Plain Strain

We will derive the transformation equations that relate the strains in

inclined directions to the strain in the reference directions.
State of plain strain - the only deformations are those in the xy plane,
i.e. it has only three strain components x, y and xy.
Plain stress is analogous to plane stress, but under ordinary conditions
they do not occur simultaneously, except when x = -y and when = 0

Strain components x, y, and xy in the xy plane (plane strain).

Comparison of plane stress and plane strain.

Transformation Equations for Plain Strain

Assume that the strain x, y and xy associated with the xy plane are
known. We need to determine the normal and shear strains (x1 and
x1y1) associated with the x1y1 axis. y1 can be obtained from the
equation of x1 by substituting + 90 for .

For an element of size x y

In the x direction, the strain x
produces an elongation x x.
The diagonal increases in length by
x x cos .
In the y direction, the strain y produces an
elongation y y. The diagonal increases in
length by y y sin .

The shear strain xy produces a distortion.

The upper face moves xy y. This
deformation results in an increase of the
diagonal equal to: xy y cos

The total increase d of the diagonal is the sum of the preceding three
expressions, thus:

d = x x cos + y y sin + xy y cos

The normal strain x1 in the x1 direction is equal to the increase in
length divided by the initial length s of the diagonal.

x1 = d / ds = x cos x/s + y sin y/s + xy cos y/s

Observing that x/s = cos and y/s = sin

X 1 = X cos 2 + Y sin 2 + XY sin cos

X1

XY
= X cos + Y sin +
2
2

2 sin cos

Shear Strain x1y1 associated with x1y1 axes.

This strain is equal to the decrease in angle between lines in the material
that were initially along the x1 and y1 axes. Oa and Ob were the lines
initially along the x1 and y1 axis respectively. The deformation caused
by the strains x, y and xy caused the Oa and Ob lines to rotate and
angle and from the x1 and y1 axis respectively. The shear strain x1y1
is the decrease in angle between the two lines that originally were at
right angles, therefore, x1y1 = +.

The angle can be found from

the deformations produced by
the strains x, y and xy . The
strains x and xy produce a cwrotation, while the strain y
produces a ccw-rotation.

Let us denote the angle of rotation produced by x , y and xy as 1 ,

2 and 3 respectively. The angle 1 is equal to the distance x x
sin divided by the length s of the diagonal:
1 = x sin dx/ds
2 = y cos dy/ds
3 = xy sin dy/ds
Observing that dx/ds = cos and dy/ds = sin . The resulting ccwrotation of the diagonal is
= - 1 + 2 - 3 = - (x y) sin cos - xy sin2

The rotation of line Ob which initially was at at 90o to the line Oa can
be found by substituting +90 for in the expression for .
Because is positive when clockwise. Thus
= (x y) sin( + 90) cos( + 90) + xy sin2( +90)
= - (x y) sin cos + xy cos2
Adding and gives the shear strain x1y1
x1y1 = + = - 2(x y) sin cos + xy (cos2 - sin2)
To put the equation in a more useful form:

X 1Y 1
2

= X sin cos + Y sin cos +

X1 = X
Y1 = X

XY
cos + Y sin +
2

sin 2 + Y cos 2 XY
2
2

XY
2

(cos

sin )

2 sin cos

2 sin cos

cos

X1
= sin 2
Y1
X 1Y 1 sin cos
2

X1
X
= [T ]
Y1
Y
X 1Y 1
XY
2
2

X
X1
= [T ]1
Y
Y1
XY
X 1Y 1
2
2

sin
cos 2
sin cos
2

cos 2
[T ] = sin 2
sin cos

xx
1
[ ] = xy
2
1
2 xz

2 sin cos X

2 sin cos Y

2
2

cos sin XY
2

sin 2
cos 2
sin cos

1
yx
2

yy
1
yz
2

2 sin cos
2 sin cos
cos 2 sin 2

1
zx
2
1
zy = Strain _ Tensor
2
zz

Transformation Equations for Plain Strain

Using known trigonometric identities, the transformation equations
for plain strain becomes:

( X

XY
+ Y ) ( X Y )
cos 2 +
sin 2
X1 =
+
2
2
2
( X Y )
X 1Y 1
XY
=
sin 2 +
cos 2
2
2
2
These equations are counterpart of the equations for plane stress
where x1, x, x1y1 and xy correspond to x1, x, x1y1 and xy
respectively. There are also counterparts for principal stress and
Mohrs circle. x1 + y1 = x+ y

