Describe "Information Networks" in your own words.

Information Networks

Information networks are the computer networks that communicate with public telecommunication
networks. In information networks, two important technologies: computing and telecommunications work
together. Computer networks were originally used for research experiments between the computer
scientists, telecommunication engineers, and other researchers. These scientific and engineering
experiments have brought a huge change in our society. Information network has brought many useful
benefits. It also has created some problems as well. The most popular information network is the Internet
or World Wide Web. It exchanges information between Internet users. We can say that a network is a
large circulatory system, through which information continuously flows. This circulation or distribution of
information may flow rapidly or slowly.

What is a Network? Also write the uses of network. Network

A network (or computer network) is a way to connect computers together so that they can communicate
with each other and share information.
Today, most of the organizations, research centers etc. have developed their own computer networks.
They may include business, scientific or technological research, educational institutes or government
offices etc. World community has come closer to each other due to the computer networks. Today, you
can access information all over the world sitting on your table using the Internet.
Networks are divided into the following types

• Local Area Network (LAN)

• Wide Area Network (WAN)
• Metropolitan Network (MAN)

Uses of Networks

Computer network can be used for various purposes. The main uses of computer network are;

• It allows the multiple users to access and share programs and data simultaneously.
• It allows multiple users to share peripherals devices, such as printers and hard disks.
• It allows to send e-mails along with files.
• It allows the users to communicate via teleconferencing and video conferencing.

What is local area network (LAN)? Also describe the components of LAN.

Local Area Network (LAN)

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network system in which computers are interconnected in a limited
geographical area, such as network of computers in college computer laboratory or network of
computers in office building etc.
In LAN, computers are connected together through communications media so that each computer can
share the resources of others. A LAN covers short distance, such as one office or building or a group of
buildings that are closer to each other.

Components of LAN

A local area network has a standard set of components used to connect computers and to share the
information between them. These are described below.

(i) Communication Media

Data travels from one node to another through communication media. LAN does not use telephone line
for this purpose. In low cost LANs, the nodes are connected with twisted wire pairs, but many LANs use
coaxial cable or fiber optical cable, which are both more expensive and faster. Some LANs use wireless
transmission media in which data is communicated through the air or space, using radio signals or
infrared signals, instead of -*f cables. Wireless networks are easy to set up and configure, but they have
slower transmission rates and limited distance between nodes.
(ii) Network-Interface Card (NIC)
A network interface card (NIC) is used to connect a computer to other computers in the local area
network. It is a circuit board that is installed inside the computer's internal expansion slots.
(iii) Bridge
A bridge is an electronic device that connects two similar networks and controls the data flow between
them. A bridge recognizes the messages on a network and passes on those addressed to nodes in other
network.
(iv) Gateway
A gateway is also an electronic device or system (collection of hardware and software resources) that
connects two networks and translates information from one to the other. It enables a computer or node
to communicate with a computer on another different network.
(v) Router
Router is a communication device that connects two or more networks lo called router and transmits
data to the correct destination on the network. It uses the routing protocols.

Describe the Ethernet protocol used in LAN. Ethernet

Ethernet is the most commonly used protocol in LAN. It uses a high-speed network cable and bus
topology, so it is relatively simple and cheaper. Since all the nodes (or computers) use the same cable to
send and receive data and two or more
computers communicate with each other at the same time. Therefore, this type of network must follow a
set of rules to communicate the computers -with each other, otherwise it may cause loss of data or
messages. Before transmitting the data, a node must find out if the cable is in use. If so, the node must
wait. When the cable is free, the node must begin transmitting immediately. This process is also known
as CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection).
If by chance, two nodes transmit data at the same time, the messages collide. When a collision occurs, a
special message is sent out over the network to indicate that it is jammed (i.e. stopped due to any
defect). Each node stops transmitting, waits for a random period of time, and then starts transmitting
process again. Since, the wait period for each node is random, they may be transmitting at the same
time again but it does not happen always.

