Labor

Labor is the series of events that expel the infant from the uterus. During
the initiation of labor, the baby moves deeper into mothers birth canal and
causes the pressoreceptors in cervix of uterus excited and sent afferent impulses
to hypothalamus. Hypothalamus sends efferent impulses to posterior pituitary,
where oxytocin is stored. Posterior pituitary releases oxytocin to blood. Uterus
will responds by contracting more vigorously. There are 3 stages of labor which
are dilation, expulsion, and placental stage. During dilation, the cervix becomes
dilated. Thus, the uterine contractions begin and increases and eventually the
amnion ruptures. Then, expulsion will occur. During expulsion, the infant passes
through the cervix and vagina. For normal delivery, the baby head will be
delivered first. Lastly, placental stage where the placenta will be deliver out of
the mothers womb. The placenta will detaching from the uterine wall when the
umbilical cord is pulled.

Explain RNA processing

RNA processing is to generate a mature mRNA (for protein genes) which
consists of modification and splicing. During modification, at the 5 end, a cap is
added consisting of a modified GTP (guanosine triphosphate). This occurs at the
beginning transcription. The 5 cap is used as a recognition signal for ribosomes
to bind the mRNA. At the 3 end, a poly(A)tail of 150 or more adenine nucleotides
is added. The tails plays a role in the stability of the mRNA. Eventually splicing
occur. RNA splicing is the process by which introns, regions of RNA that do not
code for protein, are removed from the pre-mRNA and the
remaining exons connected to re-form a single continuous molecule. Although
most RNA splicing occurs after the complete synthesis and end-capping of the
pre-mRNA, transcripts with many exons can be spliced co-transcriptionally. The
splicing reaction is catalysed by a large protein complex called
the spliceosome assembled from proteins and small nuclear RNA molecules that
recognize splice sites in the pre-mRNA sequence. Many pre-mRNAs, including
those encoding antibodies, can be spliced in multiple ways to produce different
mature mRNAs that encode different protein sequences. This process is known
as alternative splicing, and allows production of a large variety of proteins from a
limited amount of DNA.

Explain the 4 steps to produce a recombinant DNA.

DNA recombinant is a production of a unique DNA molecule by joining
together 2 or more DNA fragments not normally associated with each other. DNA
fragments are usually derived from different biological sources. DNA recombinant
requires restriction enzymes, plasmid, DNA ligase and transformation. In order to
produce a recombinant DNA firstly, DNA molecules are digested with enzymes
called restriction enzymes which reduces the size fragments. The restriction
enzymes will renders them more manageable for cloning purposes. Then, these
products of digestion are inserted into a DNA molecule called a vector. It will
enables desired fragment to be replicated in cell culture. Next, introduction of
recombinant DNA into appropriate host cell. The recombinant DNA will undergoes

transformation. Each cells will receive rDNA which known as clone. It may have
thousands of copies of rDNA cells after DNA replication. As host cell divides,
rDNA partitioned into daughter cells. Lastly, the population of cells of a given
clone is expanded by amplification. The DNA can be extracted, purified and used
for molecular analyses such as investigate organization of genes, structure and
function, activation and processing.

Beneficial and Harmful bacteria

Some species of benefial bacteria live in the human intestines where they
help in digestion of food by releasing certain components. They also produce
some vitamins which are helpful for human body. For an example, E.Coli is the
species which resides in the digestive tract of humans and help in breaking down
the lactose. The new born babies do not suffer or have fewer chances of
suffering from diarrhoea if they have administered with the bacteria Lactobacillus
reuteri or Bifidobacterium.