Principal Strains
The angle for the principal
strains is
The value for the principal
strains are

XY
tan 2 P =
X Y

(
X + Y )
+
1 =

X Y XY

( X + Y )
2 =

X Y XY

Maximum Shear
The maximum shear
2
2
strains in the xy plane MAX
X Y XY
=+
+
or MAX = (1 2 )
are associated with
2
2 2
axes at 45o to the
MAX (1 2 )
=
directions of the
2
2
principal strains:

Mohrs Circle
for Plane Strain

Example
An element of material in plane
strain undergoes the following
strains: x=340x10-6
y=110x10-6
xy=180x10-6
Determine the following: (a)
the strains of an element
oriented at an angle = 30o ;
(b) the principal strains and (c)
the maximum shear strains.
Solution

X1 =
X 1Y 1
2

( X

+ Y ) ( X Y )

+
cos 2 + XY sin 2
2
2
2
( Y )

= X
sin 2 + XY cos 2
2
2

Then
x1 = 225x10-6 + (115x10-6) cos 60o + (90x10-6) sin 60o = 360x10-6
x1y1 = - (115x10-6) (sin 60o ) + ( 90x10-6)(cos 60o) = - 55x10-6
Therefore x1y1 = - 110x10-6
The strain y1 can be obtained from the equation x1 + y1 = x+ y
y1 = (340 + 110 -360)10-6 = 90x10-6
(b) Principal Strains
The principal strains are readily
1 =
determine from the following equations:
1 = 370x10-6

2 = 80x10-6

2 =

( X + Y )
2

( X + Y )
2

X Y

XY

+
2

Y XY
X

+
2
2

(c) Maximum Shear Strain

The maximum shear strain is calculated from the equation:
max = SQR[((x y)/2)2 + ( xy)2]

or

max = (1 2 )

Then max = 290x10-6

The normal strains of this element is aver = (x + y) = 225x10-6

For 3-D problems

Which is a symmetrical matrix. As in the
case of stresses:

x
1
yx
2
1
2 zx

1
xy
2

1
yx
2
1
zx
2

1
xy
2
1
zy
2

1
zy
2

k
0

l = 0

m 0

1
xz
2
1
yz = 0
2
1
xz
2
1
yz
2

x
1
[ ] = yx
2
1
2 zx

1 2 3

1
xy
2

y
1
zy
2

1
xz
2
1
yz
2
z

 3 I1 2 + I 2 I 3 = 0
I1 = x + y + z
xy xz yz

I 2 = x y + y z + x z
2 2 2
2

xy
yz
xy xz yz
xz

y z
x

I 3 = x y z + 2
2
2
2
2 2 2
2

Dilatation (Volume strain)

Under pressure: the volume will change

V
=
= x +y +z
V

p
V-V

Strain Deviator

Mean strain

x +y +z
=
3
3

It produces a volume change (not a shape change)

1
1
1

xy
xz
x 3
2
2
1

Strain Deviator Matrix

1
1
[D ] = yx y
yz
3
2
2

1
1
1
zy
z
1

zx

0
0
2
3
2
1 3

1
0
[D ] = 0
2
3

1
0
0
3

Application : Strain Gauge and Strain Rosette

Relationships between Stress and Strain

(Hookes Law)
When strains are small, most of materials are
linear elastic.
Tensile:
=
Shear:

Poissons ratio

l z
z =
l0 z

l x
x =
l0 x
Nominal lateral strain
(transverse strain)

lateral strain x
=
Poissons ratio: =
tensile strain
z

=G

Relationships between Stress and Strain

An isotropic material has a stress-strain relationships that are
independent of the orientation of the coordinate system at a point.
A material is said to be homogenous if the material properties are
the same at all points in the body
For isotropic materials
Elastic Stress-Strain Relationships