Describe the "Token Ring" protocol used in LAN. Token Ring

A token is a special electronic signal. It consists of a series of bits, which functions like a ticket. The
computer with the token can transmit data over the network. Only one token exists per network. A
computer network in which each node is connected to two adjacent nodes or neighbors form a closed
ring or loop is called ring network topology. The token ring protocol is used in this type of network. The
token ring is closely associated with IBM, which works on the concept of a ring network and a token. The
method of controlling access to the shared network cable is called token passing.
Only one token is available on the network. When a node on the network wishes to transmit data, it first
captures (or takes) the token, and then it can transmit data. When the node has sent its message, it
releases the token back to the network. Since only one token is circulating around the network, only one
device is able to access the network at a time. Thus no collision occurs. The main disadvantage of this
scheme of data exchange is that, it has very slow data transfer rate.
Describe the "ARCnet" protocol used in LAN. ARCnet

ARCnet stands for Attached Resource Computer network. It uses either twisted pair wire or coaxial cable,
and the star topology with hub attached to the network.
The original ARCnet protocol was very slow, but it became popular because it was inexpensive, reliable,
and easy to set up and to expand. Today, transmission rate
of fast ARCnet is improved which is about 100 M bits per second. Similarly, ARCnet also includes the
capability to use optic fiber cable.

Describe the Wide Area Network (WAN). Wide Area Network (WAN)

A Wide Area Network is a network system that covers a large (or wide) ' geographical area such as
different cities of country or different countries of the world. In WAN, usually the personal computers as
remote terminals are connected to the larger computer such as mainframe or mainframe, to send and
receive data. Since the larger computers are designed to be accessed by terminals, so PC can
communicate with larger computers only if the PC follows to be a terminal. This is made possible by
using a software on the PCs, known as terminal emulation software, which makes capable of a PC to
perform a function as terminal to communicate with larger computer. The larger computer then
considers the PC or workstation as just another input/output device or terminal.
The larger computer to which the terminal (or PC) is attached is called Host computer. If a PC is used as
terminal, then the user can upload or download data files to and from the Host through file transfer
software.
* Download a file means to retrieve the file from Host computer and store into the user computer which
is used as terminal.
* Upload a file means to send a file from user's computer and store on the Host computer.
In WAN, ordinary telephone lines, microwave or satellite links etc. are used as transmission media. .
Typically, a WAN consists of two or more LANs connected together across a wide geographical area. The
Internet is the worlds largest WAN because it connects many thousands of computers and LANs around
the world and making it as web.

Differentiate between LAN & WAN

LAN & WAN

The main difference between LAN and WAN is:

S.N Local Area Network Wide Area Network

o
1 Covers small geographical area.
Normally computers are directly
2 connected through physical cable
although wires LAN are also available
Ethernet card is used for data
3
transmission
4 Data transmission speed is very high
Its installation and configuration
5
cost is less than WAN
Covers large or wide geographical area
No physical cable or wire is used and data is
sent and received transmission. Through
microwave system or satellite.
Modem card is used for data transmission.
Data transmission speed is slow.
Its installation and configuration cost is
greater than LAN.

.
What are the network standards? Also describe their types. Network Standards

The standards are the precise documents containing technical and physical specifications about the
network being designed. Normally those standards are taken into consideration and are worldwide
acceptable.
By following the network standards, the networks can be reliable and efficient. Normally, two types of
standards are followed. These are:

De Facto Standard

De facto means "by tradition" or "by facts". These standards were developed without any formal plan
and came to existence because of historical developments. These standards are most commonly used by
the organizations worldwide.

De Jure Standard
De Jure means "according to law or regulation". These standards have been properly approved by the
networks governing body. Few of these governing bodies are:
* American National Standard Institute (ANSI)
* The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
* The International Standard Organization (ISO)
*& The International Telecommunications Union-Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T, formally
CCITT)
* The Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
* Telcordia

Describe the network models.

