KEYNOTE

Using essential elements

to uncover meaning in
academic texts
Edward de Chazal reveals a new set of elements which help learners understand better.

hen students engage with

texts, they typically do so for
a purpose. For EAP (English
for Academic Purposes) students,
the starting point is to work out
what the text is about (the topic), the
purpose of the text (for instance to
explain information, or to present an
argument), who the text is written for
(the audience), and the main points
in the text. The next stage is typically
for students to do something with
this material. This can be the broad
aim of extending their knowledge, or
more specifically to select and process
the content in order to incorporate
it into a new text such as an essay or
presentation.
A crucial aspect of these processes is
critical thinking. As BALEAP (the global
forum for EAP professionals) point
out in their competency framework
for teachers of EAP, critical thinking
underpins academic practice (BALEAP
2008: 6). As well as their teachers, EAP
students need to approach texts and
the ideas presented in them with a
critical state of mind (de Chazal 2014:
121). Put simply, students need to
question and challenge the sources of
information they encounter. Adopting
a critical state of mind is central to
academic practice.
In terms of written texts, EAP students
may have to read any of the following:
school or university textbooks; various
reference resources such as online
resources; reports; journal articles
and their accompanying abstracts;
and potentially a variety of other

Modern English Teacher

texts including conference papers,

critiques/reviews, instructions,
summaries, case studies, handouts,
and posters. Many of these are
unlikely to be produced by students;
depending on their discipline
and academic level, students are
more likely to write texts such as
examination answers to set questions,
essays, reports, critiques, theses, and
dissertations. In terms of spoken
texts, they may have to produce
presentations, contributions in
seminars and discussions, and many
more informal interactions.
Students, then, need to engage
critically with a wide range of written
and spoken texts. There are many
challenges in this endeavour. In texts
they read and listen to, a fundamental
challenge is for students to work out
the main meanings in texts; in written
and spoken texts they produce,
students need to construct the texts
clearly and logically.
Texts are made up of different
elements. When EAP students read
academic texts, they naturally
encounter these elements in the
process of accessing the content
and meanings in the text. Such
elements are numerous and include
argument, citation, definition, and
stance. A useful term to cover these
has been proposed and elaborated
on: essential elements (de Chazal
and McCarter 2012: 199; de Chazal
2014: 62ff). This label reflects the
physical world, where a product can
comprise one element, such as a

copper kettle or, more frequently,

multiple elements. Texts are typically
comprised of multiple essential
elements. Examples of essential
elements are presented in bold
throughout this article.
Texts have multiple purposes, and
essential elements are heterogeneous.
Many essential elements are the
product of a function, sometimes
known as rhetorical function
such as classifying (classification),
describing (description), or explaining
(explanation). Certain essential
elements are closely related to
academic practices like citation and
summary. Others are notional, for
example condition and purpose,
which are typically the expression of
relations between two or more entities.
Finally, some essential elements are
the expression of cognitive processes,
for instance reflection or empathy
and stance. These examples of
essential elements illustrate the
heterogeneity of the component parts
which make up whole texts. There
does not seem to be a familiar label
to cover them all; terms based around
function including rhetorical
function and academic function do
not closely express certain essential
elements such as the cognitively-based
concept of stance and the academic
practice of citation.
Essential elements are entities,
or products within a text. When
reading and listening, through the
identification of essential elements in
texts, students are empowered to work