Uniaxial

Principal Stresses
1 = E1
2 = 0
3 = 0

Principal Strains
1 =

1
E

2 =
3 =

1
E

1
E

Uniaxial Stresses

x

y
z
[ ] =
yz
zx

xy

x
0

0
[ ] =
0
0

0

x

y
z
[ ] =
yz
zx

xy

x

y
z
[ ] =
0
0

0

x =

x
E

= E x

y =

1
E

x
E
y
z E
=
0 0
0
0
0

x
E

E
1
E

z =

E
0

E
1
E
0

x
E

1
G

1
G

0 x
0

0 0

0
0
0
0 0

1
G

Principal Stresses
Biaxial

2
3
Triaxial

E ( 1 + 2 )
1+ 2
E ( 2 + 1 )
=
1+ 2
= 0

1 =

Principal Stresses

1 (1 ) + ( 2 + 3 )
1 = E
1 2 2
2 (1 ) + ( 1 + 3 )
2 = E
1 2 2
3 (1 ) + ( 1 + 2 )
3 = E
1 2 2

Principal Strains
1
2
1 =
E

2 =

2
E

3 =

2
E

Principal Strains

1 =
2 =
3 =

1
E

2
E

3
E

Triaxial Stresses

x

y
z
[ ] =
yz
zx

xy
x

y
z
[ ] =
yz
zx

xy

x

y
z
[ ] =
0
0

0
x

y
z
[ ] =
0
0

0

1
x y z
E
E
E

1
y = x + y z
E
E
E

1
z = x y + z
E
E
E

x =

1
E

x
E
y
z E
=
0 0
0
0
0

E
1
E

E
0

E
1
E
0

1
G

1
G

0 x
y

0
z
0
0
0
0 0

1
G

For an isotropic material, the principal axes for stress and the
principal axes for strain coincide.
1
x y =

XY
tan 2 =
X Y

xy =

xy

xy

(1 )( x y )

2 xy
XY
E
G
tan 2 =
=
=

= tan 2
X Y 1 (1 )( ) 2G (1 ) ( x y )
x
y
E

1
( x y )
E
1
y = ( y x )
E

Plane Stress x =

xy =

Plane Strain

xy

z =

yz = 0

+ y )

zx = 0

z =

yz = 0

E
(1 ) x + y
x =
(1 + )(1 2 )
E
(1 ) y + x
y =
(1 + )(1 2 )
xy = G xy

(1 + )(1 2 )

xz = 0

+y)

TensorsandElasticity
Commonmisconception Cubicmaterialsareisotropic,i.e.theyhave
thesamepropertiesineverydirection.Manypropertiesareisotropic
incubiccrystal,butelasticity,electrostrictionandmagnetostriction
areanisotropicevenincubiccrystals.
Exampleturbineblade
(singlecrystal).Ni
basedwithcuboidal
Ni3Tiintermetallic.It
showsvariationinthe
elasticconstantwith
thedirectionsinthe
material.

Somepolycrystallinematerials
developpreferredorientations
duringprocessing.Theywillshowa
degreeofanisotropythatis
dependentonthedegreeof
preferredorientationortexture.

Tensor: Aspecifictypeofmatrixrepresentationthatcanrelatethe
directionalityofeitheramaterialproperty(propertytensors
conductivity,elasticity)oracondition/state(conditiontensors stress,
strain).
Tensorofzerorank: scalarquantity(density,temperature).
Tensoroffirstrank: vectorquantity(force,electricfield,fluxofatoms).
Tensorofsecondrank: relatestwovectorquantities(fluxofatomswith
concentrationgradient).

Tensorthirdrank: relatesvectorwithasecondranktensor(electric
fieldwithstraininapiezoelectricmaterial)
TensorFourthrank: relatestwosecondranktensors(relatesstrain
andstress Elasticity)
Thekeytounderstandingpropertyorconditiontensorsistorecognize
thattensorscanbespecifiedwithreferencetosomecoordinatesystem
whichisusuallydefinedin3Dspacebyorthogonalaxesthatobeya
righthandrule.
RotationMatrixandEulerAngles: Severalschemescanbeusedto
producearotationmatrix.ThethreeEuleranglesaregivenasthree
counterclockwiserotations:
(a)Arotationaboutazaxis,definedas1
(b)Arotationaboutthenewxaxis,definedas
(c)Arotationaboutthesecondzposition, definedas2

Therotationmatrixaisgivenbythematrixmultiplicationofthe
rotationmatricesofeachindividualrotations:
0
0 cos 1 sin 1 0
cos 2 sin 2 0 1
[a ] = a 2 a a1 = sin 2 cos2 0 0 cos sin sin 1 cos1 0
0
0
1
0
1 0 sin cos 0
cos 2 sin 1 + cos cos 1 sin 2 sin sin 2
cos 2 cos 1 cos sin 1 sin 2
[a ] = sin 2 cos1 cos sin 1 cos2 sin 2 sin 1 + cos cos1 cos2 sin cos2

sin cos 1
sin sin 1
cos

StereographicProjection
Crystallographicdirections,planenormals and
planescanbeallrepresentedinthestereographic
projection.

