Engine Gas PDF

May 2008
Disclaimer
This publication was prepared for the Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers, the Gas
Processing Association Canada, the Alberta Department of Energy, the Alberta Energy
Resources and Conservation Board, Small Explorers and Producers Association of Canada and
Natural Resources Canada by CETAC-West. While it is believed that the information contained
herein is reliable under the conditions and subject to the limitations set out, CETAC-West and the
funding organizations do not guarantee its accuracy. The use of this report or any information
contained will be at the users sole risk, regardless of any fault or negligence of CETAC-West or
the sponsors.
Acknowledgements
This Fuel Gas Efficiency Best Management Practice Series was developed by CETAC WEST
with contributions from:
Accurata Inc.
Clearstone Engineering Ltd.
RCL Environmental
REM Technology Inc.
Sensor Environmental Services Ltd.
Sirius Products Inc.
Sulphur Experts Inc.
Amine Experts Inc.
Tartan Engineering
CETAC-WEST is a private sector, not-for-profit corporation with a mandate to encourage

advancements in environmental and economic performance in Western Canada. The corporation
has formed linkages between technology producers, industry experts, and industry associates to
facilitate this process. Since 2000, CETAC-WEST has sponsored a highly successful ecoefficiency program aimed at reducing energy consumption in the Upstream Oil and Gas Industry.
Head Office
# 420, 715 - 5th Ave SW
Calgary, Alberta
Canada T2P2X6
Tel: (403) 777-9595
Fax: (403) 777-9599
cetac@cetacwest.com
Table of Contents
1. Applicability and Objectives ............................................ 1
2. Basic Improvement Strategies......................................... 2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.3
Technology and Equipment

Types of Fuel
Improving Efficiency
Training and Expertise
3. Inspection, Monitoring and Record Keeping................ 10

4. Rapid Feasibility Assessment of Reciprocating
Engine Components ....................................................... 11
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.12
4.13
Number of Operating Hours

Ignition Type
Spark Plugs
Fuel Composition and Quality
Engine Governor Control System Type
Dry Paper Element Air Filtration System
Oil Bath Air Filtration System
Exhaust System Backpressure
Inlet Air Variances
Catalytic Converter
Lean Air-Fuel Ratio
Engine Utilization
Engine Management Systems
5. Operational Checks, Testing and Ajustments.............. 16

5.1
5.2
5.3
Operational Checks
Determining BSFC
monitoring Fuel Efficient Operation
6. Appendices...................................................................... 22
Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
Appendix D
Appendix E
Appendix F
Appendix G
Brake Specific Fuel Consumption

Emission and Greenhouse Gas Aspects
Engine Considerations
Fuel Gas Meter Requirements
Case Studies
Glossary of Terms
References
Figures
Figure 2.1 Engine Heat Source
Figure 5.1 Logic Diagram: Engine Fuel Consumption
Optimization
Figure A1 Reciprocating Engine Part Load Efficiency
Figure A2 Reciprocating Engine Part Load BSFC
Figure A3 Small Stoichiometric Naturally Aspirated Reciprocating
Engine BSFC
Figure A4 Large Stiochiometric Naturally Aspirated Reciprocating
Engine BSFC
Figure A5 Medium Stiochiometric Naturally Aspirated
Reciprocating Engine BSFC
Figure A6 Large Turbocharged Stiochiometric Reciprocating
Engine BSFC
Figure A7 Medium Turbocharged Stoichiometric Reciprocating
Engine BSFC
Figure A8 Very Large Turbocharged Lean Reciprocating Engine
BSFC
Figure A9 Large Turbocharged Lean Reciprocating Engine BSFC
Figure A10 Medium Turbocharged Lean Reciprocating Engine
BCFC
Figure B1 Typical Emissions vs Air-Fuel Ratio
Tables
Table 2.1 Target BSFC in Natural Gas Fuelled Reciprocating
Engines
Table 5.1 Engine Condition Checklist
Table 5.2 BSFC Calculation
Table A1 Engine Fuel Comparison
Table A2 Engine Fuel Delivery Methods
Table A3 Heat Content of Fuel
Table A4 Reciprocating Engine BSFC at Various Speeds and
Loads
Table B1 Emission Components
Table B2 Nitrogen Oxide Emission Standards (BC)
Table B3 Emission Component Importance Factors
Background
The issue of fuel gas consumption is increasingly important to the oil and gas
industry. The development of this Best Management Practice (BMP) Module is
sponsored by the Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers (CAPP), the
Gas Processing Association Canada (GPAC), the Alberta Department of Energy,
Small Explorers and Producers Association of Canada (SEPAC) Natural
Resources Canada (NRC) and the Energy Resources and Conservation Board
(ERCB) to promote the efficient use of fuel gas in engines used in the upstream
oil and gas sector. It is part of a series of 17 modules addressing fuel gas
efficiency in a range of devices.
This BMP Module:
identifies the typical impediments to achieving high levels of operating

efficiency with respect to fuel gas consumption;
presents strategies for achieving cost effective improvements through

inspection, maintenance, operating practices and the replacement of
underperforming components; and
identifies technical considerations and limitations.
The aim is to provide practical guidance to operators for achieving fuel gas
efficient operation while recognizing the specific requirements of individual
engines and their service requirements.
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5.
EFFICIENT USE OF FUEL GAS

IN THE UPSTREAM OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY
MODULE 7 of 17: Engines
1.
Applicability and Objectives
This module provides guidance for operating staff to recognize when fuel
consumption is higher than the minimum achievable for a specific application.
The determination of fuel gas efficiency is made by prescribed calculations that
yield the efficiency of the engine based upon the fuel input and power required
for the application.
The majority of engines use sweet natural gas or sales gas for fuel but may also
use propane or diesel. This module is applicable to all types of fuel but
differences in heating values must be considered for efficiency calculations.
The information provided in this module serves to outline opportunities for
optimization of engines used in the upstream oil and gas industry. Tools are
provided for supervisory and operations personnel to evaluate engines and not
only identify, but quantify opportunities for optimization.
Engines are devices used to convert fuel energy into mechanical energy. The
mechanical power is for loads such as gas compressors, pumps, electrical
generators and other devices. The mechanical power from the engine equals the
power required by the load. This module outlines and quantifies opportunities for
operations and supervisory personnel to optimize engines based on their load
requirements.
Efficient Use of Fuel Gas in Engines

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2.
Basic Improvement Strategy
The most significant elements of long-term operating efficiency are the

application of best available technology, implementation of operating and
maintenance systems and management commitment. Efficient operation of
rotating equipment requires:
knowing what each equipment element was designed to do and what it is

currently required to do,
the conduct of periodic checks and adjustments,
routine testing and correction of abnormalities,
assessment of opportunities to install upgrades and replacement of

inefficient equipment, and
retention of records.
2.1
Technology and Equipment
The first step in moving toward higher levels of fuel gas efficiency should always
be to understand what the engine was designed to do and what modifications
have been made since it was placed in service. This should provide an early
indication of the suitability of the installed equipment for the service and if the
equipment is likely to be able to meet the prescribed performance standards.
Knowledge of the equipment will also help to identify what changes may be
required to achieve higher levels of fuel gas efficiency. Following this, efforts
should be made to bring the installation in line with manufactures specifications
for the installation, use and maintenance of the equipment. Section 5 of this
Module provides guidance for the assessment of engines. Guidance on
assessing the driven equipment is contained in Module 8: Compressors.
The two main types of engines available are reciprocating and turbine. Each has
characteristics that allow a designer to make a best choice according to the
application requirement. In the upstream oil and gas industry the most common
fuel is natural gas. The following discusses the variation in engine types
according to:
fuel type,
natural gas variations,
separable engine types,
integral engine types,
turbines.

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Proven processes and technology are available to both optimize and sustain
equipment operation. The important issue is to recognize an opportunity for
application to the technology in this regard. More importantly is to consult with
industry expertise to understand existing technologies.
Engine Uses
Engines are employed in upstream oil and gas applications to drive a variety of
equipment. The selection of the driver is dictated by the lowest cost engine that
fits the duty of the application. Considerations governing engine choice are
speed (rpm), fuel quality, altitude, ambient temperature and the characteristics of
the load.
Speed can be adjusted by gears to suit the requirements of the driven equipment
(increase or decrease). The complexities of the gear box and torsion aspects
add cost and maintenance requirements. Engine rated speed is also related to
the size of the engine. Reciprocating engine speeds vary between 1,800 RPM for
the smaller engines (up to 1,000 HP) and 900 RPM for the larger models (up to
4,500 HP). The typical maximum operating speeds for the most popular
reciprocating engine models in upstream applications is 1,800 RPM (80 to 600
HP), 1,200 RPM (700 to 1,800 HP) and 1,000 RPM (1,800 to 3,000 HP). Gas
turbines naturally run at much higher speeds. Smaller models also run faster
than larger models. The rotor tip speed needs to be higher on the smaller
models to maintain efficiency. Turbine operating speeds in excess of 10,000
RPM are common.
Fuel quality will also dictate the choice of engine. Upstream oil and gas
applications often take fuel from the process stream and it may not be sufficiently
conditioned to meet the engine manufacturers standard. Reciprocating engines
are quite sensitive to fuel quality. The manufacturer will specify a power de-rate
to accommodate hot fuels (higher in propane and butane). Limits on the H2S
content of the fuel are also imposed. They specify sweet, clean, dry fuel gas with
a methane content of over 90% (typically at 900 Btu) for most engines to develop
full nameplate power. Gas turbines are more accommodating to different
qualities of fuel. The manufacturer will configure the engine to burn a wider
range of Btu value fuels as well as gas with much higher levels of H2S content
than a reciprocating engine.
Elevation and ambient temperature play a significant role in developing all the
rated power for an engine.
Increasing the ambient temperature of the
combustion air will decrease the density of the air. Thus less combustion air
enters the engine to mix with the fuel than at the rated conditions (factory test
cell). The engine manufacturers de-rate the nameplate power for warmer
combustion air. Similarly, higher elevation has the same affect by reducing the air
density. Turbochargers and superchargers will offset the affect of higher

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temperature or elevation on power de-rates by increasing the benchmark at

which the manufacturer will apply the power reduction. The magnitude of power
de-rate is specific to engine model and manufacturer. Power de-rate must be
considered for the speed and demand of the load (driven equipment).
Engines can be used to drive portable or stationary equipment. Upstream
applications are primarily stationary applications, albeit the equipment may be
mounted on a mobile base.
The reciprocating engine design allows for the conversion of a reciprocating
motion as noted by the up and down travel of the piston to a rotary motion using
a lever action against a shaft that is placed at right angles to the input force. This
conversion to rotary motion provides a constant force that is capable of spinning
a driven member for the purpose of doing work. Appendix C provides a detailed
discussion of engine design and fuel implications.
The natural gas powered reciprocating engines used within the industry range in
power from 5 to 10,000 brake horsepower. The operating speeds vary from 500
rpm to 1800 rpm. Engine displacement ranges up to *285 L / 17,400 cubic
inches of displacement (*example: Waukesha 16V-AT27GL).
The first reciprocating engines incorporated an integral design with the
compressor frame. These engines incorporated a large diameter cylinder bore
and long piston stroke. The volume of the air-fuel mixture contained within the
cylinder for combustion places limits on the speed at which the engine can
operate. The greater the volume of the air-fuel mixture within the cylinder the
more time required to complete the combustion process. The rate at which the
flame front spreads through the air-fuel mixture to initiate and complete the
combustion process limits the engine speed. The greater the volume of air-fuel
within the cylinder consequently more time required to complete the burn
process. High speed engines are designed with small bores and short strokes.
The burn process is completed very quickly and can be repeated more often
allowing for higher operating speeds.
The industry requirements expanded from large plant settings where gas was
drawn from the fields for processing and compression to meet sales line
requirements. The shift towards the installation of compression closer to the gas
fields and in some cases wellhead locations drove the development of equipment
that is more readily installed, easily moved and provides a better match up to the
driven equipment. The combined engine and compressor approach did not offer
the versatility required to meet the oil and gas industry needs. Common integral
engine manufacturers include Cooper Bessemer, Clarke, Dresser Rand, and
Ajax (currently produced). The upstream oil and gas sector contains a limited
population of this equipment. Since the typical worker will not encounter integral
compressors we will not discuss detailed fuel efficiency aspects. General engine
principals will, however, apply to the engine side.

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The modern high speed natural gas fuelled engine design is capable of providing
the same horsepower as the much larger integral design. The rotating
components of the new high speed engine design are lighter in weight which
reduces the parasitic engine horsepower loss related to maintaining inertia
forces. The new high speed designed engine provide smaller contact surfaces
where the piston rings meet the liner bore, offer reduced areas of the crankshaft
bearing areas, a smaller camshaft drive train and lighter cylinder head valve
springing. The result is an engine design that delivers the same horsepower but
in a much more efficient manner that provides the benefits of reduced fuel
consumption rates.
Today the use of separable equipment is prevalent throughout the industry with a
few exceptions that are designed to accommodate site specific applications. The
focus of this study is therefore dedicated to the separable engine drivers.
Turbine Engines
Turbine engines are constructed with three basic processes. The first process is
an air compressor that takes in air and compresses it in a centrifugal wheel
compressor. The second process is combustion. Fuel is added to the
compressed air and blended to a stoichiometric mixture and then ignited. The
third process is expansion. The ignited fuel enters another centrifugal style
wheel (power turbine). Gas expansion drives the wheel and produces engine
power.
Gas turbine efficiency range is typically 25% to 35%. Efficiency tends to increase
as the size of the turbine increases. They are renowned for low efficiency and
complex controls and drive systems. Running speeds are high and gear boxes
may be required to reduce the speed for the driven equipment. The affects of
torsion is an important consideration when evaluating loads for turbine engines.
The attractive aspects of the gas turbine are high reliability, long service intervals
and flexible fuel use. The gas turbine can burn a variety of fuels with minor
changes to the engine. They are capable of burning gasoline, diesel, propane
and natural gas. It is also capable of burning sour natural gas fuel without
damage to the engine (environmental considerations notwithstanding). This can
make it an attractive engine option for remote sites without utility infrastructure
that are producing sour natural gas.
Many models and sizes of industrial gas turbines are available. The market is
dominated by six major manufacturers. Between them, they produce about 40
different models.
The power range for traditional machines (excluding
microturbines) starts at about 1000 HP and extend to the tens of thousands.
They are often specifically designed for the driven application and sold as a
modular assembly. Typical applications include generators, centrifugal and other

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rotary compressors and sometimes reciprocating compressors. They are most

commonly found in mainline transmission booster service or large process
applications.
Their use in upstream applications is limited. As such, they comprise a low
population in upstream oil and gas installations. We will discuss gas turbines
here for general information and to acquaint the reader with their characteristics.
We will not discuss detailed fuel efficiency for these engines since they are
typically not encountered. The engine manufacturer should be consulted for
specific training for those workers who need to operate gas turbines.
2.2
Types of Fuel
The most commonly available fuels in the upstream oil and gas industry are
propane,
diesel,
gasoline,
natural gas.
Normally reciprocating engines are designed to operate on one type of fuel,

although some are able to operate on two fuels. Natural gas is the most common
fuel source in upstream oil and gas operations. It will be considered alone for the
focus of this study. A comparison of fuels is provided in Appendix A.
The fuels are delivered in different methods according to the fuel type. With a
carburetor the air and fuel are mixed before going into the engine cylinder,
whereas with fuel injection the fuel is added either to the air when the intake
valve is open or directly to the engine cylinder. To convert the fuel type for an
engine, consult specialists in this field.
Conversions
An engine designed for natural gas can use propane, with adjustments and viceversa. A gasoline engine can be converted to natural gas or propane with a
change to the fuel delivery device.
Dual Fuel
A diesel engine can be converted to dual fuel natural gas and diesel (typically
>90% natural gas) with a conversion kit, but cannot be easily converted to only
natural gas.

