Page 1 of 21

www.Say2Learn.com

Chapter #1
BASIC CONCEPT
Greek philosophers:
Greek philosophers thought that matter could be divided into smaller and smaller particles to reach a
basic unit which could not be further sub-divided. Democritus named these smallest indivisible particles as
atoms derived from atomos which means indivisible. These ideas of Greek philosophers were not based
on experimental evidences

Daltons work:
In 1808, an English school teacher, John Dalton recognized that law of conservation of mass and law
of definite proportions could only be explained by the existence of atoms. He developed a theory about atom
called Daltons Atomic Theory. The main postulate of atomic theory is that all matter is composed of
atoms of different elements, which differ in their properties.

Atom:
The smallest particle of an element which can take pan in a chemical reaction is called atom.
OR
The smallest particle of an element which may or may not exist independently is called an atom.
Examples:
Atoms of He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn can exist independently while atoms of H, O, N etc. do not exist
independently.

Sub-atomic particles:
According to modern researches, atom is composed of sub-atomic particles like electron, proton,
neutron, hypron, neutrino, antineutrino etc. More than 100 such particles are thought to exist in an atom.
However, electron, proton and neutron are regarded as fundamental particles of atoms.

Berzeliuss Work:
A Swedish Chemist, J. Berzelius (1779 l848) determined the atomic masses of elements and also
developed the system of giving symbols to elements.

EVIDENCE OF ATOMS
Invisibility of atoms:
It is not possible actually to see the atoms but the nearest possibility to its direct evidence is by using
an electron microscope.

Requirement for a clear image:

Page 2 of 21

www.Say2Learn.com

For a clear and accurate image of an atom, a wavelength smaller than that of visible light is required.
For this purpose, we use an electron microscope.

Demerit of compound microscope:

An ordinary optical microscope can measure the size of an object up to or above 500 nm
(1nm =10-9 m).

Use of electron microscope:

The objects of the size of an atom can be observed in an electron microscope. It uses beam of
electrons instead of visible light, because wavelength of electron is much shorter than that of visible
light and is most suitable for viewing the atoms.

Electron micro-photograph of graphite:

The figure shown as follows is the electron microscope
photograph of a piece of graphite which has been magnified about
15 millions times. The bright band in the fig is layers of carbon
atoms.

Results of x-rays work:

In the twentieth century, x-ray work (a method used for evidence of atom) has shown that;
Diameter of atoms:
The diameter of atoms is of the order 2 X 10-10 m which is 0.2nm.
Masses of atoms:
Masses of atoms range from 10-27 to 10-25 kg. They are often expressed in atomic mass units.
1 amu = 1.651 X 10-27kg

Consequence:
This shows that the atoms do exist and they are of an amazingly small size. Even a full stop may
have two million atoms present in it.

MOLECULE
Definition:
The smallest particle of a pure substance which can exist independently is called a molecule.

CLASSIFICATION OF MOLECULES
(i) On the basis of its nature:
There are two types of molecule on the basis of its nature:
(a) Homo-atomic molecules
(b) Hetero-atomic molecules
(a) Homo-atomic molecule:
Definition:
A molecule which is composed of same or one kind of atoms is called a homo-atomic
molecule or elemental molecule.

www.Say2Learn.com

Page 3 of 21

examples: O2, O3, P4, S8 etc.

(b) Hetero-atomic molecule:
Definition:
A molecule which is composed of different types of atoms is called a hetero-atomic
molecule or Compound molecule.
examples: CO, SO, NH, CH4 etc.
Atomicity:
Definition:
The number of atoms present in a molecule is called atomicity.
Examples: P4 has 4 atomicity, S8 has 8 atomicity C12H22O11 has 45 atomicity.
(ii) On the basis of atomicity:
On the basis of atomicity, molecules are of two kinds:
(a) Mono-atomic molecule
(b) Polyatomic molecule
(a) Mono-atomic molecule:
Definition:
The molecule that consists of only one atom is called mono-atomic molecule.
examples: molecule of helium, molecule of neon etc
(b) Polyatomic molecule:
Definition:
A molecule that consists of two or more same or different kinds of the atoms is called a polyatomic
molecule.
examples: CO, CO2, O2, O3, C6H12O6 etc.
(It can be diatomic, tri-atomic, and tetra-atomic)
(iii) On the basis of size of molecule:
On the basis of size, molecules are of two types:
(a) Micro-molecules:
They are small in size. They are simple molecules and exist as monomer
examples: H20, CO2, C6H6 etc.
(b) Macro-molecules:
These molecules are large in size having a large number of atoms.
examples: Haemoglobin cellulose, starch, graphite etc.
Haemoglobin:
1) It is a blood protein.
2) It transports oxygen from our lungs to all parts of the body.
3) Each molecule of haemoglobin is made up of nearly l0,000 atoms
4) It is 68,009 times heavier than a hydrogen atom.