2 31

Locatingapoleinastereographicprojection:
Findtheangleofthepolewiththethree
axes:

1 0 0 2 3 1
o
cos -1
= 57.6
1 14
0 1 0 2 3 1
o
cos -1
= 36.7
1 14
0 0 1 2 3 1
o
cos
= 74.5
1 14
-1

Example
Therelationshipbetweenorientationandappliedstressisimportant
indescribingthemechanicalperformanceofmanycrystallinemetals
andcomposites.
Therelationshipbetweenappliedstressandcrystaldirectionis
essentialininterpretingthemicroscopicdeformationmechanisms
operatingindeformingcrystals.
2 0 0
ConsiderapropertytensororaconditiontensorT [T ] = 0 3 0

intheoriginal{xyz}axesgivenby:

0 0 1

FindthetensorT ,fortherotation
shownbelowfromtheinitial[100],
[010],[001]axesofacubiccrystal

1 = 45

= 54.7 o

2 = 0 o

cos 2 sin 1 + cos cos 1 sin 2 sin sin 2

cos 2 cos 1 cos sin 1 sin 2
[a ] = sin 2 cos1 cos sin 1 cos2 sin 2 sin 1 + cos cos1 cos2 sin cos2

sin cos 1
sin sin 1
cos
cos 0 sin 45 + cos 54.7 cos 45 sin 0 sin 54.7 sin 0
cos 0 cos 45 cos 54.7 sin 45 sin 0
[a ] = sin 0 cos 45 cos 54.7 sin 45 cos 0 sin 0 sin 45 + cos 54.7 cos 45 cos 0 sin 54.7 cos 0

sin 54.7 sin 45

cos 54.7
sin 54.7 cos 45
cos 45
sin 45
0

1
1

0
[a ] = cos 54.7 sin 45 + cos 54.7 cos 45 sin 54.7
2

sin 54.7 sin 45 sin 54.7 cos 45 cos 54.7

1
1
2

[a ] =

6
1

T = [a ] T [a ]

'

1
2

1
[T ' ] =

6
1

1
2
1
6
1

2
0
0

2
0 3 0

6
1 0 0 1

1
2
1
2
0

1
6
1
6
2
6

6
1

6
1

1
3 2.5
0.289 0.408

= 0.289 0.167 1.65

3
1 0.408 1.65 1.33

Isotropic Materials

x =

x
E

y =
z =

x
E

x
E

E
+

1
yz = yz
G
1
zx = zx
G
1
xy = xy
G

z
E

y
E

z
E

z
E

 x = S11 x + S12 y + S13 z + S14 yz + S15 zx + S16 xy

y = S 21 x + S 22 y + S 23 z + S 24 yz + S 25 zx + S 26 xy

z = S31 x + S32 y + S33 z + S34 yz + S35 zx + S36 xy

yz = S 41 x + S 42 y + S 43 z + S 44 yz + S 45 zx + S 46 xy

zx = S51 x + S52 y + S53 z + S54 yz + S55 zx + S56 xy

xy = S61 x + S62 y + S63 z + S64 yz + S65 zx + S66 xy
x S11

S 21
y

= S
z S31
=
yz S 41
zx S51
S is the
compliance matrix
xy S61

[ ] [ ][ ]

S12
S 22
S32

S13
S 23
S33

S14
S 24
S34

S15
S 25
S35

S 42
S52
S62

S 43
S53
S63

S 44
S54
S64

S 45
S55
S65

S16 x

S 26 y
S36 z

S 46 yz
S56 zx

S66 xy

Isotropic Materials
An isotropic material has stress-strain relationships that are
independent of the orientation of the coordinate system at a point.
The isotropic material requires only two independent material
constants, namely the Elastic Modulus and the Poissons Ratio.

1
0
0
0

E
E
E

x
0 0 0 x

E
E
E

y
1

0
0
0

z
z
E
E
E
=

1

yz 0
0
0
0 0 yz
G
zx
zx
1

0

0
0
0
0
xy

xy

1
0
0
0
0
0

 E (1 )
x (1 + )(1 2 )

E
y (1 + )(1 2 )
z
E
=
yz (1 + )(1 2 )
zx
0

xy
0

E
(1 + )(1 2 )
E (1 )
(1 + )(1 2 )
E
(1 + )(1 2 )
0
0
0

[ ] = [C ][ ]
C is the elastic or stiffness matrix

E
0
(1 + )(1 2 )
E
0
(1 + )(1 2 )
E (1 )
0
(1 + )(1 2 )
0
G
0
0

0
0

0 0

0 0 y

z
0 0
yz

0 0 zx

G 0 xy

0 G

The isotropic material requires

only two independent material
constants, namely the Elastic
Modulus and the Poissons
Ratio.