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Similarly turbines are designed for a specific fuel type. Conversion from one fuel
type to another may require extensive modification.
2.3
Improving Efficiency
Decisions to carry out adjustments or replace components should be made on an

individual basis with consideration for health, safety, environmental and
economic considerations. Where adjustments to existing systems are practical,
these should be carried out at the time of testing. At that time, minor component
replacements should also be undertaken. When equipment shut down is
required to undertake improvements, the repair/replacement may be delayed
until the next planned shutdown provided this does not pose any safety concern.
The purpose of an engine or motor is to provide mechanical power to the load.
Efficiency is the fraction of the rate at which mechanical energy is produced (kW
or HP) compared to the rate at which energy is used by the engine or motor.
For an engine or turbine the efficiency is the output in kW divided by the heat
input in kW (1 kW = 1 kJ-s) of the fuel. The losses are the exhaust heat and
friction. For engines and turbines a more common rating is the brake specific
fuel consumption described below. In a natural gas engine or turbine, only some
30 to 40% of the fuel energy is converted to mechanical power. The remainder
of the energy is given off as heat as shown schematically below.
Exhaust gases at
500C+
30 to 35% input energy
Coolants at 80C+
30 to 35% of input
energy
Figure 2.1
Engine Heat Sources

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Brake specific fuel consumption, BSFC, is the ratio of the rate of heat energy
going into an engine to the mechanical power produced by an engine. For a
turbine or engine the rate of energy comes from combustion heat content of the
fuel, which is commonly measured per hour (h) in units of Btu/h or kJ/h. The ratio
of this to the power output is (Btu/h)/HP = Btu/HP-h or (kJ/h)/kW = kJ/kW-h, also
known as the Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC). For engines the energy
in is the lower heating value (LHV) of the fuel rather than the gross (or higher)
heating value (GHV)i. The power out is that delivered at the engine crank,
commonly known as the Brake power. For a detailed analysis of BSFC
calculation refer to Appendix A.
Brake Specific Fuel Consumption varies dramatically for each size of engine and
the nature of its combustion system. BSFC in units of Btu/BHP-h typically ranges
from 6,500 to 11,000 depending on speed and load. These values are the lowest
achievable fuel consumption based on lab test results by the engine
manufacturers in ideal conditions. Fuel consumption for engines in the field can
easily be up to 30% higher than the ideal conditions.
Tables and graphs are included to illustrate the expected performance of each
engine type and a discussion of sources of inefficiency. Key factors in
optimization are the controls to deal with changes to conditions that affect the
engine. Requirements and opportunities with engine management systems are
reviewed.
Variable operating ranges and a variety of engine combustion systems do not
offer a single target measure for fuel efficiency. Table 2.1 shows target BSFC
values for various sizes of engines. The table represents natural gas fuel in
reciprocating engines under full load and at full speed. We have imposed a 20%
premium on the OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturer) values to determine the
best possible fuel consumption in field conditions. This premium is based on field
test results and our experience with field engines over a variety of applications.
Table 2.1
Target BSFC in Natural Gas Fuelled Reciprocating Engines
Size and Combustion System
Large Naturally Aspirated Stoichiometric
Medium Naturally Aspirated Stoichiometric
Small Naturally Aspirated Stoichiometric
Large Turbocharged Stoichiometric
Medium Turbocharged Stoichiometric
Very Large Turbocharged Lean
Large Turbocharged Lean
Medium Large Turbocharged Lean

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BSFC (Btu/BHP-h)
9,240
9,480
9,840
9,360
9,120
8,040
8,760
8,760
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Appendix A offers detailed performance characteristics over a range of speeds

and power outputs. Appendices B, C and D offer information on regulatory
aspects with respect to emissions regulations, greenhouse gases, fuel meter
requirements, and safety.
Section 5 of this module provides guidance for assessing performance
deficiencies and possible corrective actions. The Appendices provide information
on the factors that can have significant impact on engine efficiency.

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2.4
Training and Expertise
It is important to include training and education in any efficiency enhancing

program. When an operating system is properly understood, correctly operated
and adequately maintained the operations group will be in a better position to
provide feedback. An understanding of the equipment and operating scenarios
that may impact the operating efficiency is critical to identifying additional
opportunities for improvement.

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3.
Inspection, Monitoring and Record Keeping
Operators should have a record program to support the companys rotating

equipment testing and improvement system. Proper record keeping should
assist in ensuring that sub-optimal equipment is identified and that appropriate
follow-up actions are implemented.
This information will also assist in
establishing the assessment frequency for each piece of equipment to achieve
cost-effective fuel gas efficiency improvements.
Although each company will define its record keeping system, an effective
program will include the following information:
data sheets for each package,
expected fuel gas consumption for each engine,
records of changes for each unit that have been performed
efficiency testing results and
economic analysis performed on underutilized engines that have not been

adjusted or modified.
Record keeping in support of a companys fuel gas estimates, where

measurement is not provided, may be audited by the ERCB to assess
compliance. In addition, records need to be maintained to demonstrate
compliance with ERCB Directives related to NOx and SOx emissions.

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4.
Rapid Feasibility Assessment
Reciprocating engine operation requires the management of many variables.

This section provides a discussion of the variables that affect fuel consumption in
common engine types. Good equipment condition is a critical element in
reducing fuel consumption; however, this document is not intended to provide a
detailed engine maintenance schedule. That task is considerable for each model
of engine and is best left to the equipment manufacturers. Metrics for evaluating
fuel efficiency and how fuel efficient operation can be maintained are the focus of
this discussion.
Operations personnel who understand the variables are better equipped to
enhance equipment performance and maximize component service life. The
engine condition and fuel consumption will vary with the following aspects.
4.1
Number of Operating Hours
Maintain records of when the equipment was installed, last overhauled or nearing
a major maintenance milestone. Maintain records as to what items were
checked, adjusted, repaired or replaced. Improperly adjusted and worn
equipment uses more fuel than new.
4.2
Ignition Type
The first generation ignition systems are far less efficient than modern systems.
A modern, adaptive ignition system will reduce fuel consumption.
4.3
Spark Plugs
Engines may be fitted with spark plugs originating from different suppliers. The
service life of spark plugs will vary due to materials used in their manufacture,
fuel composition, engine loading and engine speeds. Another factor to consider
is the condition of the ignition system firing the plug. An often overlooked
performance related problem is the spark plug installation procedure itself. The
spark plug body will deform if over tightened during installation. Failure to use a
torque wrench is the leading cause of this failure. An over-tightened sparkplug
will allow combustion gases to escape up through the plug interior and cause
overheating and voltage leakage as carbon trails develop. An improperly
tightened spark plug is also a safety concern as it can separate from its casing
and leaves the combustion chamber open to atmosphere. Plugs that are not
seated properly will not transfer combustion process heat through the plug to the
water cooled engine casting. Failure to achieve this heat transfer will result in
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poor engine performance. The use of precious metal spark plugs will increase
the plug life. Using high quality spark plugs suitable for the application will
reduce fuel consumption.
4.4
Fuel Composition and Quality
Changes in the fuel gas supply may occur during operation as wellhead gas
supply streams co-mingle. Well flow adjustments or the introduction of new well
flow will impact the fuel stream and fuel gas composition. Engine ignition timing
may be affected by fuels with a higher energy value which may reduce the
available power. Conditioning the fuel and installing an adaptive engine
management system can help to restore full power to the engine and reduce fuel
consumption.
4.5
Engine Governor Control System Type
Mechanical governor systems are still in wide use as they are inexpensive, easy
to maintain and simple to adjust. Mechanical governor systems are also prone to
speed instability. The amplitude of instability will increase as the linkage wears
and therefore a means for improved and sustained speed stability is needed. An
electronic governor system will provide that type of control. A number of
electronic governor control systems are available for replacement of the existing
equipment or on newer engines as factory installed equipment.
The purpose of an engine governor is to adjust engine speed to match the load.
Over time, as the governor linkage wears, a wider range of speed variance will
develop. The speed instability allowed by the worn linkage permits the engine to
surge. The maximum speed attained during a surge event may exceed the high
engine speed set point and shut the unit down. Typically the operator will reduce
the operating speed to avoid these nuisance shut down resulting in sub-optimal
engine utilization and inefficiency.
A narrow speed control band will allow the engine to operate closer to the
maximum or desired speed. Engine performance and the driven equipment
production can also be optimized by having a tight range of speed control.
Improved utilization of the existing equipment that avoids adding more power, will
result in increased operational efficiency and ultimately less fuel consumption.
4.6
Dry Paper Element Air Filtration System
Research by manufacturers has caused a shift away from the oil bath filtration
system towards the dry paper elements. The easily replaced or reusable
chemically treated paper pleated air filter elements are proven by engine
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manufactures to provide a 99.9% filtration capability. The high efficiency offers

the best protection for the engine and is not impacted by ambient air
temperatures as compared to oil bath filtration systems which call for seasonal oil
changes. An optional feature is the air filter differential pressure sensor that will
shut the engine down should the filter element restriction increase signalling that
the filters require attention. A differential pressure increase across the paper
element filters will result in poor engine performance, power loss and increased
fuel usage.
4.7
Oil Bath Air Filtration System
Oil bath air filtration systems have a long service history and remain in
widespread use. Ensuring that these filters perform properly requires regular
monitoring and maintenance. The oil reservoir oil level must be maintained
within specifications and debris accumulations in the reservoir sump must be
removed. An over-filled reservoir or an incorrect oil viscosity will result in oil
being drawn into the intake manifold and being consumed within the combustion
chamber. This will impact exhaust emissions. Failure to properly maintain the
filter will allow airborne impurities to enter into the engine. Poorly maintained oil
bath filters do not restrict the air flow rate but render the design characteristics of
the oil bath system ineffective. The entrance of airborne particulates and other
debris such as insects has been shown to increase liner and piston wear rates.
This increases the rate of oil contamination which leads to increases in engine
wear and results in higher fuel consumption.
4.8
Exhaust System Backpressure
The amount of exhaust backpressure will vary among engine types and the
individual installation design. Elevated backpressure in the engine crankcase will
affect the engine performance. Engine manufacturers provide specifications to
ensure that system design is within guidelines. Engines that begin to exhibit
higher than normal backpressure need to be inspected for exhaust system
restrictions or internal failures. Increased exhaust system pressure indicates
inefficiencies which increase fuel consumption.
4.9
Inlet Air Variances
The temperature of the intake air, moisture content, and barometric pressure
constantly change. Very warm inlet air temperature reduces the efficiency of the
engine and increases the fuel consumed to produce the same power due to a
decrease in air density. Cooler air, being denser, allows more air to enter the
combustion chamber so the available power will increase; however, extremely
cold air may result in turbocharger surge on engines with more than one
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turbocharger (a warm air draw system is normally recommended for cold

climates).
4.10 Catalytic Converter

A catalytic element is required to treat the exhaust stream on stoichometric
engines when their emissions are higher than allowed by regulatory limits.
Catalytic converters and the associated control systems require ongoing
maintenance and condition monitoring to ensure optimal performance for
emission reduction and ultimately fuel gas savings. Emissions treated by the
catalyst are typically lower than those from a pre-chamber lean burn engine
design at first but then increase over time. If a catalytic converter is used, the
exhaust emissions will be reduced but without a savings in fuel gas consumption.
The air-fuel ratio is maintained quite rich to maintain hot operating temperatures
and a supply of unburned hydrocarbons for efficient catalyst performance. This
achieves the required emission reduction but has a cost of higher fuel
consumption.
It should be noted that turbocharged rich burn engines can be converted to
operate with leaner air-fuel mixtures using certain engine management systems.
This rich to lean conversion offers the benefits of lower fuel consumption
(typically 10% to 18%) and emissions without the penalty of full lean burn
problems. It also avoids the use of a catalytic converter and extends the service
life of the engine. Details may be discovered in the PTAC report on the REMVue
system qualification listed in the references
4.11 Lean Air-Fuel Ratio

Lean burn engines use a very lean air-fuel mixture to reduce emissions. The airfuel mixture is typically maintained at approximately 30:1 and this is so lean that
a spark plug will not ignite the mixture. To overcome this problem, a prechamber attached to the main combustion chamber is filled with a stoichometric
mixture of air and fuel. The mixture in the pre-chamber is ignited by the spark
plug and a flame front travels into the main combustion chamber to ignite the
lean air-fuel mixture. Since their introduction, the lean burn engines have a
reputation in the industry as being difficult to start and costly to maintain. Fuel
consumption is reduced on lean burn engines compared with rich burn engines.
4.12 Engine Utilization

Low engine power utilization can affect engine reliability. Turbocharged engines
in particular are susceptible to oil leaks and coking when loaded less than 60% of
the power rating. Carbon deposits and head damage can also result when any

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engine is run at low speed and load. However, increasing the speed will
consume more fuel than required for the application. Options should be
considered for modification or replacement of the engine for circumstances
where low loads affect engine reliability.
4.13 Engine Management Systems

Any engine will benefit from installing an engine management system. It
provides adaptive control and, as a result a savings in fuel consumption. The
engine management system allows the operator to change the engine tuning
from best power to best fuel and maintain stable engine operation. Engines
tend to be more sensitive to load changes (and shut down) when run at leaner
air-fuel ratios (best fuel). Factory installed engine controls are less refined and
control best at one set point. Engines, however, are required to operate over a
wide range of conditions, loads and speeds which results in considerable
efficiency loss. Typically a 3% to 5% fuel consumption reduction is available due
to more stable and adaptive engine control alone. An appropriate engine
management system is required to maintain a leaner air-fuel ratio and reduce fuel
consumption as much as possible.
Automatic engine control capability eliminates the periodic adjustments required
with other systems (i.e. on going carburetor adjustments to attain emission
levels). Optimized operation is assured at all times with an adaptive control
system. Another benefit of adaptive control is that the engine speed and driven
load are not set back to accommodate transient upset conditions. This can
produce incremental production gains and fuel gas savings. When a compressor
performance measurement system and process control valves are added to an
engine, more sophisticated automatic compensation routines may be developed.

