / 2

.(7)

or

Q k2 H 5 / 2

.(8)

24

The above equations shows that the value of Q and H5/2 should be plotted in a graph as a
straight line. The gradient of the graph will represent k2 value. Cd can be obtained using
the equation below :
C d 15k 2 /[(8)( 2 g )1 / 2 tan( / 2)]

3.3

(9)

PROCEDURE
1. The apparatus is first connected to the supply and then leveled.
2. When the correct level has been obtained, the point gauge is also brought exactly
to the water surface, and the calibrated dial either read or, if adjustment is
possible, set to zero.
3. Sets of measurements of discharge rate and head are taken for each notch in turn,
the flow being regulated by the bench supply valve.
4. It is recommended that the first reading be taken at maximum flow rate, and
subsequent values with roughly equal decrements in head.
5. Reading should be discontinued when the level has fallen to the condition at
which the stream ceases to spring clear of the notch plate; this is likely to occur
when the head is reduced to about 10 mm for the rectangular notch and about 30
mm for V notch.
6. As it takes a little time for the water level to stabilize after changing the flow rate,
care should be taken to ensure that condition have settled completely before
starting to measure the discharge.
7. The rate of flow is found by timing the collection of a known amount of water in
the weighing tank.
8. About 6-8 experimental points for each notch should be sufficient.

25

3.4 RESULT
Rectangular Notch
Width of the crest, L (m)

= 0.030 m

Height of the crest, P (m)

Number of end contractions, n = 2


Table 3.1: Data recorded and the calculation of the flow rate, Q
Serial
Number
(1)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Initial
(s)
(2)

Time taken
End
(s)
(3)

Time
(s)
(4)

Start
(m3)
(5)

Volume recorded
End
Volume
(m3)
(m3)
(6)
(7)

Q =V/t
(m3/s)
(8)

Table 3.2 : Reading of point gauge for water level and calculation for Cd
Serial
Number

Discharge
Q
(m3/s)

(1)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

(2)

Reading of point gauge


(m)
Crest Level Head,
H
(3)
(4)
(5)

H3/2

(L0.2H)
(m)

Discharge coefficient
Cd
Eq.
Eq.
Eq.
(1)
(4)
(6)
(6)
(7)
(8)

26

Triangular Notch
= 30

Angle of V notch,

Depth of V notch from base, P (m) =


Table 3.3 : Data recorded and the calculation of the flow rate, Q
Serial
Number

Initial
(s)
(2)

(1)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Time taken
End
(s)
(3)

Time
(s)
(4)

Start
(m3)
(5)

Volume recorded
End
Volume
(m3)
(m3)
(6)
(7)

Q =V/t
(m3/s)
(8)

Table 3.4: Reading of point gauge for water level and calculation for Cd
Serial
Number

Discharge
Q
(m3/s)

(1)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

(2)

Reading of point gauge (m)


Crest

Level

(3)

(4)

Head,
H
(5)

H5/2
(6)

Discharge coefficient Cd
Eq.(7)

Eq.(9)

(7)

(8)

3.5 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS

1. From Table 3.2, plot graph Q versus H3/2 for rectangular notch. The plotted
gradient line will represent k1 value. Cd can be computed using Equation (1),
Equation (4) and Equation (6).

27

2. From Table 3.4, plot graph Q versus H5/2 for triangular notch. The plotted
gradient line will represent k2 value. Cd can be computed using Equation (7) and
Equation (9).

3.6 QUESTION FOR FURTHER DISCUSSION


1. What suggestions do you have for improving the apparatus?
2. Discuss the importance of weir or notch concept in water resources.

28

SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING


UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA
ENGINEERING CAMPUS
EXPERIMENT 4 : BOURDON PRESSURE GAUGE

4.0 OBJECTIVE

4.1

To calibrate the Bourdon Pressure Gauge

INTRODUCTION
The pressure gauge fitted to the tester is of a type known as the Bourdon Gauge,

which is used to a very great extent is engineering practice.

