LESSON 2Understanding

semiconductor diodes.
Semiconductor Materials

In a pure crystal of a semiconductor( intrinsic

semiconductor) such as silicon, each atom of silicon
has four electrons in outermost orbit that are involved
in covalent bonding.
The vibrations of atoms causes some electrons to
break free the bonds.
When an electron is removed from a covalent bond,
it leaves behind a vacancy and is called a hole in
the bonding . Free electrons( negatively charged)
and holes (positively charged) are known as charge
carriers .
Conduction in a semiconductor is by means of a
movement of free electrons and holes in opposite
direction.
Semiconductors cannot conduct electricity as well as
metals because they have smaller numbers of free
electrons and holes. The conductivity of the
semiconductors can be increased by a process is
called doping

Semiconductors are materials which conduct

electricity better than insulator, but no so well as
ordinary conductors.
The following table shows the comparison between
insulator, conductor and semiconductor:
Example
material
Charge
carrier
Resistance
Conductivity

Insulator
Glass,
ceramic,
polythene
No free
electrons
High
Decrease
when the
temperature

Semiconductor
Silicon,
germanium,
selenium
Free electrons
and holes
Between
insulator and
conductor
Increase when
the temperature
increase.
Also increase
when light
shines on it or
with presence
of impurities

Conductor
Copper,
aluminium,
iron
Free
electrons
Low
Decrease
when the
temperature

Doping of Semiconductors
Doping is a process of adding a small amount of
impurities into the pure crystal of semiconductor
(intrinsic semiconductor).
Atoms of the impurities added should have almost the
same size as the atoms of the intrinsic
semiconductor.

Charge carriers in semiconductors

Type of Semiconductors Material

Different kinds of impurities are added produce
different types of semiconductor ; the p-type and the
n-type.

15

(i)

p-type semiconductor

A n-type semiconductor is produced when

pentavalent atoms are added to intrinsic
semiconductor atoms.
Each pentavalent atom donate a free electron
,because there will be one extra electron.
The electrons are now the majority charge
carriers in the n-type semiconductor since
there are more free electrons than holes.
Examples of pentavalent atoms are
Arsenic,Phosporus and Antimony and called
donor atoms.
Comparison between p-type semiconductor and
n-type semiconductor

A p-type semiconductor is produced when

trivalent atoms are added to intrinsic
semiconductor atoms.
Only fhree of the four bonds formed by the
trivalent atoms are complete. The vacancy is a
hole with positive charge.
The holes are now the majority charge carriers
in the p-type semiconductor since there are
more holes than free electrons.
Examples of trivalent atoms are Indium,Boron
and Gallium and called acceptor atoms.
(ii)

n-type semiconductor

Pure
Semiconduktor

p-type
semiconductor
Silicon,
Germanium

n-type
semiconductor
Silicon,
Germanium

Doping
substance

Indium,Boron,
Gallium

Function of
doping
substance
Valency of
doping
substance
Majority charge
carrier
Minority charge
carrier

Aceptor atom

Phosporus,
Antimony,
Arsenic
Donor atom

Pentavalent

Trivalent

Hole

Electron

Electron

Hole

Semiconductor Diode
A diode is a component (device) that allows electric
current to flow in one direction only.
A diode acts like a one-way valve to electric current.

16

The structure and the symbol of a semiconductor

diode

The layer of the negative charge in the p-type region

will prevent the majority charge carriers from the ntype region(the electrons) from crossing the boundary.
Similarly , the positive charge layer in the n-type
region will prevent the majority charge carriers from
the p-type region(the holes) from crossing the
boundry in the opposite direction. Thus, a potential
difference ,known as the junction voltage.In its normal
state a p-n junction delivers no current since the
charges are in equilibrium.

A semiconductor diode can be made by joining pieces

of n-type and p-type semiconductor.
The semiconductor diode is also called p-n junction
diode.
The following figure shows structure and the symbol
of a semiconductor diode :

How does the p-n junction diode work?

When p-type semiconductor material in contact
with n-type semiconductor material , a layer called the
depletion layer is formed in the middle.
At this junction , electrons from n-type material drifts
across the junction to fill in the holes in p-type.
The holes from p-type material drift in the opposite
direction to unite with free electrons in the n-type
material. As a result a depletion layer is a very
narrow region which has lost all its available free
electrons and holes and thus behaves almost like
pure silicon,i.e with high resistivity.
Any further movement of charges across the boundry
in the depletion layer will be repelled by the charges
in the layer.

The effect of this junction voltage is to prevent

charge carriers from drifting across the junction.
The junction voltages for germanium and silicon are
approximately 0.1 V and 0.6 V respectively.
In order for electric current to flow through the diode,
the voltage applied across the diode must exceed the
junction voltage.

17

Graph of current, I against voltage V for p-n jenis

silicon dan germanium diode

When the in forward-biased arrangement, the cell

voltage greater than the junction voltage. The
depletion layer is narrow , and the resistance of diode
decreases. Hence a large current flows through the
diode.