Page 4 of 21

www.Say2Learn.com

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ATOM AND MOLECULE

ATOM
1. It is the smallest particle of an element.
2. It is represented by a symbol.
3. It shows the properties of element.
4. It retains its identity in a chemical reaction.
5. It cannot be further sub-divided by ordinary
chemical reactions.
6. It may or may not exist in free state.

MOLECULE
1. It is the smallest particle of a pure substance.
2. It is represented by molecular formula.
3. It shows the properties of the substance.
4. It does not retain its identity in a chemical
reaction.
5. It can be further sub-divided by ordinary chemical
reaction.
6. It can exist in free state.

ION
Denition:
Those species which carry either positive or negative charge are called ions.
Types:
There are two types of ions:
(i) Positive ions or cations.
(ii) Negative ions or anions.
(i) Positive Ion:
It is that ion which is carrying a positive charge. A positive ion is formed when an atom loses one or
more electrons.
A
A+ + e

A-positive ion is also called a cation.

A positive ion may carry +1, -_+2ior +3 charge depending upon the number of electrons lost by the
atom.
We have to supply sufficient amount of energy in order to remove an electron from the valence shell
of an atom. It means the formation of a positive ion is an endothermic process.
Formation of positive ion is an oxidation process.
Metal atom, can easily lose electrons to form positive ions like Na+, K+, Ca2+ and Fe2+ ions.
Size of a cation is smaller than its parent atom.
Na
Na+1 + 1e95pm
186pm
(ii) Negative Ions:
It is that ion which is carrying a negative charge. A negative ion is formed when an atom gains one
or more electrons
B + eB A negative ion is also called an anion.
Size of anion is larger than its parent atom.
Cl + 1eCl99pm
181pm

Page 5 of 21

www.Say2Learn.com

A negative ion may carry -1, -2 or -3 charge depending .upon the number electrons gained by the
atom.
Energy is released when one electron is added in the valence shell of an isolated neutral atom. It
means the formation of a uninegative ion is an exothermic process while the formation of dinegative
ion is an endothermic process.
Non-metals mostly gain electrons and form negative ions like F, Cl, S2 and 02' ions etc.
Formation of anion is a reduction process. These cations and anions have entirely different
properties from their parent atoms.

Polyatomic ions:
These are the positive or negative ions which consist of group of atoms.
The positive poly atomic ions are less common. For example, NH4+ ions and certain carbocations of
the organic chemistry.
There are many examples of negative polyatomic ions like OH-, CO32-' and S042- ions etc

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CATION AND ANION

CATION
1) When an electron is lost by a neutral atom, atom
becomes a positive ion or cation. e.g., Na+,K+ Al3+

3) Formation of cation is an oxidation process.

4) The size of cation is smaller than its neutral atom.
e.g.,
Na
Na+
186 pm
95 pm
5) The behaviour of neutral atom and cation is
different.
6) Usually, electropositive metals, lose electrons and
form cations.

ANION
1) When an electron is gained by a neutral atom,
atom becomes a negative ion or anion e.g., Cl-,
O2-, N3-"etc.
2) Formation of uninegativc ion is an exothermic
process whereas the dinegative and so on are
formed by endothermic process.
O +eOH= -141 kJ/mol
O- +eO2H = +780 kJ/mol
3) Formation of anion is an reduction process.
4) The size of anion is greater than its neutral atom.
e.g.,
Cl
Cl
99pm
181 pm
5) The behaviour of neutral atom and anion is
different.
6) Usually, non-metals gain electrons and form
anions.

7) The charge on cations is equal to number of

electrons lost. e.g.,
Na
Na+ + leCa
Ca2+ + 2eAl
Al3+ +3e-

7) The charge on anions is equal to number of

electrons gained e.g.,
Cl + leCl O + 2eO2N + 3e
N3-

2) Formation of cation is an endothermic process.