Figure 4.1 : Bourdon pressure gauge

The mechanism of the gauge may be seen through the transparent dial of the
instrument (illustrated in Figure 4.1). A tube having a thin wall of oval cross-section is
29

bent to a circular are encompassing about 270 degrees. It is rigidly held at one end where
the pressure is admitted to the tube and is free to move at the other end, which is sealed.
When pressured is admitted, the tube tends to straighten, and the movement at the free
end operates a mechanical system which moves a pointer round the graduated scale, the
movement of the pointer being proportional to the pressure applied. The sensitivity of
the gauge depends on the material and dimensions of the Bourdon tube; gauges with a
very wide selection of pressure ranges are commercially available.
When it is desired to check the accuracy of a Bourdon gauge, the usual procedure
is to load it with known pressures by a dead weight tester using oil to transmit the
pressure. The present experiment, however, works satisfactorily with water instead of
oil.

4.2 INSTALLATION PROCEDURE


Remove the piston from the unit. The piston is delivered lightly oiled and should
be wiped only when the unit is to be used. Fill the cylinder with water, and remove air
trapped in the transparent tube by tilting and gently tapping the unit. A small amount of
air left in the system will not affect the experiment. Top up with water and insert piston
into cylinder, allowing air and excess water to escape through the top hole in the side of
the cylinder. Allow the piston to settle.

4.3 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE


1. Ensure the cylinder is vertical.
2. Masses are added in approximately eight increments up to a maximum of 5.2 kg.
On no account should more than the supplied masses be loaded.
3. Always load the masses gradually, do not drop them onto the platform.
4. The pressure gauge reading should be recorded at each increment of loading.
5. To prevent the piston sticking, rotate the piston gently as each mass is added.
6. Reverse the above procedure, taking readings as the masses are removed.
7. The cross-sectional area and the mass of the piston should be noted.

30

4.4 RESULT AND CALCULATIONS


The actual hydrostatic pressure (P) in the system due to mass of M kg (including the
piston mass) applied to the given by :P

= M x 9.81 x 10-3

kN/m2

A
Mass of piston, m

= 1.0 kg

Cross section area of piston, A

= 315 mm2

Mass
added to
piston
kg
0
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.2

Total mass
on piston
(M)
kg
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.2

Actual
pressure
(P)
kN/m2

Increasing Pressure
Gauge
Gauge
reading
error
kN/m2

kN/m2

Decreasing Pressure
Gauge
Gauge
reading
error
kN/m2

kN/m2

Table 4.1: Result for increasing and decreasing pressure

4.5 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS


1. From Table 4.1, plot the graph of the gauge pressure against actual pressure and
gauge error against actual pressure.

4.6 QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER DISCUSSION


1. What suggestions do you have for improving the apparatus?

31

SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING


UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA
ENGINEERING CAMPUS
EXPERIMENT 5 : FLOW THROUGH A VENTURI METER

5.0

5.1

OBJECTIVES

To validate Bernoullis Theorem

To calculate the value of C d by using venturi meter

INTRODUCTION
The Venturi tube is a device which has been used over many years for measuring

the flow rate along a pipe. As seen from Figure 5.1, it consists of a tapering contraction
section, along which the fluid accelerates towards a short cylindrical throat, followed by a
section which diverges gently back to the original diameter. (The slowly diverging
section is frequently referred to as a diffuser). As the velocity increases from the inlet
section to the throat, there is a fall in pressure, the magnitude of which depends on the
flow rate. The flow rate may therefore be inferred from the difference in pressure,
measured by piezometers placed upstream and at the throat. Such a unit is referred to as a
Venturi flow meter.
Another way of metering the flow would be to insert a sharp edged orifice into the
pipe; whereby the differential pressure produced by flow through the orifice may
similarly be used to infer the flow rate. An orifice meter has the advantages of simplicity
and cheapness. In comparison with the Venturi meter however, an orifice causes a bigger
head loss than a corresponding venturi tube. This is because in the venture tube, much of
the head loss is recovered as the fluid decelerates in the diffuser. The differential
piezometric head from inlet to the throat can be several times greater than the total head
loss across the whole device.