The most popular network models are described below.

Client/Server Network

In client/server network (or arrangement), the clients are all computers or nodes on the network and
server is a central computer that controls the network. In addition to control the network, the server also
provides a centralized storage area for programs and data. It has hard disks that hold the shared data
file or database. Under the client/server arrangement, processing is usually done by the server, and only
the results are sent to the clients or nodes. Sometimes, the server and the client share processing.
The client/server network has the following advantage.
* It reduces the volume of data traffic on the network.
* It allows faster response at each node.
* It allows using less expensive computers as clients because most of the work is done by server.

Peer-to-Peer Network•

In peer-to-peer arrangement, all nodes (or computers) on the network have equal status. No one has
control over others. Each computer stores files on its own storage devices and has its own peripheral
devices. The users can share each other's data and devices (or resources) as and when needed. The
main disadvantage of peer-to-per network is that it becomes slow under heavy use.
Hybrid Network
The hybrid network has combined features of both client/server and peer-to-peer networks (or
arrangements). It has a server and the users can share the data 'and software. Similarly, each node can
store its own files, programs, and has its own peripheral devices. The users can also share each other's
data and devices. These are the main advantage of hybrid arrangement.
What is meant by network topologies? Also write names of different LAN topologies.
Network Topologies

In networking, the term topology is the way of connecting nodes (or devices.) on a network. In other
words, a topology represents the shape of network. Network • topology can be divided into the following
basic types.
(a) Bus topology
(b) Star topology
(c) Ring topology
(d) Tree topology
(e) Mesh topology
\ Two or more of the above mentioned basic types of topologies may be
combined together to form more complex shape of networks.

Describe in detail the "Bus" topology. Bus Topology

In bus network, all nodes (or devices) are connected to a common communication medium or central
single cable. This single cable is called bus. The devices or nodes are attached with the central cable (or
bus) through interface connector. The central cable is the backbone cable, which functions as shared
communication medium. In bus network, when a computer or node sends a message to another
computer, it also attaches the- address of the destination computer or node. A node sends a broadcast
message onto the central cable or wire that all other nodes or devices can see, but only the destination
node actually accepts and processes the message.
In LAN, Ethernet bus topology is mostly used. It is relatively easy to install and does not require much
cabling as compare to others. The bus network is best if
the number of nodes (or devices) are limited, i.e. if it supports few dozen of nodes. If more than a few
dozen of nodes (or computers) are added to a bus, the performance problems are created. Similarly,
entire network fails if backbone cable fails.
Figure: Bus Topology
Describe the "Ring" topology. Ring Topology

In a ring network, each node is connected to two adjacent nodes or neighbors for communication
purpose and forms a closed ring or loop. In this way the last node connects to the first node to complete
the ring. In this network, all messages travel through a ring in one direction (clockwise or anti-clockwise)
from node to node. A failure in any cable or node breaks the loop. It means that entire network fails.
Token passing method is used in this topology.
Figure: Ring Topology

Describe the "Star" topology. Star Topology

In a star network, each node or device is directly connected to a central connection point known as 'Hub'.
The central connection may be an actual Hub or a switch. Typically, the nodes or devices are connected
to the Hub with unshielded twisted pair (UTP) Ethernet. Star topology is most commonly used in LAN.
Many home networks use the star topology.

Figure: Star Topology

Advantages

The main advantages of star topology are:

* It is easy to install and to maintain.
* If any node or cable fails, other nodes are not affected.