Na(g)
Na+ (g)+ 1eH=496 kJ/mol

Page 6 of 21

www.Say2Learn.com

MOLECULAR ION
Definition:
When a molecule gains or losses electron or electrons, it is called a molecular ion.
Types:
There are two types of molecular ion:
(i) Cationic molecular ion:
They have positive charge. They are more abundant than anionic molecular ions. e.g. N2+, CO+, CH4+
etc.
(ii) Anions molecular ion:
They have negative charge. They are less abundant. e.g. O2-2, N2-2 etc.
Formation:
These ions can be generated by passing
(i)
High energy electron beam
(ii)
particles
(iii) X-rays
through a gas.
Application:
The breakdown of molecular ions obtained from the natural products can give important information
about their structure.

RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS

Denition:
It is the mass of an atom of an element as compared to the mass of an atom carbon taken as l2.
The term atomic mass is preferred over atomic weight because mass is more fundamental unit than
weight.
Atomic mass is a relative term. It tells us how heavy or lighter an atom of the element is than an
atom of carbon -l2.
Carbon -l2 is used as a standard because it is stable and exist abundantly.
Relative Atomic Masses of A Few Elements
ELEMENT
H
O
Ne

RELATIVE ATOMIC
MASS(amu)
1.008
15.9994
20.1797

ELEMENT
Cl
Cu
U

RELATIVE ATOMIC
MASS(amu)
35.453
63.546
238.0289

Atomic Mass Unit:

1/12th of the mass of one atom of carbon -12 is called the atomic mass unit. It is abbreviated as
amu".

Page 7 of 21

www.Say2Learn.com

ISOTOPES
Definition:
Atoms of the same element which have the same atomic number but different mass numbers due to
difference in the number of neutrons are called isotopes of that element.
The phenomenon of isotopy was first introduced by Soddy.
Examples:
(i) Isotopes of hydrogen:
Hydrogen consists of three isotopes which are protium, deuterium and tritium. All these isotopes
have the same atomic number i.e., one but they have different mass numbers I, 2 and 3 respectively.
(ii) Isotopes of Carbon:
Carbon also consists of three isotopes which are C-l2, C-l3 and C-l4. All these isotopes have the
same atomic number i.e., six but they have different mass numbers l2, I3 and 14 respectively.

SIMILARITIES AND DISSIMILARITIES OF ISOTOPES OF AN ELEMENT

SIMILARITIES
Isotopes of an element has same
Atomic n-umber.
Number of proton.
Number of electron.
Chemical properties due to have same
electronic configuration.
Position in modern periodic table.

DISSIMILARITIES
Isotopes of 'an element have different
Atomic mass.
Number of neutron.
Radioactive properties due to different
composition of nuclei.
Physical properties.
Half life due to different stabilities.

Relative abundance of isotopes:

Definition:
The percentage of each isotope in a mixture of isotopes of an element is called relative abundance
Different isotopes have their own natural abundance.
The relative abundance of isotopes is measured by mass spectrometry.
The properties of a particular element are mostly corresponding to the most abundant isotope of that
element.
ELEMENT
Hydrogen
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Sulphur
Chlorine
Bromine

ISOTOPES
1
H, 2H
12
C, 13C
14
N, 15N
16
O, 17O, 18O
32

S, 33S, 34S, 36S

35

Cl, 37Cl
79
Br, 81Br

ABUNDANCE (%)
99.985, 0.015
98.893, 1.107
99.634, 0.366
99.759, 0.037, 0.204
95.0, 0.76, 4.22, 0.014
75.53, 24.47
50.54, 49.49

MASS (amu)
1.0078825, 2.01410
12.0000, 13.00335
14.00307, 15.00011
15.99491, 16.99914,
17.9916
31.97207, 32.97146,
33.96786, 35.96709
34.96885, 36.96590
78.918, 80.916

Page 8 of 21

www.Say2Learn.com

Occurrence of isotopes:
At present more than 280 different isotopes are known to exist in nature.
40 radioactive isotopes are also included in this number (280).
Almost 300 unstable radioactive isotopes of different elements have been produced by the artificial
radioactivity.
It has been observed generally that the elements with odd atomic number almost never possess more
than two stable isotopes.
The elements of even atomic number usually have a large number of isotopes.
The isotopes whose mass numbers are multiple of four are particularly abundant. e.g., 160, 24Mg, 28Si,
40
Ca and 56Fe.
The above isotopes exist abundantly and form about 50% of the earth crust.
As already mentioned about 280 isotopes occur in nature. Out of these 280 isotopes l54 isotopes
have even atomic number and even atomic mass.