Experiment to show a semiconductor diode flows

current in one direction only.

Figure(a)

Figure(b)

The diode is connected to the cell in the forwardbiased arrangement as shown in Figure(a).
The bulb light up.
The experiment is repeated with the reverse-biased
arrangement as shown in Figure (b)
The bulb does not light up.
The experiment shows that a diode allow the current
in one direction only when the diode in the forwardbiased arrangement.

When the in reverse-biased arrangement, the cell

voltage lower than the junction voltage. The depletion
layer is wide , and the resistance of diode increases.
Hence only a very small current (leakage current)
flows through the diode.

18

Diode as a Rectifier

Capacitor

A diode can act as a rectifier because it can convert

alternating current(a.c.) into direct current(d.c).
The process of converting a.c. to d.c. is called
rectification.

A capasitor is device which can

(1) store electric charge
(2) smooth out waveform in the rectified output
(3) separate the a.c and d.c (as a filter)
Smoothing output wave by a capacitor
By connecting a capacitor parallel to the resistance ,
the half-wave and the full-wave rectified waveform
could be partially smoothed out.

There are two types of rectification process :

(1) Half -wave rectification
(2) Full - wave rectification
Half- wave rectification

For half of the cycle, A is more positive than B ,the

diode conducts.
For the other half cycle, A is more negative than B ,
no current can flow.

For half of the cycle, the capacitor is charged up.

Energy is stored in the capacitor.
For the other half cycle, the capacitor releases its
charge (discharges)
So the capacitor can produced a steady output or
output is stablised.

Full-wave rectification

For half of the cycle, A is more positive than B ,the

diode conducts and the current flows through the
resistance.
For the other half cycle, A is more negative than B ,
the current flows through the resistance in the same
direction as before.

19

TUTORIAL 2
1

Which of the statements on semiconductor

material is not true?
A
B
C
D

Which of the following pairs characteristics are

true?
n-type
p-type
semiconduktor semiconduktor
Doping
antimony
gallium
A substance
Funtion of aceptor atom
donor atom
B doping
substance
Valency of trivalent
pentavalent
C doping
substance
Majority
hole
electron
D charge
carrier

An n-type semiconductor is produced when

some of the germanium atoms are replaced with

not obey the Ohms law

the charge carriers are holes
Silion and Germanium are two examples
of pure semiconductor material
conduct electricity better than insulator but
no so well as ordinary conductors.

Which of the flowing graph resistance, R

against temperature, T is correct for a pure
semiconductor material?

A
B
C
D
3

A
B
C
D
4

The process of adding a trivalent atom to a pure

silicon crystal is known as
doping
donating
excitation
polarization

Which of the following is not a doping

substance.
A
C

antimony
indium

B
D

germanium
gallium

20

divalent atoms
trivalent atoms
tetravalent atoms
pentavalent atoms

Which of the following diagrams is an n-type

semiconductor?

Which of the following pairs atoms can act as an

impurity to produce an n-type semiconductor
when doped into a pure semiconductor?
A
B
C
D

The diagram shows a circuit consisting of a

diode and a bulb. When the switch is on, the
bulb does not light up.

Boron and phosphorus

Arsenic and antimony
Antimony and gallium
Indium and gallium

Which of the following is true according to a

p-type semiconductor?
A
B
C

10

12

Thedoping substance is trivalent atoms

The majority charge carrier is free
electrons
The conductivity decreases when
temperature is increased

What needs to be done to light up the bulb?

A
B
C
D

Which of the following graph current,I against

potential difference,V for a semiconductor
diode?

13

Replace with a new bulb

Reverse the diode connection
Increase the number of dry cells
Connect a resistor parallel to the bulb

The diagram shows a circuit containing bulbs X,

Y and Z.

Which bulb in the circuit will light up when the

switch is on?

11

A
B
C
D

A function of a diode is as F
A
B
C

Amplifier
Rectifier
Smoother

21

Z only
X and Y only
Y and Z only
X,Y and Z

14

Which of the following circuit causes only a

bulb is lighted up?

Which of the following waveform output is

formed at CRO screen?

16

15 The diagram shows a circuit containing diode D,

resistor R and a.c. power supply is applied at
terminal PQ. The waveform of the a.c. supply is
shown in the diagram.

22

Which of the following waveform has been

rectified?

17

The diagram shows a circuit containing two

diodes , a resistance is connected to a.c.
voltage.

19

The diagram shows a rectification circuit which

uses four diode , a resistor and a battery.

Which of the following is the direction of the

current flowing?
Which of the following waveform formed on the
CRO screen?

A
B
C
D
20

.
18

U S NOQ RT M L
U S TMNO Q M L
L M NOQR T S U
L T SQR ON M U

The diagram shows a rectification circuit which

uses four diodes and three resistors P , Q and
R.

The diagram shows a rectification circuit which

uses four diodes K,L,M and N and resistor, R.