Disadvantages

The main disadvantages of star topology are:

* A star network generally requires more cable as compared to bus topology. So it becomes more
costly.
* This type of network depends upon the central Hub. If Hub fails, the entire network is failed.
Briefly describe the "Tree" Topology. Tree Topology

In tree network, the nodes are connected to each other in such a way that forms a tree like structure.
Typically to form a tree network, multiple star topologies are combined together onto a bus. In this
simplest form, only Hub devices connect directly to the tree bus. Each Hub functions as the root of a tree
of devices. This type of network has combined features of bus and star topology.
Figure: Tree Topolog)>

Describe the "Mesh" Topology. Mesh Topology

In mesh network, each node is directly connected to all node on the network. This type of network
involves the concept of routes. In this type of network, each node may send message to destination
through multiple paths. It means that each node of Mesh network has several possible paths to send (or
to receive), message, but in Bus, Star, Ring and Tree topologies each node has only one path. Some
WANs like the Internet employ mesh routing where reliability is important factor.
Mesh topology has the following advantages:
* It has multiple links, so if one route is blocked then other routes can be used for data communication.
* Troubleshooting of this topology is easy as compared to other networks.
* Its performance is not affected with heavy load of data transmission.

Figure: Mesh Topology

What is meant by workgroup computing? Workgroup Computing

In a computer network, people can work together as a group even when they are thousands of miles
away from each other. This concept of working together is called workgroups.
A group of people (teams of certain projects) can share work together by means of linked computers.
The phenomenon of sharing information by various members of workgroup is called W
orkgroup Computing. The workgroup computing is also known as collaborative computing.
, A technique to share information, in which many users or researchers can work on their projects by
sharing the same domain of information online, is called groupware. A groupware also permits the
individuals to collaborate (work together) with their colleagues inside the organization by means of
linked computer (computer network). At the same time, they can also link to other people (on the
networks) outside their organization.
The information may reside on different types of databases. Similarly, different operating systems, data
formats, and hardware may be used on different networks. The users can communicate with each other
without facing any problem. In fact, it is due to communication technology that has brought a revolution
in this type of, computing. The concept of "Global Village" has become a reality now and the '. computer
users are "chatting" with each other as if they are sitting face to face.
Describe the OSI Model. Also briefly describe all layers of OSI model. OSI Model

OSI stands for Open System Interconnection. OSI model is also known as OSI Reference Model. It is used
for networking. It was created by the International Standard Organization (ISO) to provide a logical
framework for how data communication processes should take place across networks.
There are 7 layers in the OSI model. Each layer is responsible for a particular aspect of data
communication. For example, one layer may be responsible for establishing connections between
devices, while another layers may be responsible for error checking during data transfer. The layers of
the OSI model are divided into two groups: upper layers and lower layers.
* The upper layers are related to user applications and how files are represented on the computers.
* The lower layers concentrate on how the communication across a network actually occurs.
Data Communication
What is data communication? Define the basic components of communication
network.

Data Communication
*
Communication means the exchange of information or messages. When we talk with" each other, we are
exchanging information. For corhSliunication of information or messages, we use telephones, computers,
and wireless devices that are linked in a network. Data communication is the exchange of data between
two devices via transmission media such as a wire cable. In other words, we can say that transfer of
information or data from one location to another is called Data
communication.
» Generally, the term data communication can be defined as the movement of
encoded information by means of electrical transmission systems from one computer or device to
another through communication channels such as cable, wireless media etc.

Components of Data Communication

There are five components in data communication network. These are defined Message: The message is
the information or data that is to be transferred from one location to another. It may consist of text,
numbers, pictures, sounds, videos or any combination of these.
Sender: A device that sends messages or data is called sender. It may be computer, workstation,
telephone, video camera and so on.
Receiver :

A device that receives messages or data is called receiver. It may be computer, workstation, telephone,
television and so on.
Encoder:

The encoder converts digital signals to a form, which can be transmitted through transmission medium.
Decoder: , o The decoder converts signals from encoded form into digital forms that are
understandable for receiver.

What is meant by "signals" used in data communication? Also describe the types of signals
such as Analog and

digital.
Signals

The data is transmitted from are place to another in the form of electromagnetic or light waves through
communication medium. The electromagnetic or light waves representing data are called signals. Data
communication signals can be in analog or digital form.