Elements and their number of isotopes

ELEMENTS
F, I, Au, As (Mono-isotopic elements)
Cl, Br, Ag, Bu (Di-isotpic elements)
H, C, N, Ne, O, U (Tri-isotopic elements)
S (Tetra-isotopic element)
Ni (Penta-isotopic element)
Ca, Pd (Hexa-isotopic elements)
Cd (Nona-lisotopic element)
Sn (Un-deca isotopic element)

NUMBER OF ISOTOPES
1
2
3
4
5
6
9
11

DETERMINATION OF RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS OF

ISOTOPES BY MASS SPECTRMETRY
Mass spectrometry:
It is an instrument used to measure the masses of different isotopes of an element along with their
relative abundance.
Principle of mass spectrometer:
In this technique, a substance is first volatilized and then ionized with the help of high energy beam
of electrons. The gaseous positive ions, thus formed, are separated on the basis of their mass to charge ratio
(m/e) and then recorded in the form of peaks.
Aston Mass spectrograph:
First mass spectrograph was designed by Aston in 1919. It was designed for identification of
isotopes of an element on the basis of their atomic masses.
Dempster's mass spectrometer:
It was designed for identification of elements which were available in solid state.

www.Say2Learn.com

Page 9 of 21

DETERMINATION OF RELATIVE ATOMIC MASSES OF ISOTOPES BY

DEMPSTERS MASS SPECTROMETER
Different steps involved in the determination of exact atomic masses and the relative abundances of
different isotopes of an element are given below:
(1) Vapourization:
The substance, whose analysis for the separation of isotopes is required, is converted into its vapours. The
pressure of these vapours is kept low in the range of 10-6 to 10-7 torr.
(2) Ionization:
These vapours are then allowed to enter the ionization chamber where they are bombarded with high speed
electrons. As a result of this bombardment, the atoms or molecules present in the vapours will be ionized.
The resultant positive ions will have different masses. Their masses will depend upon the nature of the
isotopes present in the given sample of the element. Different isotopes of the same element will have
different masses and different m/e values.
(3) Acceleration-of positive ions:
These positive ions are accelerated by passing them through an electric field. For this purpose, a potential
difference (E) of 500 to 2000 volts is applied between the accelerating plates. These positive ions are
strongly attracted towards the negative plate. In this way, these ions are accelerated.
(4) Separation of Ions:
The beam of accelerated positive ions is then allowed to pass through a strong magnetic field of the strength
H. This magnetic field is applied in a direction which is perpendicular to the path of the positive ions. The
applied magnetic field will help us in these separation of positive ions on the basis of their m/e values. The
magnetic field makes the ions to move in a circular path. The ions of definite m/e value move together in the
form of groups. In this way, one beam containing many types of isotopes splits up into more than one type
of beams. Each beam contains only one type of isotope.
(5) Mathematical explanation:
The mathematical relationship between m/e values and deflection in the circular path is:
m/e = H2r/E
Where,
H = Strength of the magnetic field.
E = Strength of the electric field.
R = Radius of the circular path.

www.Say2Learn.com

Page 10 of 21

(6) Relative Abundance of Isotopes:

The accelerating potential is so adjusted that the positive ions or isotopes of a particular mass to
charge ratio are focused through a slit to the surface of an electrometer. Hence each positive ion gains an
electron to neutralize itself. This will produce an electric current in the electrometer circuit. The strength of
this current is measured. The strength of this current gives the relative abundance of the particular isotope.
The acceleration potential is then readjusted so that the particles of another isotope are made to pass through
the slit and then to the surface of the electrometer. Again electric current is produced and its strength is
measured. This current strength will give the relative abundance of the second isotope and so on. The
current strength in each case gives us the relative abundance of each isotope in the given sample. If the
number of ions of a particular isotope is greater than more current will be produced and we shall get a higher
peak for that isotope in the graph.
(7) Comparison with Carbon-l2:
The same experiment is repeated with Carbonl2 and the current strength is compared with those of
the isotopes. This comparison will help us to know the
exact relative atomic masses of the isotopes in the given
sample.
(8)Modern Spectrograph:
In modem spectrograph, each ion strikes a
detector the ionic current is amplified and is fed to the
recorder. The recorder makes a graph show in the relative abundance of isotopes plotted against the mass
number.
Separation of isotopes:
Since isotopes of an element have same chemical properties, so they cannot be separated by chemical
methods. Following physical methods are used for their separation:
Gaseous diffusion
Thermal diffusion
Distillation
Ultracentrifuge
Electromagnetic separation
Laser separation