April 2014 Volume 23 No. 2

KEYNOTE

Motivation
Citation/Definition

Explanation and
Exemplification

Argument/Claim

Exemplification

Definition

Exemplification

effort
ection and intensity of one s
Motivation is defined as the dir
an
er
eth
wh
to
rs
one s effort refe
(Sage 1977). The direction of
intensity
acted to certain activities. The
attr
individual seeks out or is
a task or
into
s
put
ch effort a person
of one s effort refers to how mu
; one
ugh
eno
ee times a week is not
situation. Going to the gym thr
rcise.
exe
of
ime
rt to undertake a reg
actually has to put in some effo
ply
sim
can
t of exercise so that you
Do you seek the lowest amoun
then
you work with a trainer and
say, I go to the gym? Or do
d, often
do you push yourself too har
follow the regime closely? Or
es
al injury? Intensity also includ
resulting in fatigue and person
of failure or adversity.
one s persistence in the face
sus
tion is to discuss intrinsic ver
One way of looking at motiva
m within
fro
e
tives are those that com
extrinsic motives. Intrinsic mo
the
m,
the fun of being with the tea
the individual. This could be
the
ng
ng time in a 100m race, enjoyi
satisfaction of a faster finishi
.
gym
ll-being after an hour in the
competition, or improved we
es and
tud
atti
n
ow
s
ual
ivid
on the ind
Intrinsic motivation depends
ns.
nitions and appraisal of situatio
perceptions, and it involves cog
, and
have to be provided by others
Intrinsic motivation does not
ds.
nee
ual
ivid
ind
towards satisfying
ser ves as a continuous drive
.
ent
sist
per
y
tivation can be ver
This means that intrinsic mo
al rewards that we can gain
Extrinsic motives are the extern
m
rcise. This could be praise fro
from taking part in sport or exe
ct
tra
con
jor
ma
a
,
nds
with your frie
your coach, the chance to be
m
fro
s
ow
foll
t
tha
m, or the status
with a professional sports tea
being famous.
tives are important in sport and
Both intrinsic and extrinsic mo
get both intrinsic and extrinsic
exercise. Psychologists can tar
mance of the individual.
motives to improve the perfor

Definitions

Definition

Definition

Explanation /
Evaluation

Exemplification

ion. Oxford: Oxford

9. IB Psychology: Course Compan

Crane, J. and J. Hannibal. 200
305
University Press. Pages 304

out the purpose of the writer, which

in turn unlocks the main meanings in
the texts; when writing and speaking,
students can use essential elements as
building blocks to construct their own
meanings within coherent, logicallystructured texts.
This article discusses and exemplifies
essential elements, thereby
emphasizing their purpose and utility
in the core academic processes of
understanding texts (reading and
listening) and constructing new texts
(writing and speaking). Integrated

April 2014 Volume 23 No. 2

within this discussion are examples

of critical thinking practice, which
show how the discovery of essential
elements can be closely connected
to key critical thinking activities such
as analysing an issue from multiple
perspectives. The different types
of essential element functional,
notional, cognitive, and academic
are further explored in future articles.
In order to illustrate and exemplify
a representative range of essential
elements, there follows a presentation
and analysis of an academic text.

www.onlineMET.com

This text is taken from a textbook

written for secondary school students
who are working towards their
IB (International Baccalaureate)
examinations. The text can be
accessed by intermediate (B1+)
students; it is used in an intermediate
EAP coursebook (de Chazal and Rogers
2013: 42).

Motivation
This short (300-word) text is made
up of a limited number of essential
elements, most of which are repeated.

KEYNOTE

Through a process of noticing these essential

elements, students can effectively access the

meanings in a text

Because the text is taken from a school

textbook, it is primarily expository; in
other words the purpose of the text is
to present and explain information.
Typically, expository texts such as this
are rich in definition, explanation, and
exemplification, with some argument
and evaluation.
Assuming a language level of around
B1+ (intermediate), students can
use essential elements to access the
content and meanings in the text.
The first stage is for the student to
notice and identify the essential
elements. At this level, it is important
and helpful to notice language. The
definitions in the text are framed by
the following language: X is defined
as Y (item 1); X includes Y (item 4);
X are Y (items 6 and 9). The first of

these is very clear, as the language of

the essential element (definition) is
aligned with the functional language
used to express it (is defined as).
The subsequent definitions are less
explicit. Students therefore need to
be aware that one meaning of be
(is/are) is to introduce a definition.
Similarly, with explanation and
exemplification students can notice
framing language such as This could
be (items 7 and 10).
At intermediate level it is very useful
to focus on language; as students
progress in level, they should become
more proficient at accessing these
types of meanings without consciously
dwelling on discrete points of
language. The language serves to
express the meanings in the text. With

regard to the meanings in this 300word text, certain patterns emerge.

There is a tendency for expository
texts to initially clarify the topic and
focus of the text. The writer does this
through definition of key terms, in
this case motivation, intensity of
effort, intrinsic, and extrinsic. Clearly
these concepts are central to the topic
of the text, motivation. Definitions
are necessary, but not sufficient. To
understand concepts such as these
more fully, it is helpful to offer
explanation and exemplification.
These latter essential elements are
widely found in expository texts; they
answer the anticipated audience
questions What does this mean? and
Can you give an example?
A further essential element in the text
is argument. The central paragraph in
this text is built around the argument
of the existence and importance of
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation,
stated in item 5. This particular
argument has been widely presented
and is familiar to many people; it
is not a fact but an argument. The
writers of the text do not assume that
the audience of the text, secondary

Table 1 - Selected essential elements with examples of associated critical thinking practices
Essential elements