32

Although piezometer tappings are needed only at the upstream section and at the
throat to infer the flow rate, it is instructive in a laboratory experiment to insert numerous
further tappings to show the distribution of piezometer head along the whole length of the
Venturi tube. Therefore, it is possible to calculate the distribution of pressure along the
tube. Comparison with measurements will then show where the losses occur in the unit.

Figure 5.1 : Arrangement of venturi meter apparatus

5.2 THEORY
Bernoullis Theorem stated that

v2 P
Z cons tan t
2g

. (1)

(velocity head) + (pressure head) + (elevation head) = constant


Equation (1) can be expressed as:
2

v1
P
v
P
1 Z1 2 2 Z 2
2g
2g

.(2)

33

Consider flow of an incompressible, inviscid fluid through the convergent-divergent


Venturi tube shown in Figure 5.2. The cross sectional area at the upstream section 1 is
A1, at the throat section 2 is A2, and at any other arbitrary section n is An. Piezometer
tubes at these sections register h1, h2 and hn above the arbitrary datum shown. Note that,
although the tube may have any inclination, it is necessary for the datum to always be
horizontal. So, the elevation head, z = z1=z2=z3=zn. Pressure can be expressed in
piezometer head form: h1 , h2 , hn where it can replace P1/ , P2 / ..Pn /

Figure 5.2: Ideal conditions in a venturi meter

Equation (2) can be expressed as:


2

v1
v
h1 2 h2
2g
2g

.. ..(3)

The continuity equation is:

v1 A1 v 2 A2 v3 A3 .......................v n An
or

34

A
v1 v 2 2
A1
Substituting in Equation (3), gives :
v2

2 g (h1 h2 )
1 ( A2 / A1 ) 2

or
Q A2

2 g (h1 h2 )
1 ( A2 / A1 ) 2

...(4)

This is the ideal flow rate, obtained by assuming inviscid, one-dimensional flow. In
practice, there is some loss of head between sections 1 and 2. Also, the velocity is not
absolutely constant across either of these sections. As a result, the actual values of Q fall
a little smaller of those given by Equation (5).

Q C d A2

2 g (h1 h2
1 ( A2 / A1 ) 2

...(5)

In which Cd known as the coefficient of flow rate in venturi meter. Its value, which
usually lies between 0.92 - 0.99 is established by experiment.
Equation (5) can be expressed as :
Q K (h1 h2 )

(6)

The above equation shows that when the graph Q versus

h1 h2 is plotted, it will form

a straight line which represent the gradient of the graph, K. Cd can be computed by the
equation below :
Cd

K 1 ( A2 / A1 ) 2
A2 2 g

(7)

35

To validate the Bernoullis Theorem, Equation (3) can be expressed as:


2

hn h1 v1 v n

v 22 / 2 g
v 22

...(8)

The continuity equation gives v1 / v 2 ( A2 / A1 ) and v n / v 2 ( A2 / An )


Equation (8) can be replaced with
2

hn h1 A2 A2

v 22 / 2 g A1 An

Equation (9) gives the value of

hn h1
2

v2 / 2 g

.(9)

for inviscid fluid.

For the existing apparatus, the ideal values are tabulated in Table 5.1. The values will be
plotted against the distance from the inlet. The results are compared with the value of

hn h1
2

v2 / 2 g

which is calculated from the observation.

By expressing piezometric changes hn h1 as a fraction of the velocity head

v22
at the
2g

throat, results at different discharges become directly comparable, and it is seen that the
experimental values follow the ideal curve quite well up to the throat, after which a
steadily increasing loss of energy becomes apparent. The dimensions of the meter and the
position of the piezometer tappings are shown in Figure 5.3.

36

(1)

(2)

Diameter
(mm)

Distance from
entrance (mm)

Figure 5.3 : Dimensions of venturi meter and positions of


piezometer tubes

5.3

PROCEDURES
1. The apparatus is first levelled. This is done by opening both the bench supply
valve and the control valve downstream of the meter, so as to allow water to flow
for a few seconds to clear air pockets from the supply hose.