Analog Signals
The analog signals are continuous electrical signals in the form of wave. This wave is called a carrier
wave. The analog signal has two characteristics. These are:
Frequency:

The number of times a wave repeats during a specific time of interval is called frequency.
Amplitude:

The height of a wave with a given period of time is called amplitude.

Digital Signals

The digital signals are on-off electrical pulses in discontinuous or discrete form. Most of the computers
are digital and data is represented inside these computers in the form of binary numbers (or in the form
of discrete set of values). It means that computers accept and process data in the form of digital signals.

Describe different types of data.

Types of Data

There are different types of data representation in data communication. These are text, numbers,
images, audio, and video.

(i) Numeric

Numeric data consists of digits from 0 to 9, +(positive) or -(negative) signs and a decimal points .It can
be of integer type or real type data Integer data: It consists of positive or negative whole values
including 0.
For example,

420, 302, + 62, -26 etc.

Real data: It consists of values that have decimal point. For example, 15.4, .006, 4.07, -6.27 etc.

(ii) Text
It consists of words, sentences, paragraphs etc. For example, 'Pakistan', "I Love Pakistan", and this
paragraph written about "Text" etc. The text is stored as ASCII codes.
(Hi) Image
It consists of charts, graphs, pictures and freehand drawings. The data is sent as contiguous bits. These
bits are packed into bytes (8-bits = 1 byte).

Describe the popular coding schemes to represent data. BCD Code

BCD

BCD stands for Binary Coded Decimal. It was 4-bits code used in early computers. It was used only to
represent and process the numeric data. Today, this coding system is not used in modern computers.

EBCDIC Code

EBCDIC stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code. It is 8-bit code. In this binary
coding system 256 (2 ) different characters can be represented inside the computer. It is used by IBM
(International Business Machine) computers. It provides an efficient way to communicate data between
hosts, which use EBCDIC coding scheme for data representation. For transmission, the data is
represented as 8-bit EBCDIC characters.

ASCII Code

ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. It was developed by American
National Standards Institute (ANSI) and is a standard code to represent alphanumeric data. The first
ASCII code was 7-bit code. Then ASCII 7-bit code system was extended to 8-bit code. The 7-bit code
system can represent 128 characters while 8-bit code system can represent 256 characters. Today, ASCII
8-bit code system is used in most of the computers.

Unicode Code

Unicode stands for Universal Code. It is a 16-bit code and can represent 65536 (216 = 65536) characters
or symbols. It is developed by following the ASCII coding scheme. The first 256 codes in Unicode are
identical to the 256 codes used by ASCII system.
•

Describe the modes of Data communication. Modes of Data Communication

The way in which data is transmitted from one place to another is called data communication mode (or
data transmission mode). When a person is giving a lecture, information is conveyed in one direction.
Similarly during a conversation between two persons, spoken messages are exchanged in both
directions. These messages may be exchanged alternatively or simultaneously. Similarly, when data is
transmitted
between two devices or equipments, three ways for transmitting data can be used.

Sometimes, communication modes are also referred to as directional modes in data transmission. The
communication modes are:

(i) Simplex Communication Mode

In simplex communication mode, the data communication can take place in only one direction. In this
mode, a terminal can only send data and cannot receive it or it can only receive data but cannot send
data. Today, this mode of data communication is not popular, because most of the modern
communications require two-way exchange of data. However, this mode of communication is used in
business field at certain point-of-sale terminals in which sales data is entered without a corresponding
reply. The other examples of simplex communication modes are Radio and T.V transmissions.

(ii) Half-Duplex Communication Mode

In half-duplex communication mode, the data communication can take place in both directions, but only
in one direction at a time. In this mode, data is sent and received alternatively. It is like a one-lane bridge
where two-way traffic must give way in order to cross the other.
In half-duplex mode, at a time only one end transmits data while other end receives. In addition, it is
possible to perform error detection and request the sender to re-transmit information. The Internet
browsing is an example of half duplex. When we issue a request to download a web document, then that
document is downloaded and displayed before we issue another request.