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5.
Operational Checks, Testing and Adjustments
The impact of performance and service requirements on efficiency necessitates

the identification of what constitutes good performance for each piece of rotating
equipment over the range of process conditions that are normally encountered.
This may require a compromise to maintain the desired operation of one piece of
equipment over another.
Attaining these levels of performance may not be possible in all cases especially
when a unit is grossly oversized in its current application. Units that cannot meet
the objective are candidates for upgrade or replacement. The variety of variables
and components make fuel efficiency testing a complex effort.
An engine checklist and logic diagram is presented in Table 5.1 and Figure 5.1 to
help operations personnel sort through the various details to optimize an engine.
The order of tasks is designed to make the process as efficient as possible and
lead the worker through the controls and capacity issues described in Section 4.
It also identifies which conditions dictate a change in control or when physical
parameters must be changed to accommodate a repair or replacement option.
The goal is to use only the engine fuel required to suit an optimized application.
5.1
Operational Checks
The first part of any fuel consumption efficiency effort is to understand how the
equipment is operating. Indicators of efficient operation can be gathered from
engine power utilization, intake manifold pressure, cylinder temperatures, fuel
quality and other aspects. However, these all require further analysis to allow the
operator to understand how efficient an engine is running. A more accurate and
intuitive measure of efficiency can be derived from monitoring the brake specific
fuel consumption (BSFC) of the engine. Any change in engine efficiency or fuel
quality will trigger an increase in the BSFC.
The purpose of the checklist is primarily to ensure that the engine is operating
properly. These checks can be performed during a site walk around. They
require instrumentation installed on the equipment or portable measurement
devices. They should be recorded on daily basis depending on the availability of
operating personnel. The time to carry out the visual checks is in the range of 30
to 60 minutes.
Efficiency tests are a formal survey of equipment performance. Such testing will
establish the performance of the rotating equipment and identify where action
needs to be taken to improve performance. The driven equipment must also be
optimized as discussed in Module 8: Compression in order to optimize the
engine. An efficiency test may require several hours or days to perform. An
operator must assess the results with adjustments and retesting to determine the
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affect of each change. The task can be overwhelming for large fleets in changing
field conditions.
An automated dynamic software tracking system is
recommended to assist the operator with assessing equipment life and ranking
the candidates deserving attention. The logic diagram will also help to work
through the efficiency test. Operations personnel may wish to add the
parameters identified in Table 5.1 to their daily log data sheets.
5.2
Determining Brake Specific Fuel Consumption
BSFC is defined as Btu/ (BHP*Hr). It is a convenient efficiency measure

because it provides a uniform basis for comparison that includes the power and
the energy value of the fuel. In order to determine BSFC, the engine must be
equipped with an individual fuel gas meter, gas property data, power and a
means to perform the calculation. We have provided a table that will assist the
worker with calculating the BSFC. Appendix A details fuel property calculation
and various conversion factors. A smaller BSFC number means lower fuel
consumption.
The calculation requires fuel flow measurement that can be converted to the total
energy consumed (Btu value of the gas must be known). The power used in the
denominator is calculated based on power used at the time of the measurement.
Several tools may be used to predict power but these must be calibrated against
an actual measurement. A recip trap or similar diagnostic tool can determine
the power used by a reciprocating compressor. The OEM (original equipment
manufacturer) compressor software may then be tuned to produce the same
results as the measured values. Screw compressors are not as easy to measure
the actual power.
A field torsional measurement may be used or the
manufacturer can sometimes advise the accuracy of their software power
predictions. In any event, the engine manufactures power predictions using
manifold pressure are not sufficiently accurate. They advise that it should be
used as a guide only.
It is important to measure the fuel consumption of each individual engine. Using
one meter for a variety of engines will mask inefficiencies in individual engines.
OEM fuel predictions from their test data is also virtually impossible to reproduce
in the field. Actual fuel consumption can be as much as 30% higher than the
factory predicted values. The information required to determine the OEM fuel
predicted for comparison purposes is also included in Appendix A. Knowledge of
the typical deviation will allow use of the OEM prediction as a guide for
comparison of unknown engines (i.e. new to the fleet, moved or replaced).
Field fuel consumption results may also vary between seemingly identical models
due to subtle mechanical design differences and load variables. Engine fuel gas
streams may be derived from a single common source, blended at the header or
from another source. The compressed gas stream is also subject to variables
such as header inlet design, outlet pipe design and plant routing.

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Table 5.1
Engine Condition Checklist
Site Location:
Unit Number:
Engine Model
Driven Equipment Model:
Unit In Service: (Y/N):
Item
Hours from last major
overhaul
Hours from last top end
overhaul
Hours from last service
Fuel pressure
Fuel constituents
Ignition timing
Engine speed
Speed control swings
Engine misfiring
Air filter elements
Oil bath air filter
Exhaust back pressure
Catalytic converter
Air-fuel ratio
Engine management system
Greenhouse gas emissions
Driven equipment optimized
Engine power utilization
Control valve position
Adaptive controls active
Date:
Time:
Serial #:
Serial #:
Outside Temp
Activity
Record hours
Records
Record hours
Record hours
Check pressure
Take sample & cf last sample
Record set point
Record RPM
Record RPM (swing range)
Yes, no?
Check condition and P
Check condition and bypass
Check engine crankcase P
Check condition and P
Record mixture
Active? Record settings
Attach exhaust analysis
Yes, no (last check date)?
Record power used
Record position
Yes, no?
General Observations and Conditions:
Operator:

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Figure 5.1
Engine Fuel Consumption Optimization
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Site Location:
Unit Number:
Engine Model
Driven Equipment Model:
Unit In Service: (Y/N):
Date:
Time:
Serial #:
Serial #:
Outside Temp
Item
Fuel gas density
Activity
Values
lb/scf from gas analysis
OR (if gas density not stated)
Fuel gas specific gravity
No units (SG; relative density)
Density of air
lb/scf at standard conditions
0.0871
Fuel gas density
lb/scf = SG * 0.0871
Fuel mass flow
lb/hr
Fuel flow rate from mass flow scf/h = mass flowgas density
OR (if flow rate is stated on a volume basis)
Fuel flow rate as volume flow scf/h = volume flow rate
Fuel gas heating value
BTU/scf from gas analysis
Btu/h
Volume flow * heating value
Power
Horsepower (calibrated calc)
BSFC (calculated)
Btu/BHP*h = Btu/hPower
Engine speed
Record RPM
Power
Horsepower (calibrated calc)
BSFC (theoretical)
Obtain from OEM data
Actual vs OEM BSFC
Actual BSFC OEM BSFC
Table 5.2
BSFC Calculation
General Observations and Conditions:
Operator:
Conversions:
1 Btu/HP-h = 1.414 kJ/kW-h
1 HP = 0.7457 kW
1 Btu = 1.05435 kJ
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5.3
Monitoring Fuel Efficient Operation
Trending BSFC can show changes in engine performance and give indications of
overall engine health. In order to trend BSFC, the engine must be equipped with
an individual fuel gas meter and a means to perform the calculation. Refer to
section 5.2 for a detailed method of manual calculation. A trend with decreasing
BSFC means that fuel consumption is decreasing. The converse is true for
increasing BSFC.
Workers should review the BSFC and efficiency of their engines each month. If
time and resources do no permit a monthly review then a quarterly review should
be undertaken as a minimum. If conditions for the driven equipment or the
engine have changed then the BSFC should be reviewed again to determine a
new baseline.
It takes a concerted effort to monitor engine performance and the influences that
affect changes in engine operation. Continuous vigilance is needed to maintain
optimized operations. Operators of large fleets will recognize that this is a
daunting task. An automated software system approach to monitoring engine
performance with an integrated operator interface is recommended.
The calculation can be incorporated in the control panel software. Gathering the
fuel gas flow rates is made easier if the panel can log the data on a real time
basis. Estimating load using predetermined algorithms is also easier when
performed in the panel. It is imperative that engine manifold pressure is NOT
used as the power prediction. Tests have proven that power can be substantially
overestimated using that approach.
REMVue panels produced by REM
Technology Inc (A division of Spartan Controls) contain a proven algorithm that is
calibrated to the actual measured power. It is accurate, reliable and scalable.
Data from the panel can be incorporated into the log data collection system for
review by operations personnel.
Another approach is to install a centralized software program that will calculate
the parameters based on electronically communicated log data. Continuous
monitoring is then possible with warnings when the BSFC drifts from the desired
value. Fleet management software is available that present ranked operating
and efficiency data for review. This is by far the most practical approach to
trending unit and engine performance.

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Appendix A
Brake Specific Fuel Consumption
The most commonly available fuels in the upstream gas and oil industry are:
propane,
diesel,
gasoline and,
natural gas.
Normally reciprocating engines are designed to operate on one type of fuel,

although some are able to operate on two fuels. A comparison of these fuels is
provided in Appendix A.
Table A.1
Fuel Comparison
Fuel Type
Costii
Propane
$0.90 per
litre
$1.00 per
litre
$1.20 per
litre
$6.00 per
GJ
$0.08 per
kW-h
Diesel
Gasoline
Natural gas
Electricity
Density
kg/l
0.51
Cost per
GJ
$38.48
Cost per
1000 HP-h*
TBD
0.85
$27.73
$276
0.73
$37.12
TBD
$6.00
$44.26
$65.00
* Cost of producing 1000 HP of mechanical power for 1 hour; a brake specific

fuel consumption of 7000 Btu/HP-h is used for propane, gas, and natural gas
engines, while a brake specific fuel consumption of 0.152 kg/HP-h is used for
diesel enginesiii.

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The fuels are delivered in different methods according to the fuel type.
Table A 2
Fuel Delivery Methods
Fuel Type
Fuel state
Fuel delivery
Propane
Gas
Diesel
Gasoline
Liquid
Liquid
Natural gas
Gas
Carburetor or
Fuel injection
Fuel injector
Carburetor or
Fuel injection
Carburetor or
Fuel injection
Typical compression
ratio
8 to 1
14 to 1
8 to 1
8 to 1
With a carburetor the air and fuel are mixed before going into the engine cylinder,
whereas with fuel injection the fuel is added either to the air when the intake
valve is open or directly to the engine cylinder. To convert the fuel type for an
engine, consult specialists in this field.
Brake specific fuel consumption, BSFC, is the ratio of the rate of heat energy
going into an engine to the mechanical power produced by an engine.
For a turbine or engine the rate of energy comes from combustion heat content of
the fuel, which is commonly measured per hour (h) in units of Btu/h or kJ/h. The
ratio of this to the power output is (Btu/h)/HP = Btu/HP-h or (kJ/h)/kW = kJ/kW-h,
also known as the Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC). For engines the
energy in is the lower heating value (LHV) of the fuel rather than the gross (or
higher) heating value (GHV)iv. The power out is that delivered at the engine
crank, commonly known as the Brake power.
Useful conversion factors
1 kW = 1.341 HP
1 kJ = 0.9485 Btu
1 kJ/kW-h = 0.7073 Btu/HP-h
1 HP = 0.7457 kW
1 Btu = 1.05435 kJ
1 Btu/HP-h = 1.414 kJ/kW-h
The percent efficiency is given by:

% efficiency = 100*2546/BSFC
where BSFC is in Btu/HP-h or
% efficiency = 100*3414.4/BSFC
where BSFC is in kJ/kW
For example the rating 7200 Btu/HP-h = 100*2546/7200 = 35.4 % efficiency.

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The BSFC allows the performance of an engine to be expressed in a way that is

independent of the engine type and size. The smaller BSFC indicates better
engine efficiency.
The BSFC of an engine or turbine in service may be determined from the
following measurements:
fuel composition (gas analysis),
engine fuel consumption rate volumetric or mass flow,
engine power output (HP).
The table below allows a user to calculate the heating content of the fuel either
on a mass or volumetric basis.
Table A3
Heat Content of Fuel
Formula
Volume
(molar)
Fr
LHV
3
MJ/m
Density
at 15 C
kg/m3
Gas
LHV Vol Amt

3
MJ/m
LHV Mass Amt

MJ/kg
Methane
CH4
0.9441
33.85
0.678
Vol(fr)*33.85
Vol(fr)*49.89
Ethane
C2 H6
0.0023
Ethene
C2 H4
Propane
C3 H8
Propene
C3 H6
Iso-Butane
C4H10
N-Butane
C4H10
Iso-Pentane
C5H12
Component
0.0002
60.25
1.271
Vol(fr)*60.25
Vol(fr)*47.41
55.79
1.271
Vol(fr)*55.79
Vol(fr)*43.90
86.16
1.865
Vol(fr)*86.16
Vol(fr)*46.20
81.21
1.865
Vol(fr)*81.21
Vol(fr)*43.55
0.0003
111.67
2.458
Vol(fr)*111.67
Vol(fr)*45.43
0.0001
112.06
2.458
Vol(fr)*112.06
Vol(fr)*45.59
0.0001
137.67
3.051
Vol(fr)*137.67
Vol(fr)*45.12
N-Pentane
C5H12
0.0002
137.85
3.051
Vol(fr)*137.85
Vol(fr)*46.18
N-Hexane
C6H14
0.0003
163.91
3.645
Vol(fr)*163.91
Vol(fr)*44.97
N-Heptane
C7H16
0.0028
189.83
4.231
Vol(fr)*189.83
Vol(fr)*44.87
Carbon Monoxide
Hydrogen
CO
H2
11.93
1.188
Vol(fr)*11.93
Vol(fr)*10.04
10.19
0.085
Vol(fr)*10.19
Vol(fr)*119.57
Hydrogen sulphide
H2 S
21.84
1.441
Vol(fr)*21.84
Vol(fr)*15.15
1.185
0.000
0.000
1.355
0.169
1.691
1.860
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.760
0.000
0.000
Column Total
MJ/m3
Column Total
MJ/kg
Nitrogen
N2
Oxygen
Helium
Argon
Carbon dioxide
O2
He
Ar
CO2
Water vapor
H2 O
Sums
0.046
0.001
0.0026
1.000

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Then the heat content of the fuel going into the engine is either:
Fuel in heat rate = Mass flow rate (kg/h) * LHV (MJ/kg) = MJ/h
OR
Fuel in heat rate = Volume flow rate (m3/h) * LHV (MJ/m3) = MJ/h
To convert to Btu/h multiply by 1054.35
To convert to kJ/h multiply by 1000
The engine or turbine output power can be determined from the load. The total
engine load consists of three parts:
the load generator, compressor or pump,
the cooling fan, if driven by the engine,
auxiliary equipment such as an auxiliary water pump and electrical

generator if driven by the engine.
The engine output is the sum of the load power + fan power + auxiliary
equipment power.
Then:
BSFC (Btu/HP-h) = Fuel in heat rate (Btu/h) / Engine output (HP)
BSFC (kJ/kW-h) = Fuel in heat rate (kJ/h) / Engine output (kW)
For a generator, the generator output may be measured in kW and multiplied by

a factor 100/ (100 Effg) where Effg is the generator loss percentage to account
for friction and heating.
For a reciprocating gas compressor, the load may be measured with a
compressor analyzer with an allowance for friction losses, or calculated from the
measured process parameters and cylinder specificationsv.
For a screw compressor, each manufacturer has load calculation software. As a
note of caution, such software is normally valid for the slide valve position at
100%, and may be in error for slide valve positions less than 100%.
Each pump manufacturer has a proprietary load calculation method. The power
consumed by the cooling fan operating at the rated speed is normally available
from the manufacturer. If the fan pitch is unchanged, the fan load varies as
(RPM)3, so, as an example, a fan with a load rating of 45 HP at 1200 RPM will, at
1000 RPM, consume (1000/1200)3*45 = 26 HP. In the absence on details on the
cooling fan a reasonable value is 3 to 4% of the rated engine load for an enginecompressor combination and 2% of rated engine load for a generator load. The

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power consumed by auxiliary equipment should also be estimated and included.