37

2. The control valve is then gradually closed, subjecting the venture tube to a
gradual increase in pressure, which causes water to rise up the tubes of the
manometer, thereby compressing the air contained in the manifold.
3. When the water levels have risen to a convenient height, the bench valve is also
closed gradually, so that when both valves are finally shut off, the meter is left
containing static water at moderate pressure, and the water level in the manometer
tubes stands at a convenient height. The adjusting screws are then operated to give
identical readings for all of the tubes across the whole width of the manometer
board. The board should also be reasonably vertical when viewed from the end.
4. To establish the meter coefficient, measurements are made of a set of differential
heads (h2-h1) and flow rates Q. The first reading should be taken with the
maximum possible value of (h2-h1), i.e with h1 close to the top of the scale and h2
near to the bottom. This condition is obtained by gradually opening both the
bench valve and the control valve in turn.
5. Note all piezometer reading (from A to L) in Table 5.3. The rate of flow is found
by timing the collection of a known amount of water in the weighing tank (Table
5.2), whilst values of h1 and h2 are noted from the manometer scale.
6. Readings are then taken over a series of reducing values of (h2-h1), equally spread
over the available range from 250 mm to zero (Table 5.5). About 7-8 readings
should be sufficient.

38

5.4 RESULT

Experiment 1 : To validate Bernoullis Theorem


Table 5.1 : The distribution of ideal pressure as a fraction of velocity head at throat
Piezometer
tube
No. n
(1)
A (1)
B
C
D(2)
E
F
G
H
J
K
L

Diameter
dn
(mm)
(2)

d2 / dn

( A2 / An ) 2

( A2 / A1 ) 2 ( A2 / An ) 2

(3)

(4)

(5)

Table 5.2: Flow rate


Initial

Volume, V (liter)
Final

Total

Time, t
(s)

Flow rate, Q
(m3/s)

Data required
Flow rate (Q)

m3/s

Velocity at throat section v 2 Q / A2

m/s

Velocity head at throat (v 2 / 2 g )

39

Table 5.3 : Pressure along the venturi meter.


Serial
Number

Piezometer

(1)
(2)
1
A (1)
2
B
3
C
4
D (2)
5
E
6
F
7
G
8
H
9
J
10
K
11
L
* Notes : n change from A to L

hn
(mm)

( hn h1 ) / 1000
(m)

(3)

(4)

( hn h1 ) / 1000
2

v2 / 2 g
(5)

Table 5.4 : Comparison between ideal values and measured values


Ideal values

Measured values

( A2 / A1 ) 2 ( A2 / An ) 2

( hn h1 ) / 1000
2

v2 / 2 g

40

Experiment 2 : To calibrate venturi meter and determine Cd value


Diameter at inlet (d1)

mm

Cross sectional area at inlet (A1)

m2

Diameter at throat (d2)

mm

Cross sectional area at throat (A2)

m2

Table 5.5 : Determination of Cd


S

V
(liter)

(1)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

(2)

t (s)

(3)

Q = (V/10000t)

h1

h2

h1-h2

(h1-h2)1/2

(m3/s)

(mm)

(mm)

(m)

(m)1/2

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

Cd

(9)

Average of Cd
Notes :

h1 = Reading at piezometer A
h2 = Reading at piezometer D

5.5

PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
1. From Table 5.4, plot graph measured

( A2 / A1 ) 2 ( A2 / An ) 2

( hn h1 ) / 1000
2

v2 / 2 g

and

ideal pressure

distribution along venturi meter versus distance from

inlet to contraction section.


2. From Table 5.5, plot graph Q versus (h1-h2)1/2. The plotted gradient line will
represent K value. Cd can be computed using Equation 7.

41

5.6 QUESTION FOR FURTHER DISCUSSION


1. What suggestions have you for improving the apparatus?

42

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