(iii) Full-Duplex Communication Mode

In full-duplex communication mode, the data communication can take place in both directions
simultaneously (i.e., at same time) on the same channel. It is the fastest directional mode of
communication. Example of this mode is conversation of the persons through telephone. This type of
communication is similar to automobile traffic on a two-lane rc^J. The telephone communication system
is an example of full-duplex communication mode.
Full-duplex communication is made possible by devices called multiplexers. This type of communication
is limited to mainframe computers because expensive hardware is required for this directional mode.

Describe the Simplex Communication Mode.

See Q.7 part (i) Q.7.2 Describe the Half-Duplex Communication Mode.
See Q.7 part (ii) Q.7.3 Describe the Full-Duplex Communication Mode.
See Q.7 part (iii)

Describe the types of data transmission modes. Types of Data Transmission Modes

There are two types of data transmission modes. These are: (i) Parallel Transmission (ii) Serial
Transmission
(i) Parallel Transmission

In parallel transmission, bits of data flow concurrently through separate communication lines. Parallel
transmission is shown in figure below. The automobile traffic on a multi-lane highway is an example of
parallel transmission. Inside the computer binary data flows from one unit to another using parallel
mode. If the computer uses 32-bit internal structure, all the 32-bits of data are transferred
simultaneously on 32-lane connections. Similarly, parallel transmission is commonly used to transfer
data from computer to printer. The printer is connected to the parallel port of computer and parallel
cable that has many wires is used to connect the printer to computer. It is very fast data transmission
mode.

(ii) Serial Transmission

In serial data transmission, bits of data flow in sequential order through single communication line. Serial
data transmission is shown in figure below. The flow of traffic on one-lane residential street is an
example of serial data transmission mode. Serial transmission is typically slower than parallel
transmission, because data is sent sequentially in a bit-by-bit fashion. Serial mouse uses serial
transmission mode in computer.

Figure(a): Parallel Transmission

Differentiate between synchronous and Asynchronous transmission. Synchronous

Transmission

In synchronous transmission, large volumes of information can be transmitted at a time. In this type of
transmission, data is transmitted block-by-block or word-byword simultaneously. Each block may contain
several bytes of data. In synchronous transmission, a special communication device known as
'synchronized clock' is required to schedule the transmission of information. This special communication
device or equipment is expensive.
Asynchronous Transmission
In asynchronous transmission, data is transmitted one byte at a 'time'. This type of transmission is most
commonly used by microcomputers. The data is transmitted character-by-character as the user types it
on a keyboard.
An asynchronous line that is idle (not being used) is identified with a value 1, a1 ^ known as 'Mark' state.
This value is used by the communication devices to find whether the line is idle or disconnected. When a
character (or byte) is about to be transmitted, a start bit is sent. A start bit has a value of 0, also called a
space state. Thus, when the line switches from a value of 1 to a value of 0, the receiver is alerted that a
character is coming.

What is bandwidth? Also differentiate between base band and broadband?

Bandwidth

Each type of communication media or channel has different transmission speed. The data transmission
rate over communication channel is measured in bandwidth. The bandwidth will be higher if more signals
are transmitted over the communication channel. Actually, the bandwidth measures the amount of
information that can be transmitted through the media with a given period of time. For analog signals
bandwidth is represented in Hertz and for digital signals, it is represented in bit per second (bps).
Baseboard

Base band is a communication technique in which digital signals are directly transmitted over
transmission line without changing into analog signals (i.e. without using modulation technique). In this
communication technique, there is no need to use any complex modem. The digital signals are
commonly called base band signals. The token ring and Ethernet use base band signals (or digital
signals).