Anisotropic Materials
Up to this point we have limited the study of the properties of materials
to isotropic materials. For the most general linearly elastic anisotropic
materials, a particular component of stress is assumed to depend of all
six components of strain.

x = C11 x + C12 y + C13 z + C14 yz + C15 zx + C16 xy

Where Cij are constants if the material is homogeneous

x C11

y C21
z C31
=
yz C41
zx C51

xy C61

C12
C22
C32
C42
C52
C62

C13 C14
C23 C24
C33 C34
C43 C44
C53 C54
C63 C64

C15
C25
C35
C45
C55
C65

C16 x

C26 y
C36 z

C46 yz
C56 zx

C66 xy

Taking energy considerations the coefficients of this matrix are

symmetric. Hence, instead of 36 independent constant, we have
21 independent constants

x C11

y C12
z C13
=
yz C14
zx C15

xy C16

C12

C13

C14

C15

C22
C23
C24
C25

C23
C33
C34
C35

C24
C34
C44
C45

C25
C35
C45
C55

C26

C36

C46

C56

C is referred to as the elastic matrix

or stiffness matrix.

C16 x

C26 y
C36 z

C46 yz
C56 zx

C66 xy

C11
C
12
C
[C ] = 13
C14
C15

C16

C12
C22

C13 C14
C23 C24

C15
C25

C23
C24
C25
C26

C33
C34
C35
C36

C35
C45
C55
C56

C34
C44
C45
C46

C16
C26
C36

C46
C56

C66

Hence, we can also write

[ ] = [S ][ ]
x S11

y S12
z S13
=
yz S14
zx S15

xy S16

S12
S 22
S 23
S 24

S13
S 23
S33
S 34

S14
S 24
S 34
S 44

S15
S 25
S35
S 45

S 25
S 26

S 35
S36

S 45
S 46

S55
S56

S16 x

S 26 y
S36 z

S 46 yz
S56 zx

S 66 xy

The matrix S is referred to as the compliance matrix and the

elements of S are the compliances.

21 elastic constants are required to describe the most general

anisotropic material (fully anisotropic). This is in contrast to an
isotropic material for which there are only two independent elastic
constants (typically the Young Modulus and the Poissons ratio).

E (1 )
E
x =
x +
( y + z )
(1 + )(1 2 )
(1 + )(1 2 )
E
(1 ) x + ( y + z )
x =
(1 + )(1 2 )

Many materials of practical interest contain certain material

symmetries with respect to their elastic properties (elastic symmetries).
Other type of symmetries are possible optical, electrical and thermal
properties.
Let us determine the structure of the elastic matrix for a material
with a single plane of elastic symmetry. Crystals whose crystalline
structure is monoclinic as examples of materials possessing a single
plane of elastic symmetry. Example Iron aluminide, gypsum, talc,
ice, selenium
Materials with one plane of symmetry are referred to as Monoclinic
materials.

Crystal Systems
Crystallographers have shown that only
seven different types of unit cells are
necessary to create all point lattice
Cubic
a= b = c ; = = = 90
Tetragonal a= b c ; = = = 90
Rhombohedral a= b = c ; = = 90
Hexagonal a= b c ; = = 90, =120
Orthorhombic a b c ; = = = 90
Monoclinic a b c ; = = 90
Triclinic
a b c ; 90

Monoclinic Materials
Let us assume that the z-plane is the plane of elastic symmetry.
For such a material the elastic coefficients in the stress-strain law
must remain unchanged when subjected to a transformation that
represents a reflection in the symmetry plane.
For monoclinic materials (due to one plane of elastic symmetry) the
number of independent elastic constants is reduced from 21 to 13.

x C11 C12

y C12 C22
z C13 C23
=
0
yz 0
zx 0
0

xy C16 C26

C13
C23
C33

0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
C36

C44
C45
0

C45
C55
0

C16 x

C26 y
C36 z

0 yz
0 zx

C66 xy

KEY TO
NOTATION

TRICLINIC (21)

MONOCLINIC (13)

ORTHORHOMBIC (9)

(7)

TETRAGONAL

CUBIC (3)

(6)

HEXAGONAL (5)

(7)

ISOTROPIC (2)

TRIGONAL

(6)