Frequently these are relatively small (< 10 HP) and not included.
In special cases, items normally included in the engine package, such as the oil
pump and main coolant pump are powered by line powered electric motors. In
such cases the engine rated power is larger than the manufacturers
specification.
Engine Ratings
A manufacturer normally supplies an engine rating for continuous use. Often
there are temperature (coolant and ambient) and altitude de-rating factors.
Check the manufacturers manual to determine if these de-ratings apply for a
particular site.
Part Load Efficiency
An engine has to power various engine components such as the water pump, oil
pump, cam drives and overcome internal friction, no matter what the external
load. At part loads, a larger fraction of the fuel input energy is used to power
these engine components compared to full load operation. The graph below is
an example of the reduction in engine efficiency, as defined by crankshaft output,
at part loads.
BSFC - Turbocharged Stoichoimetric
10000
BTU/HP-h
9500
9000
1200 RPM
1000 RPM
800 RPM
8500
8000
7500
7000
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
% Load
Figure A.1
Part Load Reciprocating Engine Efficiency
The efficiency loss occurs for all engines at part load. The amount depends on
the engine type and the BSFC curve for the engine.

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Turbocharged
W aukesha 7042 Efficiency

relative to full load
Naturally Aspirated
Relative Efficiency
1.05
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90% 100% 110%
Percent Load
Figure A.2
Load Reciprocating Engine BSFC
The amount of power developed by an engine tends to be proportional to the
RPM. Hence the rated output load also is proportional to the RPM. The power
used by the engine components and friction also become smaller as the RPM
becomes smaller. Hence, if the full engine output at the rated RPM is not
required, it is more advantageous with respect to efficiency to operate an engine
at reduced RPM but at a higher percentage load. This is shown below by BSFC
as a function of percent load (at that RPM) for a range of engine RPM values.
For example, if the required output power required for the engine is 900 HP, the
table below shows the expected BSFC for operating at 3 different speeds.
Table A.4
Reciprocating Engine BSFC at Various Speeds and Loads
Engine
Speed
800
1000
1200
% load
BSFC
91%
73%
61%
7550
8000
8500
Efficiency
Comparison
Reference
6% worse
13% worse
If, for example, the clearances on the compressor cylinders can be adjusted to
achieve the desired flow at reduced RPM, an engine efficiency improvement can
be expected.
BSFC and Engine Type
The brake specific fuel consumption rating is valid for both 2 and 4 stroke cycle
engines. It is a valuable way to compare the performance of different engines.

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Generally the BSFC becomes smaller (engine is more efficient) as the

displacement per cylinder becomes larger. Also, the air-fuel ratio control can
affect BSFC and efficiency from differences in combustion completeness and
heat loss during a combustion cycle.
An engine with lean combustion, excess air, will operate with a lower BSFC
(more efficiently) than an engine with a stoichiometric air-fuel ratio. This occurs
because the excess air with lean combustion ensures the fuel is fully combusted
in the engine cylinder, whereas with a stoichiometric engine there is both
unburned fuel and carbon monoxide (CO) in the exhaust gases. These
components are more fully combusted in the exhaust catalyst, producing heat in
the catalyst. In other words, some of the fuel combustion occurs in the catalyst
where it cannot contribute to engine power. The BSFC of such engines are
generally higher than for lean combustion engines.
If an engine uses a mechanically driven blower or super-charger for intake air
compression, this reduces the crankshaft power available for the load. Such
engines have a BSFC some 1500 to 2000 Btu/HP-h larger than the equivalent
turbo-charged engine. An exhaust driven turbocharger does not increase the
BSFC as an exhaust driven turbocharger gets its energy from the hot exhaust
gases produced by the engine.
Pre-combustion chambers (PCC) are small volumes adjacent to the main
combustion volume, where the spark plug ignites a richer mixture than is in the
main chamber. The burning gases ejected from the PCC into the main chamber
readily ignite the air-fuel mixture in the main chamber. PCCs are used on larger
engines to overcome the difficulty in igniting a lean air-fuel mixture and the
reduced flame speeds of lean mixtures. Since the relative volume of the PCCs is
small relative to the main chamber, there is little effect on BSFC compared to
open chamber designs with no PCCs.
BSFC for Different Reciprocating Engine Types and Sizes
The types of reciprocating engines are
naturally aspirated,
turbocharged stoichiometric,
turbocharged lean.
The sizes for purposes of this discussion are
small (bore < 4.0 inches),
medium (bore 4.5 to 6.5 inches),
large (bore 6.5 to 10 inches),
very large (bore > 10.1 inches).

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Naturally Aspirated Engines

A naturally aspirated engine may be operated at stoichiometric, rich, or lean.
Stoichiometric operation is required if the engine has a 3-way catalyst for NOx
and CO reduction. Rich operation is sometimes used to reduce NOx without a
catalyst, but with higher fuel consumption and high carbon monoxide (CO)
emissions. Slightly lean operation (2% exhaust O2) results in improved fuel
efficiency but with increased NOx and higher exhaust temperatures. Leaner
operation (> 4% exhaust O2) can result in improved fuel efficiency and reduced
NOx, but results in a maximum load de-rating.
General Note for the BSFC Curves
The BSFC curves are normally taken with the engine oil and water pump
included but without a fan, alternator, and other optional equipment.

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Applicable engines:
BSFC NA Stoichiometric - Small
Cummins G5.9,
Arrow VRG220,
Ford LRG-425
Not including fan,

alternator, optional
equipment
10000
BTU/HP-h
9500
9000
8500
8000
7500
7000
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200
2400
RPM
BSFC NA Stochiometric - Small

Not including fan,
alternator, optional
equipment
12000
BTU/HP-h
11000
10000
1800 RPM
9000
8000
7000
30%
50%
70%
90%
110%
% Load
Figure A.3
Small Stoichiometric Naturally Aspirated Reciprocating Engine BSF
(Natural Gas)
Generally these small engines (< 100 HP) have an RPM at which the best full
load efficiency is achieved. Above and below that RPM, the fuel efficiency
becomes worse as shown here. The optimum RPM with regard to fuel efficiency
depends on the engine design. Hence, operation at speeds different to the rated
RPM may result in lower fuel efficiency. Information should be requested from
the engine manufacturer. No curves are shown for small turbocharged engines
as these are not common in the field.

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Applicable engines
BSFC NA Stoichiom etric Large
White Superior
G825-6; G825-8;
G825-12
10500
10000
9500
BTU/HP-h
Waukesha VHP
series
F2895G, F3521G,
L5108G, L5790G,
L7042G, P9390G
9000
1000 RPM
8500
800 RPM
1200 RPM
8000
7500
7000
40%
Cat 3500 NA series

3512NA; 3516NA
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100% 110%
Load%
Figure A.4
Large Stoichiometric Naturally Aspirated Reciprocating Engine BSFC
(Natural Gas)
BSFC NA Stoichiometric Medium

10500
10000
BTU/HP-h
Applicable Engines:
Waukesha VGF
Series
F18G, H24G, L36G,
P48G
Cat 3400 NA Series
G3406NA,
G3408NA, G3412NA
Cat 3300 NA Series
G3304NA, G3306NA
9500
9000
1800 RPM
1400 RPM
8500
8000
7500
7000
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100% 110%
Percent Load
Figure A.5
Medium Stoichiometric Naturally Aspirated Reciprocating Engine BSFC
(Natural Gas

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Turbocharged Engines
A turbocharged engine uses an exhaust driven turbo-charger to increase the
manifold air pressure and therefore the rated load. These engines may be
operated at stoichiometric, rich, or lean. Stoichiometric operation is required if
the engine has a 3-way catalyst for NOx and CO reduction. Rich operation is
sometimes used to reduce NOx without a catalyst, but with higher fuel
consumption and high carbon monoxide (CO) emissions. Slightly lean operation
(2% exhaust O2) results in improved fuel efficiency but with increased NOx and
higher exhaust temperatures. Leaner operation (> 4% exhaust O2) can result in
improved fuel efficiency and reduced NOx, but results in a maximum load derating.
10000
13900
9500
BTU/HP-h
Waukesha VHP
Series
F2895GSI,
F3521/3524 GSI,
L5108GSI,
L5790/5794GSI,
L7042/7044GSI,
P9390GSI
1200 RPM
1000 RPM
800 RPM
BSFC - Turbocharged Stoichoimetric

Large Engines
13400
12900
9000
12400
8500
11900
8000
11400
10900
7500
7000
40%
kJ/kW-h
Applicable
Engines
10400
9900
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
110%
% Load
Figure A.6
Large Turbocharged Stoichiometric Reciprocating Engine BSFC
(Natural Gas)

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10000
13900
9500
13400
12900
9000
8500
12400
11900
8000
11400
7500
10900
10400
7000
40%
kJ/kW-h
Cat 3400 Series

G3406TA, G3408TA
G3412TA
1800 RPM
1400 RPM
BSFC - Turbocharged Stoichiometric

Medium Engines
BTU/HP-h
Applicable engines:
Waukesha VGF
Series
F18GSID
H24GSID
L36GSID
P48GSID
9900
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
110%
Percent Load
Figure A.7
Medium Turbocharged Stoichiometric Reciprocating Engine BSFC
(Natural Gas)
Cat 3606, 3612,

3616
1000 RPM
BSFC Lean - Turbocharged

(PCC) Very Large Engine
900 RPM
9000
13200
12700
8500
12200
B TU /H P-h
Applicable
Engines:
Waukesha AT27
Series
8V-AT27GL, 12VAT27GL, 16VAT27GL
8000
11700
11200
7500
10700
10200
7000
9700
6500
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
110%
9200
120%
Percent Load
Figure A.8
Very Large Turbocharged Lean

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Applicable
Engines
Waukesha
F2895GL,
H3521GL,
L5790LE,
L7042GL,
P9390GL, REM
Rich to lean GSI
conversion
1200 RPM

(PCC) Large Engine
1000 RPM
800 RPM
9500
13200
BTU/HP-h
9000
12700
12200
8500
11700
8000
11200
7500
10700
10200
7000
6500
40%
9700
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
9200
120%
110%
Percent Load
Figure A.9
Large Turbocharged Lean Reciprocating Engine BSFC
(Natural Gas)
Cat 3400 Series

G3412LE
1800 RPM

Medium Engine
1400 RPM
9500
13200
9000
BTU/HP-h
Applicable
Engines
Waukesha
F18GL
H24GL
L36GL
P48GL
12700
12200
8500
11700
8000
11200
7500
10700
10200
7000
6500
40%
9700
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
110%
9200
120%
Percent Load
Figure A.10
Medium Turbocharged Lean Reciprocating Engine BSFC
(Natural Gas)

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Appendix B
Emissions and Greenhouse Gas Aspects
Emissions Regulations
Natural gas engines and turbines emit a range of gases resulting from
combustion. The main gases emitted are listed below with a note on current and
possible future regulations in Western Canada.
Table B.1
Emission Components
Emission
Water
Carbon
Dioxide
Nitric oxide
Formula Notes
H2O
CO2
Greenhouse gas
Regulation
None
No current regulation
NO
Part of NOx
Nitrogen
dioxide
Nitrous oxide
Carbon
monoxide
NO2
Part of NOx
N2O
CO
Greenhouse gas
Toxic gas
Volatile
organics
Non-methane
hydrocarbons
Methane
VOC
Organic gases excluding

methane and ethane;
All hydrocarbons except
methane
A greenhouse gas from
unburned fuel
Intermediate combustion
product; lifetime 2 to 6
hours; Carcinogenic
Maximum fuel gas
concentrations specified
by engine manufacturer.
Almost all is combusted in
the engine
From combustion of H2S
Provincial NOx
regulations
Provincial NOx
regulations
Normally not regulated
except for plant specific
limits
NMHC
CH4
Formaldehyde CH2O
Hydrogen
Sulphide
H2S
Sulphur
dioxide
Particulates
SO2
Very low from NG

engines

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Well below regulatory
limits
Regulated; normally site

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Alberta Regulation Alberta - INFORMATIONAL LETTER IL 88-5 June 1988

A few key items are listed below. For more complete information consult
http://www.eub.gov.ab.ca/bbs/ils/ils/pdf/il88-05.pdf
Alberta Environment requires "low NOx" emission technology to be used at all
new compression facilities and at all expansions of existing compression facilities
when the unit size is greater than 600 kW
600 kW=804 HP,
For greater than 600 kW, NOx < 6 g/kW-h (< 4.5 g/HP-h),
No regulation for engines less than 600 kW.
BC regulation Environmental Management Act OIL AND GAS WASTE

REGULATION July 2005
http://www.qp.gov.bc.ca/statreg/reg/E/EnvMgmt/254_2005.htm
Registration and Authorization of Operations The air contaminants
discharged from each driver with a rated power of greater than 600 kilowatts
installed after February 26, 1997 and all drivers with a rated power greater than
100 kilowatts installed after January 1, 2006 comply with the requirements set
out in Schedule 1
From Schedule 1:
Table B.2
Nitrogen Oxide Emission Standards (BC)
Fuel Used to Power

Driver
Maximum Nitrogen Oxide

Emitted
(NOx as NO2, grams per
kilowatt hour)
Natural Gas
2.7
Natural gas/liquid fuel

combinations
6.7
Liquid fuel
10.7
Does not apply for operation < 200 hours per year.