Broadband

Broadband is another communication technique in which large amount of data such as voice and video,
is transmitted over long distances simultaneously by modulating each signal onto a different frequency.
In "broadband transmission, FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing) technique is used, in which multiple
signals (or several streams of data) can be transmitted simultaneously.
Broadband is the bandwidth used for direct communication between very high-speed computer such as
mainframe computer. This bandwidth includes microwaves, satellites, fiber optics media etc.

What is communication media or channel? Communication Media

A path through which data is communicated from one place to another is r ferred to as communication
media or channel. The twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, fi;>er optic cable, microwave, satellite etc. are
examples of communication channels.
The communication media is divided into two types,
4
(i) Guided Media

In guided communication media, communication devices are directly linked with each other via cables or
physical media such as twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, or fiber optic cable for transmission of data. The
data signals are bounded to a cabling media. Therefore, guided media is also called bounded media.
(ii) Unguided Media

In unguided communication media, data is communicated between communication devices in the form
of wave. Unguided media provides means to transmit data signals but does not guide them along a
specific path. The data signals are not bounded to a cabling media. Therefore, unguided media is also
called unbounded media. The atmosphere and the space are examples of unguided media through which
microwaves and satellites are used for communication.

Descrioe the "Twisted pair" communication media. Twisted Pair

Twisted pair is one of the most commonly used communication media and is used in telephone lines to
carry voice and data signals. It consists of a pair of thin diameter copper wires that are covered by
insulating material such as plastic and are twisted together to form a cable. The wires are twisted around
each other to minimize (or reduce) interference from other twisted pairs in the cable. The bandwidth of
twisted pair is less than coaxial cable or optical fiber. The twisted pair has been the standard
communication channel for voice and data communication, but now its use is reducing because today
more reliable communication media are available such as . coaxial cable, fiber optic cable, microwave
and satellite.

Describe the "C axial Cable" communication media. Coaxial Cable

Coaxial .able consists of a single copper wire surrounded by insulating material. Coaxial cable contains
from four to twenty-two coaxial units called tubes. Each coaxial tube consists of 0.1 inch copper inner
conductor which is kept centered within a 0.375-inch cylindrical copper outer conductor by polyethylene
insulating disks spaced about 1 inch apart. The outer conductor is formed into a cylinder around the
disks.
Coaxial cable can be used for telephone lines for voice and data transmission with very high frequency.
The bandwidth of coaxial cable is 80 times greater than twisted pair media. Coaxial cable is also widely
used in local area network (LAN). Becav ^ of its strength, coaxial cables are often used for long distance
telepK~>ne lines that are carried under water. Coaxial cable creates less distortion ant has less
interference of external electromagnetic waves. Therefore coaxial cable has low transmission error rates.

Describe the "Fiber optic cable" communication media. Fiber Optic Cable

In twisted-pair cable and coaxial cable, data is transmitted in the form of electric frequencies. The fiber
optic cable uses light to transmit data. A fiber optic cable consists of tubes of glass (or thin glass fibers)
through which data is transmitted as pulses of light. A typical optical fiber consists of a very narrow
strand or fiber of glass called the core ( It is as thin as a human hair). The core is surrounded by a
concentric layer of glass called Cladding. The diameter of a core is 62.5 microns (1
micron = 10 6 meters). The diameter of cladding is about 125 microns, l! . cladding is coc ted with
insulating material such as plastic, which is called the Jacket
An important characteristic (or property) of fiber optic is refraction. Refraction is the characteristic of a
material to either pass or reflect light. When light passer through a medium, it bends as it passes from
one medium to the other.
The major advantages of fiber-optical media are:
* Its transmission capacity is about 26,000 times greater than twisted pair media.
^r It has high level of security.
* It is not affected by electromagnetic waves.
* It is more reliable and has lower data transmission errors.
What is microwave data transmission media? Microwave

In microwave transmission, data is transmitted through air instead of through cables or wires.
Microwaves are high frequency radio waves that can only be traveled in straight lines. Microwave
transmission is limited to a particular city or geographical area.
The data is transmitted and received through a microwave station. A microwave station contains an
antenna, transmitter, receiver, and other equipments that are required for microwave transmission.
Microwave antennas are placed on the high towers or buildings and these are placed within 20 to 30
miles of each other. The data messages are relayed from one location to another using antennas. In this
way, data is transmitted over larger distances.