Page 11 of 21

www.Say2Learn.com

FRACTIONAL ATOMIC MASS

It is the average mass of all the isotopes of an element as they occur in nature. So the atomic mass
depends upon the number of possible isotopes and their relative abundance. Following examples will
explain it.
Example # 1:
A sample of neon is found to consist of
in the percentages of 90.92%, 0.26%,
8.82% respectively. Calculate the fractional atomic mass of neon.
Solution:
The overall atomic mass of neon is the average of the determined atomic masses of individual
isotopes. Hence,
Average atomic mass = 20 90.92 + 21 0.26 + 22 8.82 100 = 20.18
Hence, atomic mass of neon is 20.18 amu. It is important to realize that no individual neon atom has a mass
of 20.18 amu. For most laboratory purposes, however, we consider the sample to consist of atoms with this
average atomic mass.
Example # 2:
Chlorine has two isotopes
atomic mass of Cl.

as 75.53% and 24.47% respectively. Calculate average

Solution:
Average atomic mass = 35 75.53 + 37 24.47 100 =
35.489 amu

DETERMINATION OF PERCENTAGE OF
ELEMENTS IN A COMPOUND
The percentage of an element in a compound is the number of
grams of that element present in 100 grams of the compound, and is
calculated as:
% of an element = [Mass of element Mass of compound] X 100

EMPIRICAL FORM ULA

Definition:
A chemical formula which shows the simplest whole number ratio between the atoms in a
compound is called empirical formula.
Examples:

Page 12 of 21

www.Say2Learn.com

Empirical formula of glucose = CH2O

Empirical formula of benzene = C6H6
Empirical formula of water = H20
Empirical formula of sodium chloride = NaCl

Steps involved in determination of empirical formula:

The following steps are involved in the determination of empirical formula:
1. Determination of the percentage composition
% of an element = [mass of the element molar mass of compound] X 100
2. Finding the number of gram atoms of each element. For this purpose divide the percentage of an
element by its atomic mass.
Number of moles = [% of an element atomic mass]
3. Determination of the atomic ratio of each element. To get this divide the number of moles of each
element by the smallest no. of moles number of moles
Atomic ratio = [number of moles smallest number of moles]
4. If the atomic ratio is simple whole number, it gives the empirical formula. Otherwise, multiply with a
suitable digit to get a whole number atomic ratio.

COMBUSTION
Definition:
The burning of an organic compound in the presence of oxygen (air) is called combustion.
In abundant supply of oxygen, the sole products of combustion are carbon dioxide and water.
Example:
Burning of coal, paper, oil etc
Organic compounds:
The chemical compounds which contain carbon as central and essential element along with H, N, S,
P, X etc.

COMBUSTION ANALUSIS
Definition:
The analysis which is made to determine the amounts of different elements present in a compound by
burning a known amount of organic compound containing C, H and O in the presence of oxygen is called"
combustion analysis.
Procedure:
A weighed sample of the organic compound is placed in the combustion tube. This combustion tube
is fitted in a furnace. Oxygen is supplied to bum the organic compound. Hydrogen is converted into H20 and
carbon into CO2.
H2O absorber:
Next to combustion tube is H20 absorber. It contains Mg (ClO4) which absorbs H20 produced during
the burning of organic compound.

Page 13 of 21

www.Say2Learn.com

CO2 absorber:
After H2O absorber chamber is CO2 absorber chamber. It contains 50% of KOH which absorbs CO2
produced during combustion analysis. The difference in the amounts or masses of these absorbers gives us
the amounts of H20 and CO2

.
Calculations:
% of carbon = [mass of CO2 mass mass of organic compound] X [12/44] X 100
% of hydrogen = [mass of H2O mass of organic compound] X [2.016/18] X 100
The percentage of oxygen is obtained byjthe method of difference
% of Oxygen = 100 - (% of carbon + % of hydrogen)