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Other:
Fees are charged for emissions
Fees will be charged for discharges of sulphur and sulphur oxides and
NOx,
All sulphur compounds will be assumed to be completely combusted to

sulphur dioxide,
Fees for sulphur compounds will be assessed on the basis of the fee per
tonne of sulphur dioxide discharged as set in Schedule B of B.C. Reg.
299/92, and
Fees for NOx will be assessed on the basis of the fee per tonne of nitrogen
dioxide discharged as set in Schedule B of B.C. Reg. 299/92, using a
calculation methodology for converting nitrogen oxides to nitrogen dioxide
as specified by a director.
Saskatchewan Regulations - Air Monitoring Directive for Saskatchewan ~

DRAFT ~ EPB 377 April 2007
http://www.se.gov.sk.ca/environment/protection/air/Air%20Monitoring%20Directiv
e%20for%20Saskatchewan.pdf
Ambient Monitoring
Submit yearly estimates of SO2, NOx and CO2 in tonnes per year in the
annual environmental report. Report emergency release of H2S in
estimated tonnes per year.
Shall not exhibit opacity greater than 40% averaged over a period of 6
consecutive minutes.
Operate a flare stack system with a minimum of 12.2 meter height to

ensure proper ground level dispersion of SO2 emissions.
Passive monitoring for H2S and total sulphation (SO3) on a quarterly

basis at a minimum of 2 locations or join the regional air shed association.
Routinely monitor and minimize fugitive air emissions from the plant.
Follow CCMEs Best Management Practices for the control of benzene

emissions.
No regulations specific to Natural gas engines or turbines.

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Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Engine and turbines emit greenhouse gases, GHG, as shown in the table below.
Carbon dioxide is the reference greenhouse gas. Other gases have a
greenhouse effect which is shown by a mass factor. The sum of the greenhouse
gases, multiplied by the appropriate factor give a carbon dioxide equivalent
amount, CO2(e).
Table B.3
Emission Component Importance Factors
Gas
Carbon Dioxide
Methane
Nitrous Oxide
Sources
Fuel combustion
Unburned fuel
Engine misfire
Instrument gas venting
Natural gas leaks
Compressor packing vents
Engine and compressor crankcase venting
Inefficient flares
Engine starting gas
Equipment blow-downs
Pig pressuring and venting
Dehydrators
3-way catalysts
Factor
1
23vi
296vii
Carbon Dioxide The amount of carbon dioxide emitted is proportional to the

amount of fuel consumed. Hence an increase in system efficiency will result in a
reduction in CO2. Examples of efficiency improvements are engine rich-to-lean
conversion, RPM optimization et.al.
Methane - Methane is a potent greenhouse gas. A reduction in the escape of
methane to the atmosphere can dramatically reduce the CO2(e) for a facility.
Obvious improvements result from leak reduction and minimization of equipment
blow-downs. Improvements are possible with the use of SlipStreamTM technology
where low pressure vented gases can be combusted in an engine.
Nitrous Oxide Nitrous oxide, N2O, is distinct from NO and NO2, which, while
produced by engines, have short lifetimes in the atmosphere. Nitrous oxide has a
residence time in the atmosphere of over 100 years. While natural gas engines
and turbines do not produce N2O, some is produced by 3-way catalysts,
particularly those that are poorly maintained.
Two methods are normally employed to estimate the greenhouse gas emissions,
namely CAPP and IPCC. The CAPP method utilizes the measured fuel gas
consumption alone and assumes typical fuel gas composition and thus also
assumes typical values of CH4 and N2O. The CAPP value will thus produce the
most stable results for trending purposes. The IPCC method considers the actual
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fuel gas composition as well as CH4 and N2O values. It places an importance
factor on the relative contribution to greenhouse gases of the components of
emissions as they react in the atmosphere. The IPCC method accounts for the
dual role of carbon as it oxidizes in the atmosphere via CH4, and then CO2 after
11.5 years. The formulae are shown below:
CAPP Method: CO 2e = 2.012 tonnes / e3m3 of fuel combusted
IPCC Method: CO 2e = 310 * N 2O + 21 * CH 4 +
Fuel Gas Carbon Elements
It is normally assumed that the unburned hydrocarbons are all methane in these
estimates. This is a good assumption for a first approximation but other
components are actually present as unburned hydrocarbons and these should
also be quantified. The N2O is an element that is typically not measured in the
equipment manufacturers lab or in the field. The high importance factor assigned
makes it significant even if the amount is small. Indeed it is important to note that
tests on gasoline engines fitted with catalytic converters produced significantly
higher amounts of N2O after the exhaust gases reacted with the catalyst. It
warrants further exploration to determine if this is the case for natural gas
engines using catalysts. Clearly, including any amount of N2O contribution will be
significant.
Typical field emissions measurements do not include CH4 and neither laboratory
or field measurements include N2O components. The quality of field data is
typically insufficient to support a conclusive analysis using the IPCC method. The
CAPP method ignores the fuel gas composition and does a poor job of
accounting for CH4 and N2O elements.
Site Regulations
Normally the regulatory authorities require both a site and equipment application.
The environmental authorities may or may not establish emissions regulations
specific to a particular site in addition to any engine/turbine regulations.
Engine Control
The combustion process and the resulting emissions have a strong dependence
on the air to fuel ratio and the ambient conditions, most notably temperature. The
effect of air fuel control is shown by the graph below that shows NOx, CO and
unburned fuel exhaust emissions as a function of the excess air amount.

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Figure B.1
Exhaust PPM
Typical Emissions vs Air-Fuel Ratio

CO
10000
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
1
3
HC
NOx
0.8
0.9
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
Lambda - e xce ss air
1.
2.
3.
4.
Rich
Stoichiometric
Lean best fuel (meets Alta NOx limits)
Lean low NOx (can achieve < 1 g/HP-h NOx)
If the engine is equipped with a 3-way catalyst to reduce the emissions of NOx
and CO, the air-fuel ratio control must be quite precise, as the limits for reduction
of both NOx and CO are quite narrow.
In stoichiometric or rich-burn engines much of the energy goes up the stack or
to the catalytic converter in the form of CO and unburned methane.
The control system must maintain the desired air-fuel ratio over the expected
ranges of
fuel quality (heating value),
engine load,
engine speed,
ambient temperature.
In general mechanical control systems (e.g. with regulators, levers etc.) are
incapable of achieving the desired control over the expected operational ranges
above. Both theory and practice show that electronic control is much superior.
Nevertheless, not all electronic control systems are capable of achieving good
control for all the above operational ranges, so due diligence is required.
A good control system leads to improved reliability, as the engine/turbine is
operated within the manufacturers design expectations. This has been proven
time and time again in practice.

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Appendix C
Engine Considerations
Engine Design
The oil and gas industry utilized modified diesel engines to drive gas
compression equipment, refrigeration compressors and to power electrical
generators. The term gasification describes the process of converting an engine
from diesel or gasoline fuels to natural gas. The ruggedness of the diesel engine
design provided a benefit to the industry in the form of reliability and exceptional
major component life. The move towards the development of what is termed a
pure natural gas engine design was a combination of the need for a wider range
of engine drivers, diesel engine conversion costs and an opportunity to reduce
overall costs as the diesel engine components were over designed for natural
gas service.
The engine manufacturers responded to the increasing and diverse needs of the
industry. They expanded the range of products to ensure that horsepower output
could be closely matched to needs. This enabled the user to select the best
possible combination of operating speeds, operating ranges, horsepower ratings,
fuel compositions, engine ignition systems and engine control and monitoring
systems to meet specific site requirements.
The natural gas engines used today are fully capable of 24/7 continuous
operation, deliver the full rated horsepower and are controlled and monitored by
fully automated systems. Technological advances in the areas of ignition
systems, speed control, loading, and exhaust emission reduction have improved
starting and run time reliability.
The natural gas engine provides components are physically lighter in weight and
dimensionally smaller than what the diesel engine conversions offered. The
lightening of materials is due to the lower Btu energy forces that are created with
the combustion of natural gas fuels within the combustion chamber. The
reduction in the overall mass of the engine components provides reduced
mechanical forces, lower overall casting weight and physical dimensions. The
reduction in mechanical forces and casting weight also allowed for a reduction in
the amount of structural support and foundation support required.
Engine design and fuel delivery systems vary substantially. The following
description provides a brief orientation of engine design aspects.
Two Stroke Design
The two stroke engine design has seen limited use in the oil and gas industry.
The design is suited to scenarios where the fuel gas supply contains traces of
hydrogen sulphide gas that exceed levels acceptable to the manufacturers of
separable four stroke engine designs.
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The sequence of the two stroke engine operation begins with the piston moving
downwards in the cylinder bore during its power stroke. On its travel downwards
the top of the piston will pass an exhaust port and the pressurized exhaust gases
will exit. The piston continues downwards in its travel. During this phase it
compresses the air-fuel-oil mixture within in the crankcase. The top of the piston
then passes a transfer port and the compressed crankcase charge is allowed into
the cylinder and the remaining exhaust is forced out.
The compression stroke begins with the air-fuel-oil mixture charge in the cylinder.
As the piston begins to move upwards the compression charge in the cylinder
draws a vacuum in the crankcase, pulling in more air, fuel, and oil from the
carburetor. The compressed charge is then ignited by a spark plug and the
resultant explosion of the air-fuel-oil mixture drives the piston downwards in the
cylinder and the process is repeated.
The two stroke design uses the space below the piston for air intake and
compression. This allows the area above the piston to be used for the power and
exhaust strokes. The design offers an advantage in that there is a power stroke
for every revolution of the crank, instead of every second revolution as in a fourstroke engine.
Four Stroke Design
The four stroke engine design is the most prevalent within the industry. The
sequence of operation starts with the piston being positioned at the top dead
center (TDC). This means that the piston position is now furthest away from the
crankshaft. The travel of the piston in the cylinder bore downwards from the TDC
position is referred to as the intake of the piston (first stroke). As the piston
travels down the cylinder bore a vacuum is created and the air-fuel mixture is
drawn into the cylinder aided by the atmospheric pressure or forced into the
cylinder by a turbocharger. The intake valve closes as the piston begins it travel
upwards compressing the air-fuel mixture within the cylinder bore.
As the piston nears the top of its compression travel (second stroke) the air-fuel
mixture is ignited by the spark plug. The combustion process that then takes
place results in a rapid expansion of the ignited gases and the piston is driven
down into the bore delivering its power (third stroke). At the bottom of its stroke
the piston begins its return journey and expels the burnt combustion gases out of
the cylinder past the exhaust valve (fourth stroke).
Naturally Aspirated Engine with Stoichiometric Air-Fuel Mixture
The naturally aspirated engine design relies on the atmospheric pressure
differential created when the piston moves downwards in the cylinder bore to
draw in the air-fuel mixture. The term stoichiometric refers to the perfect ratio of
air to fuel (16.8:1) that matches the oxygen and hydrocarbon molecules so as to
create a complete combustion process; the exhaust stream analysis would show
that there are no unburned hydrocarbons or free oxygen exiting the combustion
chamber.
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Turbocharged Engine with Stoichiometric Air-Fuel Mixture

The turbocharged engine design utilizes the exhaust stream thermal flow energy
to drive an impeller fitted to a shaft that is fitted with a turbine wheel that forces
air into the intake manifold of the engine building a reserve that is of sufficient
quality so as to force the air-fuel mixture under pressure into the cylinder bore.
This process is capable of increasing engine horsepower by approximately 30%
over the same cubic inch displacement that a naturally aspirated version of the
same engine would be capable of producing.
As is the case with the naturally aspirated engine design the term stoichiometric
refers to the perfect ratio of air to fuel (16.8:1) that matches the oxygen and
hydrocarbon molecules so as to create a complete combustion process; the
exhaust stream analysis would show that there are no unburned hydrocarbons or
free oxygen exiting the combustion chamber.
Turbo-charged Engine with Lean Burn Technology
The turbocharged lean burn engine design utilizes the exhaust stream thermal
flow energy to drive an impeller fitted to a shaft that is fitted with an over sized
turbine wheel capable of delivering approximately 80% more air than a standard
turbocharger equipped engine. This forces more air into the intake manifold of
the engine building a much higher reserve of air. The net result is that the ratio
of air-fuel mixture entering under pressure into the cylinder bore may range from
25:1 to 32:1 dependant upon engine design. As is the case with the standard
turbocharger design this process is capable of increasing engine horsepower by
approximately 30% over the same cubic inch displacement that a naturally
aspirated version of the same engine would be capable of producing.
The exhaust gas stream is measured for the percentage of free oxygen as a
means of setting the air fuel ratio of the engine. The excess oxygen forced into
the cylinder ensures that the combustion process is fully completed prior to
exiting into the exhaust manifold.
Supercharged Engine with Mechanical Forced Air Induction Design
The supercharged engine design utilizes a mechanically driven rotary meshing
impeller design to force air into the intake manifold. The mechanical drive
approach provides an even response to changes in speed and loads as it not
reliant upon the thermal energy generated by the exhaust stream to drive an
impeller.
Engine Operating Speed Ranges
The speed ranges of the natural gas fuelled spark ignited reciprocating engines
typically range from 600 to 1800 rpm. The lean burn designed engines are the
exception as their oversized turbocharger capacity requires a specific amount of
thermal heat energy to drive the turbine wheel shaft. The speed range of these
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engines is limited. If the engine is to be operated at a lower rpm a low speed

turbocharger cartridge is installed to match the thermal energy level that is being
generated by the engine.
Separable Engine and Compressor Design
The term separable defines the engine driver and the driven components are
individual rotating elements connected by couplings. This allows mixing and
matching of a wide range of drivers, driven equipment, gearboxes and
accessories. One engine model could be used to drive a compressor, a water
pump, an electrical power generator or other rotating elements.
Integral Reciprocating Engine and Compressor Design
The integral design incorporated a low speed, long piston stroke approach to
generate horsepower and to compress natural gas. The combination of the
engine and compressor into a single unit eliminated the need for drive belts, gear
box drives or clutch assemblies that would manage the transfer of engine power
to the driven component. At the time, industrial equipment was evolving and the
designers working in that period of time offered a modern approach to moving
large volumes of natural gas. The design utilized a single casting combining the
engine power cylinders with the compression cylinders.
The industry has steadily phased out the use of the integral design over the
years due to manufactures obsolescence issues, resultant difficultly in sourcing
of replacement parts and the emergence of the separable concept that offers
features and benefits that greatly improved the economics of plant and field
development and ongoing operations.
The integral engine/compressor designers created a number of models and
variations. The power cylinders were typically arranged in the vertical plain or in
a V configuration. The number of power cylinders would vary from 1 to 16,
dependant upon design philosophy. The compression portion of the design
incorporated varying numbers of cylinders and methods of attachment. The
dimensions of the units would vary widely based upon the design of the
crankcase and the oil sumps. It was not unusual for a plant to provide a
basement located below floor level that would accommodate a secondary
filtration set up so as to facilitate engine filter and oil changes without having to
shut down the engine. The fuel selection process, fuel management systems,
ignition strategy and monitoring and control systems are comparable to the
separable engine design. Surviving integral installations are represented by a
number of different manufacturers and utilize a variety of monitoring and control
systems.