Orthotropic Materials
Let us consider a material with a second plane of elastic symmetry.
The y-plane and the z-plane are the planes of elastic symmetry and are
perpendicular to each other. Again, for such a material the elastic
coefficients in the stress-strain law must remain unchanged when
subjected to a transformation that represents a reflection in the
symmetry plane. For orthotropic materials (due to the two planes of
elastic symmetry) the number of independent elastic constants is
reduced from 21 to 9.

x C11 C12

y C12 C22
z C13 C23
=
0
yz 0
zx 0
0

0
xy 0

C13
C23
C33

0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

C44
0
0

0
C55
0

x

y
z

0 yz
0 zx

C66 xy
0
0
0

Materials possessing two perpendicular planes of elastic symmetry

must also possess a third mutually perpendicular plane of elastic
symmetry.
Materials having three mutually perpendicular planes of elastic
symmetry are referred to as orthotropic (orthogonally anisotropic)
materials.
Long Fiber Composite

Transversely Isotropic Materials

Materials that are isotropic in a plane.
Transversely isotropic materials require five independent material
constants.
0
0

x C11 C12 C13 0
x

C12 C11 C13 0

0
0
y
y

0
0
z C13 C13 C33 0
z

=


0
0
0
0
0
C
44
yz
yz

0
0
0 C44
0
zx 0
zx

(
C11 C12 )

xy
0
0
0
0
0
xy

Isotropic Materials
The isotropic material requires only two independent material
constants, namely the Elastic Modulus and the Poissons Ratio.
0
0
0
C11 C12 C12

x
x C
C
C
0
0
0
11
12

12
y
0
0
0
y C12 C12 C11

z
(
C11 C12 )
z
0
0
0
0
0

=

2

yz
yz
(C11 C12 )

zx 0
0
0
0
0
zx

2


xy
(
C11 C12 ) xy
0
0
0
0
0

C11 =

E (1 )
(1 + )(1 2 )

C12 =

E
(1 + )(1 2 )

(C11 C12 ) =
2

E
=G
2(1 + )

Engineering Material Constants for Orthotropic Materials

The quantities appearing in the coefficient matrix can be written
in terms of well understood engineering constants such as the
Young Modulus and the Poissons ratio.
x = E x x
For the x, y and z coordinate axes we can write:
Where the Young Modulus in the x-, y- and zdirections are not necessarily equal.
Any extension in the x-axis is accompanied by a
contraction in the y- and z- axis. However, this
quantities are not necessarily equal in orthotropic
materials.
Where xy is the contraction in the y-direction
due to the stress in the x-direction

y = E y y
z = Ez z

y = xy x
z = xz x

[ ] = [S ][ ]

If all three stresses are applied

simultaneously, then:
yx
zx
1
x = x y z
Ex

Ey

x S11

y S12
z S13
=
yz 0
zx 0

xy 0

Ez

xy

zy
1
y = x + y z
Ex
Ey
Ez
yz

xz

S12
S 22
S 23

S13
S 23
S33

0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

S 44
0
0

0
S55
0

x

y
z

0 yz
0 zx

S 66 xy
0
0
0

1
y = x y + z
Ex
Ey
Ez

S11 =

1
Ex

S12 =

yx
Ey

xy
Ex

Comparing with the compliance matrix

for orthotropic materials:
1
1
S 22 =
S33 =
Ey
Ez

S13 =

zx
Ez

xz
Ex

S 23 =

zy
Ez

yz
Ey

Where xy is the contraction in the y-direction due to the stress in

the x-direction

Whereas with
1
xy =
xy
isotropic materials
Gxy
the relationship
1
between shear
S 44 =
G yz
stress and shear
strain is the same in
1
any coordinate