MOLECULAR FORMULA
Definition:
A formula which shows the actual number of atoms of the elements present in the molecule of a
compound is called molecular formula.
e.g., C6H6, H2O, C6H12O6 etc
Relation between empirical and molecular formula:
1) A compound may have same empirical and molecular formula.
e.g., CH4, H20, CO2, NH3, are the empirical and molecular formulas of the respected compounds.
2) The molecular may be integral multiple of empirical formula e.g., Molecular formula of glucose
C6H12O6 which is six times the empirical formula of glucose (CH2O). The molecular formula of benzene
is C6H6 which is six times the empirical formula of benzene (CH). So molecular formula is related to
empirical formula as:
Molecular formula = n X Empirical formula
3) A compound may have empirical formula but no molecular formula e.g., sodium chloride has empirical
formula NaCl but no molecular formula. The entire ionic compounds have empirical formula but no
molecular formula.

Page 14 of 21

www.Say2Learn.com

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULA

EMPIRICAL FORMULA
Def. A chemical formula which shows the
simplest whole number ratio between the atoms
in a compound is called empirical formula

MOLECULAR FORMULA
Def. A chemical formula which shows the total
no of atoms present in a molecule of a substance
is called molecular formula.

Empirical formula can be determined directly by

different methods e.g., combustion analysis,
elemental analysis etc.

Molecular formula can never be determined

directly. It is determined as follows:
Molecular formula = n(empirical formula)

Empirical formula is used for all compounds.

Examples:
Empirical formula of glucose = CH2O
Empirical formula of water = H2O
Some compounds have same empirical and
molecular formula e.g., Water (H20), Methane
(CH4), Ammonia (NH3) etc.

Molecular formula is used for only molecular

compounds.
Molecular formula of glucose = C6H12O6
Molecular formula of water = H2O

Molecular compounds having same molecular

formula are called isomers e.g., ethyl alcohol or
dimethyl ether has molecular formula C6H6O.

GRAM ATOM
Definition:
Atomic mass of an element expressed in grams is called a gram atom. It is also called one gram
mole or simply a mole of that element.
Formula:
Number of gram atom or mole of an element = (Mass of an element in grams) (Atomic mass of
element)
Examples:
1 gram atom of H = 1.008 g
1 gram atom 0f C = 12.000 g
1 gram atom 0f O = 16.0 g

GRAM MOLECULE
Denition:
Molecular mass of a compound expressed in grams is called gram molecule or gram mole or simply
mole of substance.
Formula:
Number of gram molecule or moles of molecular substance = (Mass of molecular substance in gram)
(Molecular mass of substance)
Examples:
l gram molecule of water
= 18.0 g

Page 15 of 21

www.Say2Learn.com

1 gram molecule of H2SO4 = 98.0 g

l gram molecule of sucrose = 342.0 g

GRAM FORMULA
Definition:
The formula mass of an ionic compound expressed in grams is called gram formula of the
substance. It is also called gram mole or simply mole.
Formula:
Number of gram formula or moles of ionic compound =

(Mass of ionic substance in gram)

(Formula mass of the ionic substance)

Examples:
1 gram formula 0f NaCl
= 58.5 g
1 gram formula 0f Na2CO3 = 106.0 g
1 gram formula of AgNO3 = 170g

GRAM ION
Definition:
Ionic mass of an ion expressed in grains is called one gram ion or one mole of ions.
Formula:
Number of gram ion or mole of ionic species

(Mass of ionic substance in gram)

(Formula mass of ionic substance)

Examples:

l gram formula of OH = I7 g
l gram ion of CO3-2
= 60g
-2
1 gram ion of AgSO4 = 96g

MOLE
Definition:
When the atomic mass of an element, molecular mass of a molecular substance, formula mass of an
ionic compound or ionic mass of an ionic species is expressed in grams is called mole.

OR
The amount of a substance which contains Avogadros number of particles (atoms, molecules, formula
units, or ions) is called mole.
It is denoted by n.
It is abbreviated as mol.
It is the SI unit of measuring the quantity of substance.
Examples:
Element

1 mole of Na

= 23 g

Page 16 of 21

www.Say2Learn.com

Molecular compound
Ionic compound
Ionic specie

l mole of H2O
= 18 g
l mole of NaCl
= 58.5 g
-1
I mole of HCO3 = 61 g

Mole = (Given mass of substance) (at. mass/mol. mass/for. mass)

Mole = (Given mass of substance) (Molar mass)
Definition:
The number of particles (atoms, molecules, formula units or ions) which are present in one mole of
a substance is called Avogadros number.
Symbol:
It is represented by NA.
Value:
Its Value is 6.022 1023
Unit:
Its unit is permole.
Example:
1 mole of Na
l mole of H2SO4
1 mole of CaCl2
-