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Fuel Selection
A fuel that is most readily deliverable or available to the site is usually the basis
upon which an engine is selected. The type of fuel and its composition will
determine the engine design selected. The fuel type will determine the
combustion cylinder compression ratio, ignition timing, fuel delivery system and
control system. Fuel supply management will address storage, conditioning,
filtration, regulating supply and delivery pressure rates. The following aspects
must be considered in fuel selection.
Heating Value
The internal combustion engine design is based upon the Btu; British thermal
heating value of the fuel that will be consumed. The physical state in which the
fuel is supplied for combustion purposes, i.e. gaseous or liquid and the stability of
the fuel as determined by an octane or cetane rating, will determine the delivery
system design.
Ignition Strategy
Dependant upon the fuel selected the engine designer will incorporate an ignition
strategy. The natural gas or gasoline engine will employ a controlled electrical
spark source of ignition. Diesel fuel oils will rely on auto-ignition. This is based
upon the heat of compression generated within the combustion chamber as the
piston travels towards top dead center compressing the air trapped above the
piston.
Gaseous State Fuel
Natural gas is a methane based fuel in a gaseous state. Propane is stored in a
liquid state and must be converted to a gaseous state prior to being mixed with
the atmosphere. These fuels enter into a mixing chamber referred to as a
carburetor to create an air-fuel ratio specific homogenous mixture that can be
readily ignited within the combustion chamber by a timed ignition spark event.
Liquid State Fuel
Fuels that are in liquid state (gasoline or diesel) require a mechanical process to
assist in the atomization of the liquid to enable the commingling process with the
incoming air prior to entering into the combustion chamber. Once the mixture has
entered into the combustion chamber, a timed spark event (gasoline engines)
provides the source of ignition. In the case of diesel fuelled engines, auto-ignition
ignites the air-fuel mixture.
Gasoline Fuel Atomization Methodology
The venturi effect is the traditional and low cost approach used to atomize
gasoline. Engine fuel efficiencies and power outputs have been improved
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through the introduction of pressurized injection systems that enhance the

atomization process. This process has greatly improved cold starting capabilities
and enhanced engine responsiveness.
Diesel Fuel Atomization Methodology
The oil based diesel fuel requires a high pressure injection system to facilitate the
atomization of the fuel to enhance the commingling process with the atmosphere
within the engine combustion chamber. The injection is timed to coincide with
the compression cycle and the heat that is being generated as a result. The heat
build up due to the high compression ratios is sufficient to auto-ignite the mixture
of diesel fuel and air.
Engine Compression Ratios
The Btu and composition of a fuel determines the combustion cylinder
compression ratio options. The ratio of compression is determined by measuring
the volume of the cylinder when the piston is at the bottom of it stroke, as
compared to the volume of the cylinder when the piston is at the top of its stroke.
Higher compression ratio engines produce more power per cylinder than lower
compression ratio engines. The increased power output is related to the air fuel
mixture within the cylinder being placed under an increased pressure during the
compression stroke compounding the expansion pressures within the cylinder
combustion chamber. A higher explosive expansion force is exerted upon the
piston top which translates into an increase in overall horsepower.
Fuel Heating Value
The heating value is the amount of energy that a fuel produces for a unit of
volume. The following discussion compares the common fuels used for engines.
Natural Gas
The Btu heating value of natural gas may range from 400 1250 per cubic foot
of gas. The Btu heating value of the hydrocarbon based methane gas is
dependant upon the source. The engine designer determines the horsepower
rating by analyzing a sample of the fuel supply to determining Btu value and
establish the amount of energy that will be is created within the combustion
chamber when the gas is combusted. The percentage content of methane gas is
taken into consideration. A scenario in which the collected methane gas is
emitted during the processing of organic waste products may be dealing with Btu
value as low as 400 per cubic foot of gas. Conversely methane gas contained
within a well reservoir may have a Btu that exceeds 1250 Btu per cubic foot of
gas. The enhanced heat value of the reservoir sourced may be attributed
constituents contained within the stream such as butane and hydrogen. A
precise analysis of the fuel gas stream is required to ensure that the engine
designs compatibility.
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Propane
The Btu heating value of liquefied petroleum gas is approximately 2,500 Btu per
cubic foot of gas. This is a fuel stored in a liquid state that must be converted to
a gaseous state prior to entering the engine combustion chamber. When
compared to natural gas propane is 1.5 times denser and contains a mixture of
butane, butylenes and propylene.
Gasoline
The Btu heating value of gasoline is approximately 150,000 Btu/Imp gallons.
This is a fuel stored in a liquid state and must undergo a mechanical atomization
process to ensure it is evening distributed during its commingling phase with the
incoming air stream. Gasoline may be enhanced with benzene to increase
octane ratings and may include toluene, naphthalene and triethylbenzene. An
octane rating system is used by industry to establish fuel grade standards to
identify the fuel grades auto ignition resistance characteristic referred to as fuel
stability.
Diesel Fuel
The Btu heating value of diesel fuel is approximately 166,600 Btu/Imp gallons.
This fuel is stored in a liquid state and must undergo a mechanical atomization
pressure injection process to ensure that it will mix in with the air being
compressed within the cylinder combustion chamber. The use of a cetane rating
system establishes the fuel grade by measuring its tendency to auto ignite, which
is a desirable characteristic as the diesel engine design relies on the heat
generated during the compression stroke to ignite the air fuel mixture.
Engine Service Life
The internal combustion engine design must be rugged enough to ensure that its
rotating forces can be controlled. Personnel safety and acceptable service life
are the two major design considerations. The combustion process is an
explosive event that generates useable energy and emits or radiates waste heat
by-products. The engine cooling system design may utilize air to air or liquid to
air heat transfer methods. Lubricating oils are selected to reduce frictional
contact with moving parts, provide internal component cooling and to carry away
any contaminates that form during operation. It is not unusual for an engine to
consume some lubricating oils during normal operation. The rate of consumption
is dependant upon the engine design, the severity of service and the lubricant
selected. The oil supplier provides a specification and the operator of the engine
is duty bound to select a lubrication product that has been approved for use by
the engine designer. Over the service life of the engine assembly wear will occur
that may lead to oil consumption. There is a range of formulated lubrication
products within the industry that can be matched to the service duty of the
equipment.

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Engine designers and component manufactures utilize their knowledge base in

selecting materials and development of a design to be compatible with the fuel(s)
that will be consumed. The characteristics of the fuel during handling, metering
and combustion are taken into consideration when designing monitoring and
control systems. The primary objective by suppliers is to provide an engine that
can be safely operated and will develop the horsepower that is required.
The ingestion of fuels other than what an engine has been designed for will result
in poor engine performance, a reduced service life of components and contribute
to the failure of the engine assembly.
Hot Fuel Management
The term hot fuels refer to the increased Btu values contained within a natural
gas fuel source. Higher Btu values the greater the force that will be exerted
against the top of the piston during the combustion process. If a hot mixture is
ignited too early the resultant explosive expansion force is compounded and will
affect engine performance and damage components.
The ignition of the air fuel mixture within the combustion cylinder is a controlled
and precisely timed event. The point at which the ignition source is introduced
and the duration of the ignition input is determined by the fuel type. Engine
designers determined that the hotter the fuel the greater the increase in the rate
of expansion and forces generated during the air fuel mixture combustion
process.
Advanced ignition timing may either impede the pistons travel upwards during the
compression cycle or increase the internal pressures within the cylinder bore.
The result affects the engines design performance. Advanced ignition timing
may result in a compounding of the expansion forces within the cylinder. As the
piston is traveling upwards compressing the air fuel mixture, the forces of inertia
created by the engine flywheel and the other rotating components combine with
the increased rate of expansion with the potential of over stressing components.
The physical evidence of this damaging event is melted or fractured pistons,
broken piston and oil control rings, bending of the connecting rods, excessively
worn connecting rod and main bearings. If undetected the progressive engine
damage may result in a catastrophic failure of the assembly. Engine designers
often retard timing and de-rate the engine to compensate for hot fuels.
The octane rating of the fuel is a measure of the fuels resistance to auto-ignite
during this compression process. This is also referred to as fuel stability. As the
piston travels upwards during its compression stroke the air fuel mixture is
compressed into a smaller area and the internal temperature begins to rise.
Engine control and monitoring systems capable of detecting and reacting to
detonation or pre-ignition events have been developed and are available for
installation on engines that may be at risk.

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Natural Gas
Natural gas is a gaseous fossil fuel primarily consisting of methane and may
include varying quantities of ethane, butane, propane, carbon dioxide, nitrogen,
helium, hydrogen sulphide and water vapour. The approximant heating value of
natural gas is 1000 Btu per standard cubic foot.
The use of natural gas as a fuel source within the oil and gas industry is based
on its ready availability in a wide range of settings. These factors eliminate the
need to source and manage the cost and risks associated with the transportation
of other fuel types such as diesel or gasoline. The development of remote
locations in restricted access locals has been made possible through the use of
natural gas as a direct fuel source.
Alternate Fuels
Propane or diesel fuel is often employed for back-up or stand-by applications
where the primary fuel supplies might be interrupted by a plant outage. Electrical
power generation is the typical application for standby equipment. The preferred
fuel choice may be natural gas however, should a situation arise where the fuel
gas source is interrupted a back up unit would ensure that essential services are
not interrupted.
The use of alternate fuels requires the incorporation of specialized equipment
within the engine design. The typical conversion used in the oil and gas industry
is natural gas to propane. In situations where methane gas is being collected
from an organic process and subject to supply fluctuations an engine can be
equipped with controls that can accommodate a make up fuel supply and offset
the primary fuel source. Whenever the commingling of different fuel streams is
undertaken the engine management systems must also be capable of
automatically adjusting engine timing and fuel metering.
The oil and gas industry, along with engine designers have recognized that there
can be substantial differences in Btu values and quality of the primary fuels used
within the oil and gas industry. The engine designers test cells are typically
located in populated areas and draw upon municipal grade natural gas supplies.
Therefore generally accepted standards upon which natural gas engine designs
are based upon is 900 Btu per standard cubic foot. Propane is rated at
approximately 2500 Btu per standard cubic foot and bio gas can range as low as
400 Btu per standard cubic foot. When designing for bio gas application the
engines are rated on the lowest anticipated Btu value of fuel. During engine
operation changes in fuel values are accommodated by automated fuel delivery
and loading systems.
The quality of natural gas may be affected by the source and the process used to
condition the fuel prior to use. The Btu values are dependant upon the amount of
other hydrocarbon sources present in the stream. Wet gas (hot gas) will exhibit a
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higher Btu rating than gas that has been processed and stripped of excess
hydrocarbons.
The incoming natural gas stream may also contain varying percentages corrosive
elements such as carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide. These constituents
contribute to the formation of acids when combined with the water. On occasion
particulate matter may be transported within the gas stream and must be filtered
out. The particulates act as an abrasive that will contribute to combustion
chamber wear and contamination of lubricating oils.
Liquefied propane is stored in pressurized containers that have been filled from a
refined source. This eliminates the possibility of contamination and provides a
consistent Btu value.
Diesel fuels require conditioning to accommodate seasonal temperature
variances. Diesel fuel storage tanks may be contaminated by water moisture
that forms on the tank walls during hot and cold ambient temperature cycles.
The storage tanks are equipped with open to atmosphere breathers to manage
temperature related fuel expansion and contraction cycles. Metal containers
typically used to store diesel fuels are prone to rusting over time. This oxidation
process releases fine particulates into the fuel that over time will contribute to
blocking filtration systems. Fuel delivery system maintenance is critical as the
pressurized fuel delivery systems incorporate extremely tight tolerances that can
be easily damaged by the entrance foreign materials.
Methane bio gas is sourced from the decomposition of organic matter. The
methane gas is used to fuel engines that drive electrical generators and, on
occasion, co-generation is employed. The decomposition process emitting the
methane source may be a landfill site or from waste water treatment faculties.
Some experimentation is being conducted regarding the collection of methane
emissions from animal waste processing plants. No matter what the stream
source, specialized equipment is required. In addition to the design
considerations, handling procedures to control bio hazards for personnel safety
reasons and contaminates to protect the integrity of the equipment are also
required.
Natural Gas Fuel Supply Sources
Utility Gas Pipeline
A utility gas pipeline provides access to a source of fuel gas that has been
treated and can typically be counted on to deliver a consistent Btu value. This
gas will have been processed. During processing the gas would have been
passed through several phases of separation to remove hydrocarbon liquids and
water vapour. A sample will be analyzed to confirm what constitutes may be
present in the stream and to establish a Btu value that is used to determine the
engine timing.
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On Site Plant Process Source

Plant discharge gas is often selected as the primary source for fuel simply
because it is readily available. The gas is usually moved through several phases
of mechanical separation and or filtration medium to remove hydrocarbon liquids
and water vapour. In addition to this the gas stream may have also been
processed through a refrigeration process to further remove liquid hydrocarbons
and water vapour. This gas would have passed through one or more stages of
compression. It should be noted that during the compression stages the gas
stream will pick up traces of compressor piston ring and piston rod seal packing
box lubricating oils. The compressor lubrication rates are closely monitored to
prevent excessive amounts from entering into the gas stream. The Btu value of
the plant discharge gas is dependant upon the incoming gas stream constituents
and level of processing that is applied within the plant prior to the gas been used
as a source of fuel.
Wellhead Gas
Wellhead natural gas Btu values may vary widely and can be in a constant state
of flux depending upon flow rates and contributing zones. Each of the reservoir
zones will supply varying quantities of water, liquid hydrocarbons and in some
fine particulate matter. The use of in water knock outs, separators and line
heaters help to capture liquids and solids. While an effort is made to manage the
incoming stream and render it as a usable fuel source an analysis of the fuel is
required in order to identify the percentage of constituents, Btu value and ensure
that any potential corrosive elements have been identified. The quality of well
head gas varies by site and the relocation of equipment demands that a review of
the equipment be undertaken to ensure compatibility with the new fuel source.
Unpredictable Fuel Quality Variances
To ensure that the performance and mechanical integrity of an engine is
maintained, regularly scheduled gas analysis is performed. This approach will
help to provide a record of the fuel source quality. Any shifts in the percentage
composition of the fuel will be noted during a review of the gas analysis report
and corrective action can be taken.
The gas field gathering systems are constantly in flux and subtle changes can
occur in Btu values. Automated fuel management control systems have been
developed that can monitor and respond accordingly. These systems ensure
that the air-fuel mixtures are efficient and that levels of exhaust emissions are
maintained within specifications.