Microwave Relay Station

What is the function of communication satellite? Satellite

A communication satellite is a space station that receives microwave signals (or messages) from earth
stations. Satellite transmission stations that can send and receive messages are known as earth stations.
The signals are transmitted frorh one earth station to the satellite. The satellite receives and amplifies
the signals and sends them to another earth stations. In this way, data or messages are transferred from
one location to another. Satellites rotate approximately 23,300 miles above the earth in precise
locations.
In the early years of satellite communication research, the moon was used to transmit data signals from
one place to another. The time taken by a data signal to reach to the moon and then back to the earth
was about 2 seconds. This time is called satellite delay and is still present today in all our satellite
communications.
Different communication satellites are used to carry different kinds of information such as telephone
calls, television channels, Internet traffic, military communication, weather data, and even radio stations
use them for broadcasting.
The data transmission speed of communication satellite is very fast. The major advantage of satellite
transmission is that large amount of data can be communicated at once. The satellite transmission also
has some disadvantages. The main disadvantages are:
* The bad weather can affect the quality of satellite transmission.
* It has serious security problems, because it is easy to catch (or intercept) the transmission as it travels
through the air.
What is Mobile communication? Mobile Communications

Mobile communication is a radio-based network that transmits data to and from the mobile computers.
The data is communicated through radio signals from one location to another. The computers can be
connected to the network through wireless connections or through wires.

What is a Modem? Modem

Modem stands for modulate and demodulate. It is an electronic device that converts digital signals into
analog signals and vice versa. Modems are used on "both ends of the computers for data communication
between computers through telephone line. We know that data is communicated through telephone line
in the form of analog signals. So data in the form of digital signals from one computer must be converted
into analog form to send it over telephone line. This process to convert the digital signals into analog
signal is called Modulation. Similarly, to receive the data from another computer through telephone line,
in the form of analog signals, it must be converted to digital form to store it into the computer. This
process of converting the analog signals into digital form is called demodulation. Modem enables the
users to transmit data from one computer to another by using standard telephone line instead of special
communication lines such as fiber optic cable etc. The basic terms that measure the capabilities of a
modem are:
Transmission Rate: It indicates how many bits per second a modem can transmit (or receive). Speed: A
modem converts the digital signals to analog form to transfer over the communication media. This
technique of encoding data from digital form to analog is called modulation. The speed of modem is
determined by the modulation standard. The rate at which a modem converts the digital signals in
analog form (and vice versa) and transmits over communication media is referred to as modem speed. It
is measured in bits per second (bps). Today, the modems are available with speed of 9600 bps and
above
.
Describe different types of modems. Types of Modems

In terms of physical size and shape, modems can be divided into following categories.

(i) External Modem

External modem is an external unit of computer and is separated from system unit. It is connected to the
serial port COM1 or COM2 of the computer by means of a cable. It is connected to the telephone line
through telephone wall Jack by another cable. An external power is also supplied to it. External modem is
very easy to set up.
(ii) Internal Modem
An internal modem is a circuit board (or modem card) that is installed into one of the expansion slots
inside the system unit of the computer. This modem cannot be moved easily from one PC to another. It is
also difficult to set up than other types of modem such as external modem.
(iii) Wireless Modems
Wireless modems transmit the data signals through the air instead of by using a cable. They sometimes
are called radio-frequency modems. This type of modem is designed to work with cellular technology,
and wireless local area networks. Wireless modems are not yet perfected, but the technology is rapidly
improving.