Examples of associated critical thinking practices

Argument

Constructing a persuasive argument based on evidence, which

has to be evaluated and selected

Citation / reference to sources

Searching for and evaluating supporting evidence, and

determining an appropriate way of presenting this evidence
through summarizing, paraphrasing, and quoting of sources

Definition

Comparing, selecting, and evaluating different published

definitions which can all support this process of analysis (i.e.
comparing like with like)

Evaluation

Drawing on appropriate criteria to evaluate an argument,

entity, proposition, stance, theory

Exemplification

Locating and selecting an appropriate example to effectively

illustrate a phenomenon

Explanation / exposition

Using an appropriate analogy to explain a point

Adapted from: de Chazal, E. (2014) English for Academic Purposes. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Modern English Teacher

April 2014 Volume 23 No. 2

KEYNOTE

evaluation. By repeatedly
encountering similar patterns,
students can become more familiar
with text structure and improve their
reading efficiency.

school students, are familiar with

it: the argument is stated clearly,
with supporting definition,
exemplification, and explanation.
As the text progresses, following
clarification of the key concepts,
the writers offer evaluation. Their
evaluation answers questions such
as How important/significant/useful
is it? Is it influential? Can this
concept be generalized and applied
to other situations? and What is the
point? In short, evaluation answers
the question So what? Evaluation
typically follows the presentation
of information which involves the
essential elements of definition,
explanation, and exemplification
which means it tends to come at the
end of paragraphs. The evaluative
adjective persistent is used to assess
the significance of intrinsic motivation
(item 8), while the final evaluation
in the text is signalled by evaluative
language including important and
improve (item 11).
This sample text follows this pattern,
a pattern which can be found in many
similar texts. Through a process of
noticing these essential elements,
students can effectively access the
meanings in a text. The first sentence
can illustrate this noticing process.
As discussed above, the language is
defined as introduces a definition;
the in-text reference at the end of
this sentence also signals that it is
a citation. Thus the first sentence
constitutes two essential elements at
the same time. Having established
this, students can work out the
meanings in the text: the writers of
the text are providing an accepted and
recognized definition from another
source (Sage 1977) a citation.
Students will become aware that this
is standard academic practice.
By the end of the text, students should
be familiar with the key concepts,
such as intrinsic motivation, as
well as their importance which is
expressed in the final short paragraph
of the text. This familiarity of content
is achieved through the textual
pattern of definition or argument
explanation / exemplification

April 2014 Volume 23 No. 2

This article has introduced the

essential elements of argument,
citation, definition, evaluation,
exemplification, and explanation.
These are given in Table 1, together
with examples of possible associated
critical thinking practices.
The examples of critical thinking
practices in the second column of
this table illustrate possible student
responses to these essential elements.
For example, when students identify
an argument in a text, it is good
academic practice to evaluate it.
Likewise, when constructing their own
argument in written and spoken texts,
students need to base it on evidence,
which in turn needs to be evaluated.
With explanation, students can
expect to see, and use, an analogy to
explain a point.
This article on the concept of essential
elements has shown that they are
fundamental components of texts.
Students can learn to recognize and
interpret the essential elements in
texts in order to construct meaning.
In addition, essential elements serve
as an interface with critical thinking
practices such as analysing and
challenging. Subsequent articles
develop this topic and build up a
complete taxonomy of essential
elements, together with associated
critical thinking practices.

Oxford University Press.

de Chazal, E. and S. McCarter.
2012. Oxford EAP Upper Intermediate/
B2 Students Book. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
de Chazal, E. and L. Rogers, L. 2013.
Oxford EAP Intermediate/B1+ Students
Book. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Edward de Chazal

Edward de Chazal started teaching

English in 1987, specializing in
EAP at universities in Turkey,
Kuwait, and the UK. Edward is an
author, trainer and presenter, and
has co-written the multi-level
Oxford EAP series and the English
for Academic Purposes title in the
Oxford Handbooks for Language
Teachers series.
Email: edward@
emdechazalconsulting.co.uk

References
BALEAP. 2008. BALEAP Competency
Framework for Teachers of English for
Academic Purposes. BALEAP. Available
at: <www.baleap.org.uk>.
Crane, J. and J. Hannibal. 2009.
IB Psychology: Course Companion.
Oxford: Oxford University Press. (Pages
304 305)
de Chazal, E. 2014. English for
Academic Purposes (Oxford Handbooks
for Language Teachers series) Oxford:

www.onlineMET.com