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Appendix D
Fuel Gas Meter Requirements
To determine the efficiency of an engine or turbine, the fuel gas flow should be
measured for each operating engine or turbine. It is not sufficient to use the gas
meter for the entire site. A combination of individual engine and turbine fuel flow
together with a site flow will enable the fuel gas usage by other components such
as building heaters, instrument gas supplies, and leaks to be more easily
assessed.
A periodic fuel gas analysis is needed to determine the heat content of the fuel
gas (see section on BSFC). The sampling and analysis frequency depends on
the possibility of composition changes. Note that gas composition can change
from well to well and also, if the fuel gas is from a gas treatment plant, the current
status of the treatment plant (e.g. refrigeration unit may not be operating to
specifications from time to time).Engines are often in vibration service and the
implications to the meter must be considered.
In lean natural gas engines, the amount of excess air for good efficiency, exhaust
emissions, and reliability depends on fuel flow. The heating value of the fuel can
vary significantly depending on the hydrocarbon mix. The table to the right shows
the lower heating value (LHV) per standard cubic foot (scf) for four components
often found in engine fuel gas.
The table below compares three gas flow meter types:
orifice plate,
coriolis,
thermal.
GAS
Methane
Ethane
Propane
nButane
LHV BTU/SCF
912
1622
2376
3020
PROPERTY
1.1.1
VOLUMETRIC (ORIFICE)
Volume
THERMAL MASS
Specific heat
CORIOLIS
Mass
Needs temperature
measurement
Poor
Low
Good
Some; increases apparent
Temperature compensated
Temperature compensated
Good
Low
Good, see below
Some; decreases apparent
Best
High
Good
None
Measuring
principle
Temperature
Fuel changes
Vibration effect
Reliability
Dirty gas influence

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Pressure drop
flow
Low, depends on orifice size
Turndown ratio
Typically 10 to 1
Piping requirements
Manufacturers
Straight pipe typically 38

before and 25 after
Rosemount
flow
Very low; < 0.2 psi
1 to 20 psi depending on
flow
Typically 100 to 1
Typically 10 or 20 to 1 for
gases
Typically no obstructions 10 No piping limits; pipes must
pipe diameters upstream
transmit minimal strain to the
and 5 downstream
meter.
Fox Thermal Instruments
MicroMotion
Measuring Principle
The orifice meter uses the pressure drop across an orifice plate in a straight pipe
run to calculate volumetric flow. The pressure difference, the upstream or
downstream pressure and the gas temperature must be measured. A device
using a similar principle is the V-cone meter. For accuracy, there are generally
significant piping requirements discussed in more detail below. Other designs
may have different requirements. The orifice meter measures volume flow, which
is sometimes converted to mass flow by multiplication by a pre-determined, userentered density value.
The Coriolis meter is based on the Coriolis Effect and uses the transverse force
created by a mass traveling in a curved path. It is a direct measurement of the
mass flow.
The thermal mass meter measures the thermal conductivity of the flowing gas.
The thermal conductivity is very nearly proportional to mass flow. Thermistors
measure the heat loss to a flowing gas.
Temperature
The orifice meter requires a temperature measurement of the gas to provide the
flow in standard units (i.e.: scf/h). The thermal meter has internal temperature
compensation while the Coriolis meter measures true mass flow and does not
require a temperature adjustment.
Fuel Changes
For many applications the fuel heating content may change. A volumetric meter
cannot sense such a change. If the fuel consists mainly of hydrocarbons, then
the thermal mass flow meter and the Coriolis meter provide a measurement that
correlates well with heating value changes. The graph here, where other
hydrocarbons are normalized to methane, shows the relative differences.
A fuel meter based on a volumetric flow principle is not suitable for installations
where significant changes in the fuel heating content are expected.

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Fuel Heating Value Error

relative to methane
50%
Percent error
0%
Coriolis
-50%
-100%
Thermal
-150%
Volumetric
-200%
-250%
Methane
Ethane
Propane
nButane
If the fuel contains significant and changeable amounts (typically more than 5%)
of inert gases such as Argon, carbon dioxide, or nitrogen, a direct measurement
of the fuel heating value may be required for any of these meters.
Vibration Effects
Both the orifice type and the thermal mass flow meters have low errors due to
vibration while the Coriolis type is affected to a greater degree. Selection of
location and vibration isolation should be used to minimize vibration induced flow
signal noise with a Coriolis meter for engine fuel measurement. For smaller
engines where the flow is low (poor signal to noise ratio), the other meters should
be used.
The table here shows some comparative measurements for two meters in the
same application where vibration was a problem. A longer averaging time for the
thermal meter would further reduce the noise.
METER TYPE
Coriolis (MicroMotion)
Thermal (Fox)
AVERAGING
TIME(S)
12.8
0.25
PEAK TO PEAK
SIGNAL NOISE %
5
2.5
Reliability
Subject to proper installation, the reliability of each of the meter types is high and
suitable for engine applications. There have been some reports of Coriolis meter
failures where the meters were mounted with significant strain placed on the
meter for example, misaligned flanges. In all cases, the reliability of fuel
meters to determine engine air requirements far exceeds the reliability of exhaust
oxygen sensors (an alternate method for engine air control).

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Dirty Gas Influence

Sometimes the engine fuel gas may contain particulate matter. Build-up may
affect the readings of any of the meters. The Coriolis meter can be re-zeroed
when the flow is zero. For the orifice plate meters, the orifice plate and probe of
the thermal meter may require cleaning. RTI has had no reports of meter errors
due to dirty gas.
The pressure drop for the orifice plate

meter is relatively low, depending on the
orifice diameter relative to the pipe
diameter and should be calculated where
pressure loss is a concern. The pressure
drop for the thermal mass flow meter is
the lowest of all the meter types.
Pr drop - psi
For applications where the fuel gas pressure is low, the pressure drop of the
Coriolis meter may be too large. This
R50 Meter - Pressure drop Natural Gas
graph shows the pressure drop versus
Flow - kg/h
flow for the Micromotion R50 Coriolis
0
100
200
300
400
meter.
30
2.5
20
15
1.5
10
0.5
0
0
200
400
600
800
0
1000
Flow lb/h
Turndown Ratio
The turndown ratio is defined by the signal to noise ratio for the application. For
most large engine fuel flow measurements the turndown ratios for the orifice and
Coriolis meters are sufficient. For smaller engines or for accuracy for low flow
applications, the thermal mass flow meter is recommended.
Piping Requirements
For best accuracy, the piping upstream and downstream of an orifice plate meter
must be straight and uniform in diameter (about 20 diameters upstream and 10 to
15 downstream). The requirements are less stringent for the thermal mass flow
meter (10 diameters upstream and 5 downstream). The Coriolis meter has no
such requirements except for those mentioned above in the Reliability section.

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Accuracy - % of Flow
Pressure Drop
Meter Examples
Mass Flow Meter Installed:
Thermal Mass Flow Meter:
Orifice meter run and Rosemount 3095 flow transmitter:
Summary
If the gas flow is measured by a device based on a volumetric flow principle,
large errors arise in the manifold air pressure set point determined by the control
system as the fuel gas composition changes. All fuel meter measurement
sensors are more reliable than the exhaust oxygen sensors for air-fuel control.
Flow measurements that rely on gas properties such as mass or specific heat
properties scale better to the heating value of the fuel components in mainly
hydrocarbon fuel. Such devices are the Coriolis mass flow meter and the thermal
mass flow meter. The graph shows the percentage error in measuring the
heating value of the gas flowing through the meter according to meter type.
The poorest fuel meter is the volumetric type and this type should not be used
where there is a possibility of a change to the gas composition. The best meter
type is the Coriolis type due to the smallest errors with changes of gas mixture.
The thermal mass flow meter is the best choice for applications where the fuel
flow is small (engines below about 500 HP) or where vibration is significant. A
REMVue engine control system is the only system that uses a mass flow meter
to operate their controls and, as such, it is the only system that is dynamically
adaptive to changes in fuel quality.
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Appendix E
Case Studies
Case Study I: Fuel Gas Meters for Each Engine
Objective: Show why individual fuel gas meters are required for each engine.
Site Configuration:Three units in parallel driving reciprocating compressors.
Equipment Description:
Unit 1
Engine: Waukesha 7042GSI (Turbocharged 1232 horsepower at 1000 RPM)
Compressor: Ingersoll Rand RDS, four cylinder, single stage
Ignition: MPI set at 24 degrees BTDC
Engine Management System: REMVue 500 with AFR (rich to lean conversion)
Unit 2
Unit 3
Ignition: IQ 500 set at 24 degrees BTDC
Engine Management System: Waukesha standard stoichiometric carbureted
Data: (actual field tests for a Southern Alberta site: see PTAC report reference)
Unit
Engine Speed
Lambda
Unit 1
Unit 2
Unit 3
RPM
700
900
1000
700
900
1000
700
900
1000
1.030
Number
1.514
1.375
1.403
1.462
1.393
1.348
1.010
1.015
Fuel consumption
KG/H
91
153
211
95
156
214
112
172.5
230
Fuel consumption
E3M3/D
3.04
5.11
7.05
3.18
5.21
7.15
3.74
5.77
7.69
920
Compressor horsepower
Percent of engine load
BSFC (1000 Btu/scf gas)
Utility gas station flow
Kw
379
623
898
379
621
876
388
625
Percent
59
75
98
59
75
97
60
76
100
Btu/BHP-h
8806
9007
8618
9193
9213
8960
10587
10123
9169
E3M3/D
20.1
22.4
21.3
19.4
22.0
14.2
0.0
0.0
24.2
Discussion:
Compare data at the same load and speed operating points for each engine. The
consumption and BSFC is different for each engine at each point. The engine
management systems affect the fuel consumption as well as the load and
equipment condition. Furthermore, the station flow rate including other site
utilities will not equal the total flow through all engines. Estimating fuel
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consumption for each engine based on combined metering is not accurate

enough to determine individual engine performance.
Case Study II: OEM vs Actual Fuel Consumption
Objective: Show how OEM fuel consumption predictions are less than the actual.
Site Configuration: Three units in parallel driving reciprocating compressors.
Equipment Description: (use one factory equipped engine for this comparison)
Unit 3
OEM values
Waukesha L7042GSI OEM Predicted Values (Initial 0.3 O2 % @ 920 kW, 1000
RPM, 24 BTDC)
Unit
Engine Speed
Lambda
OEM Prediction
Unit 3
RPM
700
900
1000
700
900
1000
Number
1.015
1.015
1.015
1.010
1.015
1.030
Fuel consumption
KG/H
95.5
143.6
189.0
112
172.5
230
Fuel consumption
E3M3/D
3.19
4.80
6.32
3.74
5.77
7.69
Kw
432
665
893
388
625
920
Percent
70
80
97
60
76
100
Btu/BHP-h
8108
7920
7762
10587
10123
9169
Discussion:
Compare data at the same load and speed operating points. The consumption
and BSFC is different at each point. The load, site conditions and equipment
condition affect the fuel consumption. Note that the OEM predicted fuel
consumption is about 20% lower than what is actually consumed.
Case Study III: Lean Burn Conversion
Objective: Show how a REMVue system can reduce fuel consumption.
Site Configuration: Three units in parallel driving reciprocating compressors.
Equipment Description:
Unit 1
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Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit
Engine Speed
Unit 3 (factory)
RPM
700
900
1000
Unit 1 (REMVue)
700
900
1000
Unit 2 (REMVue)
700
900
1000
O2
Percent
0.2
0.3
0.6
7.1
5.7
6.6
5.9
5.4
CO
PPM
15330
1282
2100
220
160
165
250
225
220
CO
kg/hr
26.02
3.4
7.46
0.46
0.51
0.73
0.52
0.73
0.95
CO2
Percent
11.6
11.5
11.4
7.7
8.5
8.4
8.4
8.7
CO2
kg/hr
309
478
390
250
421
585
261
429
590
NO
PPM
2077
3521
4344
1292
3008
2649
2377
3025
3934
NOx
PPM
2079
3528
4345
1297
3029
2664
2385
3042
3961
NOx
kg/hr
5.78
15.31
25.3
4.4
15.67
19.39
8.14
16.26
28.1
NOx
g/bhp-hr
11.12
18.27
20.5
18.76
16.1
16.03
19.52
23.92
0.686
0.560
0.046
0.449
0.096
0.153
0.120
0.088
0.121
1.348
CH4 (or CxHy)

Lambda
Number
1.010
1.015
1.030
1.514
1.375
1.403
1.462
1.393
Fuel consumption
KG/H
112
172.5
230
91
153
211
95
156
214
Fuel consumption
E3M3/D
3.74
5.77
7.69
3.04
5.11
7.05
3.18
5.21
7.15
876
Kw
388
625
920
379
623
898
379
621
Percent
60
76
100
59
75
98
59
75
97
Btu/BHP-h
10587
10123
9169
8806
9007
8618
9193
9213
8960
Average Exhaust Temperature
Degrees C
567
639
690
455
532
574
475
548
597
Discussion
Compare data at the same load and speed operating points for each engine. The
consumption and BSFC is different for each engine at each point. The engine
management systems affect the fuel consumption as well as the load and
equipment condition. The REMVue engine management system allows operation
at a leaner air fuel ratio. The engine runs cooler (note exhaust temperatures) and
uses less fuel at the same load and speed. Lower BSFC shows efficiency
improvement. Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions is also achieved by
reducing CO and CO2.
Case Study IV: Low Engine Load Adaptation
Objective: Show how an underutilized engine service life can be extended.
Site Configuration: One reciprocating compressor using 50% power utilization.
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Equipment Description
Data: (Waukesha published data)
Waukesha L7042 GSI (turbocharged, 8:1 compression ratio, 130 F AC)

Waukesha L7042 G (naturally aspirated, 8:1 compression ratio)

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Discussion:
Turbocharged engines require positive intake manifold pressure to provide
acceptable service intervals. Loads that require less than about 60% rated power
utilization will not maintain a positive intake manifold pressure. This will allow oil
coking on the turbocharger bearings and increase carbon deposits on cylinder
heads and valves. More frequent service intervals will be required for cleaning to
avoid expensive repairs.
One alternative to replacing the engine may be to remove the turbocharger. The
system is then converted to a naturally aspirated engine. This will avoid the
deposits and increase the service interval. Compare the charts above for the two
fuel delivery systems using the same engine speed at 750 HP. It suggests that
fuel consumption will also be reduced after the conversion.