Ex
planes, for
xy
orthotropic
x E
x
materials these

relationships are not y xz
z E
x
the same.
=
yz 0
zx

xy 0

yz

1
yz
=
G yz

1
zx =
zx
Gzx

1
S55 =
Gzx

yx

Ey
1
Ey

yz
Ey

zx
Ez

zy

Ez
1
Ez

1
S 66 =
Gxy
0

0
0

1
G yz

1
Gzx

0
x

y
0
z

yz

0
zx

0 xy

Gxy

 1 yz zy
E E
y z
x
xy + xz zy
y E E
x z
z
= xz + xy yz
yz Ex E y
zx
0

xy
0

yx + zx yz

zx + yx zy

E y Ez
1 zx xz
Ex Ez
yz + xz yx
Ex E y
0
0

E y Ez
zy + zx xy
Ex Ez
1 xy yx
Ex E y
0
0

G yz
0

0
Gzx

0
x

0 y
z
0 yz

0 zx
0 xy

Gxy

1 xy yx yz zy zx xz 2 xy yz zx
Ex E y Ez

In 2-D
1

E
x x
xy
y =
E x
xy
0

yx

Ey
1
Ey
0

0
x

0 y
xy
1
Gxy

Ex

1 xy yx
x
xy E y
y =
1 xy yx
xy
0

x C11 C12

y = C12 C22
0
0
xy

yx E x
1 xy yx
Ey
1 xy yx
0

0
x

0 y
xy
Gxy

0 x

0 y
C33 xy

NeumannsPrinciple
Thisisthemostimportantconceptincrystalphysics.Itstates;
...thesymmetryofanyphysicalpropertyofacrystalmust
includethesymmetryelementsofthepointgroupofthecrystal.This
meansthatmeasurementsmadeinsymmetryrelateddirectionswill
givethesamepropertycoefficients.
Example:NaCl belongstothem3mgroup.The[100]and[010]
directionsareequivalent.
Sincethesedirectionsarephysically
thesame,itshouldbeexpectedthat
measurementsofpermittivity,
elasticityoranyotherphysicalproperty
willbethesameinthesetwo
directions.

7CrystalSystems
cubic

monoclinic

orthorhombic
tetragonal

triclinic

trigonal

hexagonal

CrystalSystem

ExternalMinimumSymmetry

UnitCellProperties

Triclinic
Monoclinic
Orthorhombic
Tetragonal
Trigonal
Hexagonal
Cubic

None
One2foldaxis,||tob(bunique)
Threeperpendicular2folds
One4foldaxis,parallelc
One3foldaxis
One6foldaxis
Four3foldsalongspacediagonal

a,b,c,al,be,ga,
a,b,c,90,be,90
a,b,c,90,90,90
a,a,c,90,90,90
a,a,c,90,90,120
a,a,c,90,90,120
a,a,,a,90,90,90

AnisotropyFactor
CubicSymmetry

Forcubiccrystals,therearefourthreefoldsymmetry S11 = S 22 = S33

axes(alongthe<111>bodydiagonals)suchthat:
S12 = S 23 = S31
Thereisareductionofthenineconstantsfor
orthotropicsymmetrytothree.Ananisotropicfactor
A,canbedefinedforcubiccrystals
Usingthedirectioncosinesl,m,n foraparticular
direction,onecandeterminetheelasticproperties
ofacubicsinglecrystalinaparticulardirectionby
therelationship:

S 44 = S55 = S66

2( S11 S12 )
A=
S 44

1
1 2 2

'
= S11 = S11 2 S11 S12 S 44 l m + m 2 n 2 + l 2 n 2
Ehkl
2

Isotropy
Whentheanisotropyfactorisequaltoone,therearejusttwo
independentcomponents,e.g.C11 andC12.Inthisinstance,the
rigidityorshearmodulusGisgivenby:
1
And isgivenby:

1
G = C44 = (C11 C12 ) =
2
S 44

= C12

ThesetwoconstantsareknownastheLameconstantsandareused
todescribealltheelasticconstantsofisotropicmaterials
1
Poissonsratio candeexpressedinterms = S12 = C12 =
S11
C11 + C12
G
21 +
ofLameconstants:

Thecompressibility()orbulkmodulus(K)
relatehydrostaticormeanstresstovolume
2G

strain
G 3 +

E=

G
1 +

K=

mean

2G
=+
3

Example
An orthotropic material has the following properties Ex=7,500ksi,
Ey= 2,500ksi, Gxy = 1,250ksi and xy= 0.25. Determine the principal
stresses and strains at a point on a free surface where the following
strains were measured: x=-400 ; y=600 ; xy=-500 . Consider
plane stress conditions
Solution:

Ex
1
xy yx
x
xy E y
y =
1 xy yx
xy
0

S12 =

yx E x
1 xy yx
Ey
1 xy yx
0

yx
Ey

xy
Ex

0
x

0 y
xy
Gxy

 yx
Ey

xy
Ex

yx

xy

0.25 2500
=
Ey =
= 0.083
Ex
7500

x 7660 638.3
0 400 x10 6

6
0 600 x10
y = 638.3 2553.2
500 x10 6
0

0
1250

xy

x 2681 psi

y = 1276.6 psi
625 psi

xy

1 = 1372.9 psi
2 = 2777.4 psi
Max = 2075.1 psi

E
x x
xy
y =
E x
xy
0

yx

Ey
1
Ey
0

0
x

0 y
xy
1
Gxy

1 = 659
2 = 459
Max = 1118

 XY
500
=
tan 2 =
= 0 .5
X Y 400 600
2 xy
2 ( 625 )
tan 2 =
=
= 0.316
( x y ) 2681 1276 .6
Different angles to obtain the principal stresses and the principal
strains.