Which of the following resistor is only the

direct current flow?
Which of the following is the direction of the
current flowing?
A
B
C
D

A
C

K N ML
L M NR
L R N
M R N

23

P
R

B
D

Q
P ,Q and R

21

23

Which of the following circuit does the bulb not

light up

24

The diagram shows the structure of a

semiconductor material.

The function of the capacitor in fhe figure above

as
A
B
C
D

a rectifier
an amplifier
a current filter
a voltage smoother

22

Based on the circuit above, which of the

following waveform is formed on the CRO
screen?

(a) Based on the diagram above,

(i)

(ii)

name the type of the semiconductor

material.
.........................................................
what is the function of the Boron
atom?

.........................................................
(iii) name the majority charge carrier in
the semiconductor material.
.........................................................

24

(b) At 0 K , a pure semiconductor material has

very high resistance. Explain why?

.............................................................................
.............................................................................

....................................................................
25

(a) Figure (a) shows an arrangement of

apparatus to study the conductivity of
semiconductor diode by a student.
When the switch is closed by the student
the bulb does not light up.

(c)

...
The diagram shows a p-type
semiconductor is joined to an n-type
semiconductor. Later the combination of
the semiconductor materials are connected
to a bulb and a battery.

Figure (a)
(i)

In the space below draw a circuit

diagram for Figure (a)

(ii)

....................................................................

State the characteristic of the

diode
causes the bulb does not light up?

..

(d) What happens to the bulb when the battery

connection is reversed. Explain why?

(iii) State the correction should be done

to the connection of the circuit in
Figure (a) to make the bulb is lighted
up.

.............................................................................

..

.............................................................................

(i)

Name the line X.

....................................................................
(ii) Give the name and the function of
voltage at X .

25

..
(b) Figure (b) shows circuit X is connected to a
transformer , resistor R and a cathode-ray
oscilloscope. When the switch is opened
the waveform as shown in Figure (b) is
formed on the CRO screen.

26

.
The diagram shows a rectification circuit which
uses four diodes W ,X, Yand Z and resistor R.

(a) What does the word rectification mean?

Figure (b)
(i)

In the space below draw a circuit

diagram for circuit X.

(ii)

In the space below draw a

waveform
is produced in the CRO screen when
a capacitor is connected parallel to
resistor R.

....................................................................
(b) Draw the waveform formed on the CRO
screen.

(c)

By using the letters A,B,C,D,E,F,G and H

in the figure above state the direction of
the current flows when at half of the
cycle, A is more positive than B.

....................................................................
(d) What happen to the direction of the current
flows in resistor R compared to the your
answer in (c) when at the other half cycle,
A is more negative than B.
....................................................................
(iii) Give the reason for your answer in
b(ii).

....................................................................
(e) What happen to the output waveform when
(i) the terminals of diodes X and Y are
reversed

............................................................

..

26

(ii)

..
(iii) The number of turns in the primary
coil is 2000. Calculate the number of
turns in the secondary coil.
[ Assume that the transformer is
an ideal transformer ]

only the terminals diode Y are

reversed

..
(iii) the terminals of diodes W, X, Y and
Z are reversed.
(f)

............................................................
Draw the waveform formed when a
capacitor is connected parallel to resistor R
in the figure above.
(b) The transformer in Figure (a) is not
suitable to power the radio. A modification
is required before the radio is used.
(i) Explain why the transformer is not
suitable to use?
............................................................

27

(ii)

Abu wants to power a ticker timer and a

transistor radio. The ticker timer requires an
input voltage of 12 V a.c. and the transistor
radio requires an input voltage 12 V d.c. The
power supply at Abus school is 240 V a.c.

............................................................
Name two electronic components
that are needed to use.
...................................

..
(c) Figure (b) shows a circuit that can be
modified to produce a full-wave
rectification and smoothing output wave

(a) Abu used a transformer as shown in

Figure (a) to power the ticker timer.

Figure (b)
Complete the circuit in the dotted box by
adding the electronic components in b(ii)
Figure (a)
(i)

(ii)

Name the type of the transformer is

used.
............................................................
Give one reason why the softiron core is used in the
transformer?

27

28

(a) Figure (a) shows circuits J, K, L, M and N

each containing an ideal transformer.
Diodes in the circuits are used for the
purpose of rectification.

(b) Figure (b) shows a circuit consisting of a

transformer, an ammeter and two light
bulbs. The ammeter reading is 0.5 A and
both bulbs light up with normal brightness.

(i)
(ii)

Figure (a)
Key :
Np = Number of turns in primary coil
Ns = Number of turns in secondary coil
(i)
(ii)

What is meant by rectification ?

Explain the working principle of a
transformer.
(iii) You are asked to make a 12 V battery
charger . Study the circuits, J, K ,L, M
and N in Figure (a) and consider the
following aspects:
type of transformer
ratio of the number of turns in
primary coil to secondary coil
type of rectification
characteristic of output current

28

Figure (b)
What is the output voltage of the
transformer?
Calculate the efficiency of the
transformer.