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Appendix F
Glossary of Terms
A
AIR-FUEL RATIO - The ratio of the weight, or volume, of air to fuel.
AMBIENT AIR - The air that surrounds the equipment. The standard ambient air
for performance calculations is air at 80 F, 60% relative humidity, and a
barometric pressure of 29.921 in. Hg, giving a specific humidity of 0.013 lb of
water vapour per lb of dry air.
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE - The temperature of the air surrounding the
equipment.
ATMOSPHERIC AIR - Air under the prevailing atmospheric conditions.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE - The barometric reading of pressure exerted by
the atmosphere. At sea level 14.7 lb per sq in. or 29.92 in. of mercury.
B
BAROMETRIC PRESSURE - Atmospheric pressure as determined by a
barometer usually expressed in inches of mercury.
BRAKE SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION (BSFC) A measure of fuel
efficiency for gas engines. It is normalized with load and power to establish a
uniform means of comparison. Imperial units are most common: Btu/(BHP-h).
BRITISH THERMAL UNIT (Btu) - The mean British Thermal Unit is 1/180 of the
heat required to raise the temperature of 1 lb of water from 32 F to 212 F at a
constant atmospheric pressure. A Btu is essentially 252 calories.
C
C - Carbon element,
CO - Carbon monoxide.
CO2 - Carbon dioxide.
CLEARANCE The amount of volume not used in compression for a
reciprocating compressor cylinder. Clearance adjustment devices can variable
head end volume pockets, fixed volume bottles, valve chairs or cylinder end
unloading devices.
COMBUSTIBLE LOSS - The loss representing the unliberated thermal energy
occasioned by failure to oxidize completely some of the combustible matter in the
fuel.
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COMBUSTION - The rapid chemical combination of oxygen with the combustible

elements of a fuel resulting in the release of heat.
COMBUSTION AIR - Air used in the combustion process. Air contains oxygen
which is required to combust fuel.
COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY - The effectiveness of the engine to completely
burn the fuel. The air content will vary depending on the combustion process
used for the engine while converting all combustibles in the fuel to useful energy.
COMPLETE COMBUSTION - The complete oxidation of all the combustible
constituents of a fuel.
COMPPRESSION RATIO - The ratio of discharge pressure to suction pressure.
The use of absolute pressure units is recommended when calculating
compression ratio.
COMPRESSOR FRAME The compressor frame for a screw compressor is the
main pressure retaining housing that contains the lubrication, rotors and running
gear. In the case of a reciprocating compressor, the frame does not retain
pressure but houses the lubrication and running gear of the rotating elements.
COMPRESSOR CYLINDER - The pressure retaining components where the
pistons travel to compress the gas in a reciprocating compressor. Cylinders may
be referred to as single acting or double acting depending if the gas is
compressed on one or both sides of the piston. Cylinders are available in many
sizes and pressure rating to allow flexible compression strategies and multiple
stages of compression. Normally one cylinder is attached one throw of the
compressor frame but tandem cylinders are also available where two bore sizes
are installed on one throw.
CONDUCTION - The transmission of heat through and by means of matter
unaccompanied by any obvious motion of the matter.
D
DESIGN LOAD - The load for which equipment is designed, is considered the
maximum load to be carried.
DEW POINT - The temperature at which condensation starts.

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DISTANCE PIECE The housing assembly containing the piston rod and
crosshead guide between the frame and cylinders for a reciprocating compressor
is known as the distance piece. It can contain none, one or two compartments
separated by oil wipers with optional purge and vent assemblies. Distance piece
compartment lengths should be long enough that one point on the compressor
rod can not pass through more than one packing or oil wiper assembly. The
purpose of the compartments is to isolate the frame from corrosive gases leaking
from the cylinder.
DRY GAS - Gas containing no water vapour.
E
EFFICIENCY - The ratio of output to input. See also Combustion and Thermal
Efficiency.
ENGINE SPEED The number of revolutions an engine turns in a unit of time.
Normally expressed in RPM or sometimes Hz.
EXCESS AIR - Air supplied for combustion in excess of that theoretically
required for complete oxidation.
F
FLUE GAS - The gaseous product of combustion in the flue to the stack.
FUEL-AIR MIXTURE - Mixture of fuel and air.
FUEL-AIR RATIO - The ratio of the weight, or volume, of fuel to air.
G
GAS ANALYSIS - The determination of the constituents of a gaseous mixture.
GAS PRESSURE REGULATOR - A spring loaded, dead weighted or pressure
balanced device which will maintain the gas pressure to the burner supply line.
GAUGE PRESSURE - The pressure above atmospheric pressure.
H
HEAT BALANCE - An accounting of the distribution of the heat input, output and
losses.
HEATING SURFACE - Those surfaces which are exposed to products of
combustion on one side and water on the other. This surface is measured on the
side receiving the heat.
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HEATING VALUE - The quantity of heat released by a fuel through complete

combustion. It is commonly expressed in Btu per lb, per gallon, or cu-ft.
HERTZ (Hz) A unit of frequency that is defined as one cycle per second. Hertz
are sometimes used as an alternate means to express engine speed.
I
INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION - The partial oxidation of the combustible
constituents of a fuel.
INTEGRAL ROTATING EUQIPMENT Two or more rotating equipment
elements that share the same crank case and crankshaft. A compressor and
engine combined into one frame forms and integral compressor. Screw or other
compressors may combine a gear set in one common housing with the
compressor.
M
MMBtu - Millions of Btus (British Thermal Units).
MOISTURE - Water in the liquid or vapour phase.
N
NATURALLY ASPIRATED Atmospheric pressure engine combustion air that
is drawn into the engine using the piston downward stroke as the motivation for
the air flow (think of the engine as an air pump).
NOx - Abbreviation for the sum of nitrogen mon-oxide, NO, and nitrogen dioxide,
NO2.
O
ORIFICE - A calibrated opening or nozzle used to deliver fuel gas.
P
ppm - Abbreviation for parts per million. Used in chemical determinations as one
part per million parts by weight.
PACKING The packing assemblies or packing cases seal around the piston
rod to retain gas in the reciprocating compressor cylinder. The assemblies are
lubricated, sometime cooled and may be purged depending on the application.
PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION - The gases, vapours, and solids resulting form
the combustion of fuel.
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R
RATED CAPACITY - The manufacturers stated capacity rating for mechanical
equipment; for instance, the maximum continuous power for which and engine is
designed.
ROTATIONS PER MINUTE (RPM) The number of rotations of the crankshaft
per minute. It is common units of operating speed for rotating equipment.
S
SEPARABLE ROTATING EQUIPMENT Rotating equipment elements that do
not share a common crank shaft or crankcase. Rotating element shafts are
connected by coupling(s).
SHELL - The cylindrical portion of a pressure vessel.
SLIDE VALVE A movable device on a screw compressor that exposes a
variable length of the rotors to afford compression. A slide valve allows some
inefficiency due to internal gas recirculation.
SPECIFIC HEAT - The quantity of heat, expressed in Btu, required to raise the
temperature of 1 lb of a substance 1 deg F.
STACK - A vertical conduit, which due to the difference in density between
internal and external gases, creates a draft at its base.
SUPERCHARGER An engine combustion air compressor driven from the
crankshaft using a mechanical drive.
T
THEORETICAL AIR - The quantity of air required for perfect combustion.
THERMAL EFFICIENCY - The efficiency of a heater, based on the ratio of heat
absorbed to total heat input. This does not include heat loss from the boiler shell.
TOTAL AIR - The total quantity of air supplied to the fuel and products of
combustion. Percent total air is the ratio of total air to theoretical air, expressed
as percent.
TURBOCHARGER An engine combustion air compressor driven from the
exhaust gases using a turbine wheel and gas expansion.
TURNDOWN RATIO - Ratio of maximum to minimum operating speed or
throughput.

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U
UNBURNED COMBUSTIBLE - The combustible portion of the fuel that is not
completely oxidized.
V
VE The internal volumetric ratio of a reciprocating compressor cylinder. It is
normally adjustable and affects drive train loading, power consumption and
efficiency.
Vi Volume index; the internal volumetric ratio of suction volume to discharge
volume for a screw compressor. It is normally adjustable and affects bearing life,
power consumption and efficiency.

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Appendix G
References
1
An Investigation into REMVue Technology and the Effects on Compressor

Reliability Prepared by Venessa Veres (BP Canada employee) May 2005
2
REM Technology Inc information from their website;

http://www.remtechnology.com/news/magazine2.htm
A VALIDATION STUDY FOR A REMVue 500/A ENGINE MANAGEMENT

SYSTEM, Prepared for PetroCanada Oil and Gas by Accurata Inc; Frank
Zahner, Ken Terrell, Howard Malm, Philip Croteau, Jody Hood, June 2005
4
REMVue Field Test Results for BP 2004 Installations, Prepared for BP Canada
Energy by Accurata Inc; Bill Gibb, Ken Terrell, Frank Zahner, September 30 2005
5
Natural Gas Engines Reducing Greenhouse Gases, Prepared for Combustion

Canada Conference by REM Technology, Howard Malm, September 22-24 2003
Fuel System Management Alternatives For Rich Burn Engines, Prepared for
Devon Canada by Accurata Inc; Frank Zahner, Ken Terrell, December 2003
7
Personal correspondence with Waukesha and White Superior representatives

as well as REM Technology Inc personnel (Howard Malm, Cam Dowler, Lorne
Tuck, Greg Brown, Wade Mowat), 2003 to present.
Nitrous Oxide Emissions from Light Duty Vehicles by Vera F. Ballantyne, Peter
Howes, and Lief Stephanson Environment Canada, SAE paper 940304
9
Gas processing graphic Producers Technology Transfer Workshop by

Robinson Occidental Oil and Gas and EPAs Natural Gas STAR Program
Midland, TX June 8, 2006 (Permission to use graphic granted June 14 2007 by
Roger Fernandez of the US Natural Gas STAR Program)
10
Emissions and Efficiency Enhancements with REM AFR Systems, Prepared by

Accurata Inc; by Bill Gibb, Ken Terrell, Frank Zahner Petroleum Technology
Alliance Canada, March 2006
11
Natural Gas Engines Reducing Greenhouse Gases, Prepared for

Combustion Technology Conference by REM Technology Inc; by Howard Malm,
September 22-24 2003
12
Waukesha technical data and literature
13
Caterpillar technical data and literature
14
Cummins technical data and literature

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15
Arrow technical data and literature
16
REM Technology Inc generously provided the discussion on flow meter

selection and installation for engines (Appendix C). Howard Malm is the author
(July 2005).
Endnotes
1
The Gross heating value includes the heat from the condensation of the combustion water
vapour to liquid water at the standard temperature (15.5 C / 60 F), whereas the Lower heating
value excludes this heat.
2
Prices used were typical at the time this report was made. To adjust for different prices, multiply
by the ratio of the new price to the price in the table.
Note that brake specific fuel consumption depends on many factors; the values used for this
table are test cell values for full load operation.
4
The Gross heating value includes the heat from the condensation of the combustion water
vapour to liquid water at the standard temperature (15.5 C / 60 F), whereas the Lower heating
value excludes this heat.
5
Programs are available from Ariel Compressor or PIC Division of Spartan Controls.
100 year equivalent International Panel on Climate Change - 2001
100 year equivalent International Panel on Climate Change 2001

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May 2008

Clearstone Engineering Ltd.

REM Technology Inc.

Sensor Environmental Services Ltd.

Sirius Products Inc.

Sulphur Experts Inc.

Amine Experts Inc.

CETAC-WEST is a private sector, not-for-profit corporation with a mandate to encourage

Technology and Equipment

3. Inspection, Monitoring and Record Keeping................ 10

Number of Operating Hours

5. Operational Checks, Testing and Ajustments.............. 16

Brake Specific Fuel Consumption

identifies the typical impediments to achieving high levels of operating

presents strategies for achieving cost effective improvements through

identifies technical considerations and limitations.

EFFICIENT USE OF FUEL GAS

Applicability and Objectives

Efficient Use of Fuel Gas in Engines

Rev Date 27/05/2008

Basic Improvement Strategy

The most significant elements of long-term operating efficiency are the

knowing what each equipment element was designed to do and what it is

the conduct of periodic checks and adjustments,

routine testing and correction of abnormalities,

assessment of opportunities to install upgrades and replacement of

Technology and Equipment

natural gas variations,

separable engine types,

integral engine types,

Efficient Use of Fuel Gas in Engines

Rev Date 27/05/2008

Efficient Use of Fuel Gas in Engines

Rev Date 27/05/2008

temperature or elevation on power de-rates by increasing the benchmark at

Efficient Use of Fuel Gas in Engines

Rev Date 27/05/2008

Efficient Use of Fuel Gas in Engines

Rev Date 27/05/2008

rotary compressors and sometimes reciprocating compressors. They are most

Normally reciprocating engines are designed to operate on one type of fuel,

Efficient Use of Fuel Gas in Engines

Rev Date 27/05/2008

Decisions to carry out adjustments or replace components should be made on an

Efficient Use of Fuel Gas in Engines

Rev Date 27/05/2008

Efficient Use of Fuel Gas in Engines

Rev Date 27/05/2008

Appendix A offers detailed performance characteristics over a range of speeds

Efficient Use of Fuel Gas in Engines

Rev Date 27/05/2008

Training and Expertise

It is important to include training and education in any efficiency enhancing

Efficient Use of Fuel Gas in Engines

Rev Date 27/05/2008

Inspection, Monitoring and Record Keeping

Operators should have a record program to support the companys rotating

data sheets for each package,

expected fuel gas consumption for each engine,

records of changes for each unit that have been performed

efficiency testing results and

economic analysis performed on underutilized engines that have not been