Example
Suppose we start with a state of strain (in strain)

Consider an orthotropic material where :

300 50 20
50 200 30 strain

20 30 100

0
103 55 25 0 0

55 50 40 0 0
0

25 40 75 0 0
0
GPa

0 0 45 0
0
0
0
0 0 0 10
0

0 0 0 0 27.6
0

We need to change the strain tensor for a strain vector

300
200

300 50 20
50 200 30 strain = 100 10 6

60

20 30 100
40

100

0
300
103 55 25 0 0
200

55 50 40 0 0
0

100
25 40 75 0 0
0
6

10
[ ] =
GPa

0 0 45 0
0
60
0
40
0
0 0 0 10
0

0 0 0 0 27.6
100
0

44.400
30.500

44.4 2.76 0.4

23.000
2.76 30.5 2.70 MPa
[ ] =
=
MPa

2
.
700

0.4 2.70 23.0

0.400

2.760
Eigenvalues

0
0
22.119
0
MPa
30
.
8154
0

0
0
44.9656

Eigenvector(cosinesfromxyz anglestothe
principalaxes)

0.0217 0.1980 0.9800

0.3130 0.9296 0.1948

0.9495
0.3110 0.0418

Example
Theorthotropicelasticconstantsforbovine(cow)femoral(leg) bone
hasbeenreportedfrommeasurementsusingultrasound.Thevalues
varyonthebasisofthepositionaroundtheboneandalongitslength.
Theelasticconstantscanbedeterminedusingpiezoelectriccrystalsto
propagateandmeasurethespeedofsoundinthematerial.Twotypes
ofelasticconstantscanbedetermined.Propagationofdilatational
wavescanbeusedtomeasurelongitudinalstiffness(e.g.C11)and
propagationshearwavescanbeusedtomeasuretheshearmoduli
(e.g.C44)

C11 = Vdil2

2
C44 = Vtrans

= density
Vdil = wave _ speed _ of _ dilatational _ waves
Vtrans = wave _ speed _ of _ transverse _ waves

Theapproximatelyreportedstiffnessvaluesare:
0
14 6.3 4.8 0 0
FindtheYoungModulus
6.3 18.4 7 0 0

alongthebonelength(z
4.8 7
25 0 0
0

MPa direction)?Andalongthe
0
0 7 0
0
radialdirection(xandy
0
0
directions).
0
0 0 6.3 0

0
0 0 0 5.3
0
FindthePoissonsratios?
Convertthestiffnessmatrixintoacompliancematrix.
0
0
0
0.086 0.026 0.009

0.026
0
.
07
0
.
014
0
0
0

0.009 0.014 0.046

0
0
0
1
MPa

0
0
0
0
.
14
0
0

0
0
0
0
0.16
0

0
0
0
0
0.19
0

21
= 0.026 21 = 0.373
E2

E3 =

1
1
=
= 21.7GPa
S33 0.046

E1 =

1
1
=
= 11.6GPa
S11 0.086

12
= 0.026 12 = 0.3016
E1

E2 =

1
1
=
= 14.28GPa
S 22 0.07

13
= 0.009 13 = 0.1044
E1

(100)(uvw)

Cos =
=l
Example
2
2
2
1 u +v +w
Determinethemodulusofelasticityforiron
(010)(uvw)

Cos
=
=m
singlecrystalsinthe<111>,<110>and
2
2
2
1 u +v +w
<100>directions.

103 GPa 1 S11 S12

S 44
Fe
8.0 2.8 8.60

Cos =

1
8.6

= 8.0 2 8.0 ( 2.8)

(0) = 8.0
E100
2

E100 = 125GPa
1
8.6 1

= 8.0 2 8.0 ( 2.8)

( + 0 + 0) = 4.75
2 4
E110

(001)(uvw)

1 u +v +w
Directions l
m
100
1
0
1
1
110
2
2
1
1
111
3
3
2

=n
n
0
0
1
3

E110 = 210GPa
1
8.6 1 1 1

= 8.0 2 8.0 ( 2.8)

( + + ) = 3.7
E111
2 9 9 9

E111 = 270GPa