1 mole of OH

= 23g = 6.022 1023 atoms

= 98g = 6.022 1023 molecule
=111g = 6.022 1023 formula unit

=17g = 6.022 1023 ions

Formulas:
The relationships between amounts of substances in term of their masses and number of particles present
in them are: Number of atoms of element = (Mass of an element Atomic mass) NA
Number of molecules of a compound = (Mass of compound Molecular mass) NA
Number of ion of ionic specie = (Mass of the ion Ionic mass) NA

MOLAR MASS
Definition:
The mass of one mole of a substance is called molar mass.
Unit:
Its unit is g/mole
Examples:
Molar mass of Na
Molar mass of sucrose (C12H22O11)
Molar mass of CaCl2

=
=
=

23 g/mole
342 g/mole
111 g/mole

Page 17 of 21

www.Say2Learn.com

Molar mass of OH-1

l7

g/mole

MOLAR VOLUME
Definition:
The volume occupied by one mole of an ideal gas at STP (0C and 1 atm) is called molar volume.
Symbol :
Its symbol is Vm
Value:
Its value is 22.414 dm3 (0,022414 m3 or 22414 cm3)
Examples:
2g of H2
= I mole of H2
= 22.414 dm3
16mg of CH4
= 1 mole of CH4
= 22.414 dm3
From above examples it is clear that l mole of different gases have same number of molecules, same volume
at STP but different masses.

STOICHIOMETRY
Definition:
The branch of chemistry which deals with the study of quantitative relationship between reactants
and products in a balanced chemical equation is called stoichiometry.
Stoichiometry amounts:
The amounts of the reactants or the products as given by the balanced chemical equation are called
stoiehiometric amounts.
e.g.,
2H2
+
O2
2H2O
2moles
1mole
2moles
4g
32g
36g
Assumptions:
When stoichiometric calculations are performed, we have to assume the following conditions:
(i) All the reactants are converted into products.
(ii) No side reaction occurs.
During stoichiometric calculations, law of conservation of mass and law of definite proportions are obeyed.
Relationships:
(i) Mass-mass relationship:
If we are given mass of one substance, we can calculate the mass of the other substance involved in
the chemical reaction.
(ii) Mass-mole relationship:
If we are-given mass of one substance, we can calculate the moles of the other substance and vice
versa.

Page 18 of 21

www.Say2Learn.com

(iii) Mass-volume relationship:

If we are given mass of one substance, we can calculate the volume of other substance and vice
versa.
Similarly, mole-mole calculations can also be performed.

CHEMICAL EQUATION
Definition:
A statement that describes a chemical reaction in terms of symbols and chemical formulas is called
a chemical equation.
Example:
C + O2
2H2 + O2

CO2
2H2O

Balancing a chemical equation:

There are three methods to balance a chemical equation
(i) Hit and Trial Method
(ii) Redox Method
(iii) Ion electron Method
Limitations of a Chemical Equation :
The demeritsofa chemical equation are as follows;
A Chemical equation does not show the rate of the reaction.
It does not show the conditions necessary for the reaction.
It does not show color, odour or state of the reactants and the products.
We even write the chemical equation, of the reaction that does not occur.

LIMTING REACTANT
Definition:
A reactant which is used or consumed earlier due to its lesser amount and controls the amount of
product formed in a chemical reaction is called limiting reactant.
A limiting reactant is that which:
(i) Controls the amount of product formed
(ii) Is taken in lesser amount
(iii) Is consumed earlier.
(iv)
Controls the rate of reaction.
(v)
Examples:
(i)
Consider the following reaction between H2 and O2 to form water:
2H2 + O2
2H2O
2 mole l mole
2 moles
Suppose we allow 2 moles of H2 to react with 2 moles of O2. According to the above equation 2
moles of H2 will react with only one mole of O2 to produce two moles of water. Hence, one mole of
oxygen will be left unreacted because the whole of the given amount of H2 has been consumed.

Page 19 of 21

www.Say2Learn.com

Therefore, no more reaction will take place. In this case, H2 is the limiting reactant because it is,
consumed first during the chemical reaction and it is controlling the chemical reaction between H2
and O2.
(ii)
C
l mole

(iii)

O2
l mole

CO2
l mole

Suppose, we allow 2 moles of carbon to react with one mole of 02. According to the above equation
one mole of O2 will react with only one mole of carbon to form one mole of CO2. Hence, one mole
of carbon will be left unreacted because the whole of the amount of O2 has been consumed.
Therefore, no more reaction will take place. In this case 2 will be the limiting reactant because it is
consumed first during the chemical reaction and it is controlling the chemical reaction between
carbon and 02.
Consider the following reaction between H2 and Cl2 to form HCI
H2
+
Cl2
2HCI
l mole
l mole
2 mol
Suppose, we allow one mole of H2 to react with 2 moles of Cl2. According to the above equation one
mole of H2 will react with only one mole of Cl2 to form two moles of HCI. Hence, one mole of Cl2
will be left unreacted because the whole of the given amount of H2 has been consumed. Therefore, no
more reaction will take place. In this case H2 will be the limiting reactant because it is consumed first
during the chemical reaction and it is controlling the chemical reaction.

Identification of Limiting Reactant:

The following three steps should be followed to find out the limiting reactant:
(i)
Determine the number of moles from the given amount of reactant.
(ii)
Calculate the number of moles of the product with the help of a balanced chemical equation.
(iii) Identify the reactant which produces the least number of moles of the required product. This will be
the limiting reactant.

YIELD
Definition:
The amount of products obtained in a chemical reaction is called yield.
Types:
Yield is of three types
(i) Theoretical yield
(ii) Actual yield
(iii) Percentage yield
(i) Theoretical yield:
The amount of the products calculated from a balanced chemical equation is called theoretical
yield.
It is also known as calculated yield or expected yield.

Page 20 of 21

www.Say2Learn.com

It is the maximum amount of the product which can be produced by a given amount of the reactant
according to a balanced chemical equation.
Theoretical yield of a reaction is always greater than the actual yield of the same reaction.

(ii) Actual yield:

The amount of the products obtained with a given amount of the reactant in an actual experiment is
called actual yield.
It is also known as experimental yield.
The actual yield of a chemical reaction is always less than the theoretical yield.
(iii) Percentage yield:
It is equal to the ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical yield multiplied by 100
The formula is:
Percentage yield = (Actual yield Theoretical yield) 100
The efficiency of a chemical reaction is determined with the help of percentage yield.

DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN THEORETICAL AND ACTUAL YIELD

THEORETICAL YIELD
Def. The amount of product calculated from a
balanced chemical equation is called theoretical
yield.
It is also called expected yield or calculated
yield.
No need to perform experiment. Just to calculate
from balanced chemical equation.
Theoretical yield is always greater than actual
yield.

ACTUAL YIELD
Def. The amount of product obtained while
performing a chemical reaction is called actual
yield.
It is also called experimental yield
In order to get actual yield experiment has to be
performed.
Actual yield is always lesser than the theoretical
yield.

KEY POINTS

Atoms are smallest particles of elements which combine to give molecules. Electron microscope
provides evidence of existence of atoms and molecules.
Atoms or molecules may lose or gain electrons to give ions. Positive ions are cations and negative are
anions.
Atomic mass is expressed in a.m.u. It can be calculated from relative abundance of isotopes.
Spectrometer separates isotopes on the basis of their m/e value for isotopic mass determination.
Chemical formula is either empirical or molecular formula. Molecular Formula = n x Empirical
Formula is their mathematical relationship. Combustion analysis is used to calculate empirical formula
and ultimately the molecular formula.
Particles of one mole substance is Avogadros No. Its value is 6.021023 and dnoted by NA.
Molar volume of ideal gas at STP is 22.414 dm3.
Quantitative study of reactants and products in balanced equations stoichiometry.
If non-stoichiometric amounts of reactants are taken the reactant that is consumed earlier is limiting
reactant and it controls the amount of product produced. Left over reactants is non-limiting reactants.

Page 21 of 21

www.Say2Learn.com

Actual yield is usually less than theoretical yield. Reasons are in experience worker, any aside reaction,
reversible reaction, unsuitable conditions, mechanical loss or impure reactants.
Efficiency of a reaction is checked by percentage yield
Percentage yield = (Actual yield Theoretical yield) 100

Elements with odd atomic no.

not more than two isotopes.
Isotopes with even mass no.
abundant.
Elements with even atomic no.
large no. of isotopes.
Isotopes with even atomic no. and even atomic mass
154/280.