V Semester - Paper 6, Unit I, Quantum Mechanics

Atomic spectra: J.J.Thomson, a British physicist put forth the first model describing
the structure of an atom,' 1898 one ear after he discovered the elec on. The
model is referred to as the ~Plum puddin& model'. ccor mg thIS model, the atom
consists of a sea (pudding) of positive charges uniformly distributed over a sphere of
about lA diameter. The electrons (Plums) are uniformly embedded in this sphere.
(This model failed to account for the large angle scattering of alpha particles by
matter]
!
-c=~~_-~e::.:rford,

a physicist from New Zealand proposed the 'nuclear mQd~' of an atom in

e suggestea that the entire -positive charge of the atom'is- concentrated in a small region

of a diameter of around a Fermi (1 O-~ U!.Jts core and it was referred to as the 'nucleus'.

Electrons are distributed in circular orbits round the nucleus. Centripetal force required to keep

the electrons in their orbits is provided by the electrostatic force of attraction of the nucleus. This

.........
..

model suffered from the followirig drawbacks:

1. An electron in orbit round the nucleus is in a state of accelerated motion. According to

classical electrodynamics, an accelerated charge should radiate energy. In this case, the
electron radiates energy of the same frequency as its orbital frequency, should move
along a spiral path and eventually collide with the nucleus, destabilizing the atom itself.
But atoms are found to be stable.
2. A spiraling electron also should give rise to a continuous emission spectrum of
continuously varying wavelen . Expenmentally however, rna
m atomic state is
found to emjtlipe .ctrum 2,f discrete wavelengths.

Niels BOhrJa Danish physicist pro osed

tum model' of an atom in 191 based on
quantum eo of radiation put forth by ax Planc in 1905. According to this model,
a) An electron can orbit round the parent nucleus in selected discrete orbits called
~ orbJWJ.The ~ of these orbits are such that the an;Ilar momentum 'of the
electron is an inte
multi Ie of (hl21t), where 'h' is Planck constant.:..In other words, the :>.
orbital radiu and hence
gular momentum f the electron are quantized and not
..... co
b) An electron though accelerated, does not radiate energy, as long as it is in the stationary
orbit
--. " . - " -~
c) Radiation is emitted by an atom when an electron undergoes a transition from a higher to
a lower quantized energy level. Energy released is the difference in the energy
corresponding to the higher and lower states. The emitted packet of energy is called a
'photon'. /~_~4 fWWlE--4n-V)- __ =;:>-~-:~'~-------~--=----~---~~--.--._---- ---------- -----

--- -----------

--

:c.~ ~f-f1

Thus, Bohr satisfactorily accounted fQt,th stability of an atom

by introducing the concepts of 'quantiiation' an p oton

----------------------

Blackbody radiation: A blackbody is one that absorbs radiation of all wavelength

incident on it and emits radiation of all wavelength when heated to a higher
temperature. An isothermal cavity is a practical model of a blackbody. Classical
mechanics fruled to account for the nature of energy distribution in blackbody
spectrum.
From classical thermodynamic con~iderations,~rchoff had established that the energy density
of radiation from a blackbody in a given frequency range is independent of the nature of the
walls of the cavity and the presence of other bodies within the cavity, but depends solely on the
_temperature of the cavity~
~

!:ummer and Pringsheim experimentally studied the spectrum of blackbody radiatioj! A graph of
specific intensity of ~iation, UldA corresponding to radiation of different wavelengths emitted
by a blabkbody is characterized by the following features:
..

--

----13 --r

__ '.:a..

1) J?nergy radiated by a blackbodt at a given temperature is not uniformly distributed with

respect to wavelen!!1.
2) At a given temperature, UldA. increases with A., _rellc..h~s aIll~jm!IDlUmaxfOITesponding- ..
toade1'inileWaveleiigth~, exhlbltsa sIngle peak and decreases thereafter.
~

I) E:.M.J'VfJ ,...a..-t'<t b..)

~) r;. -6)~ yt:'t-

a--

fi1,~';-'H\ ~

--1;>

r( t ~ I\ ..b- ""';f..I',..{j d,sf;;NhbeJ

fbL~.

./

"---..

3
3) Value ofUmax increases with rise in tempera

-~~>--~~

the 5th power of the absolute temperature. Ie

--==~=--"':
4) Am is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature T of the body. Ie as the cavity is
heated, Am shifts to shorter wavelength region.
5) Total radiation emitted by a blackbody at any temperature is given by the area under the
corresponding UAdA. - A. curve and is found to vary directly as the fourth power of
temperature. Ie ~ a T'.
~
Several physicists attempted to account for the ahov experimentally observed facts based on
classical principles, but failed. Some of them are:

1. Stefan's fo;rth

po~ law..:..Jtefan proposed that the rate at which energy is radiated by

8/

"unit area of a body is directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.
Ie Etotal a. T" or E = O'T", where cr is Stefan's constant.:; 5.672 x 1O-8Wm-2 K-4. Boltzmann

IS aw theoretIcally on thermodynamic coru;iderations. [hough Stefan's law

veri Ie
explains the increase in energy radiated by a body with rise in its temperature, it gives no

.
-.:lue to ~distribution ofenergy with respect to wavelength.
~
2...Wjen's displacement ~According to this law, the wavelength at which radiation
~ from a bod peaks is inversely proportional to its absolute temperature. Mathematically,
t~(...c..~~). l..n a. 110 lo.T = b, e..Wien's co~nt = 2,892....x 10-3 ~s ~lains the shifting of
~ ~o sho~erength side with rise in temperatureJurther Wien showed that the
power of its absolute
maxImum energy emitted
by a blackbody varies directly as the
, "..
temperature. ie U~ax a.
This agrees with experimental observations onlyatQ
wavelengths.
(a)
---"---~~~

~
:t'.

sm

rrs.

uat decrease .

~~

).u6 ~'J

... intensity of radiations whose wavelengths are greater an . _

~ Rayleigh - Jeans law: R:ayleigh and Jeans considered the cavity of the radiator as an
assembly of 3 dimensioniil atomic oscillators, each oscillating with its own frequency
independent of others. Based on classical priDCipre of equipartition of energy,...Rayleigh
and Jeans arrived at an expression for the energy density of radiatIon as

U,dl = 87r,kT dl
,.

.l4

where k = Bolzmann constant an~ c =spe~d oflightin y~u~

w'JJ'.-flq-q

}:101\ ~.

Rayleigh - Jeans law tallies with the experimental curve only for wavelengths
There is a discrepancy at lower wavelengths since the energy density of radiation IS expec e

affl~
wrJA

:1 dis-t L~w' r~ILs ~ LC1~~ A

~~--~

R-:;- 1.,%; f a.'-Ls e

vA eri-e,..:1 C~:tu Vc(Lbsi40f l)

::>"

---------------~

- ------'

tend to infinity. This failure of classical Rayleigh-Jeans law at shorter wavelengths is referred to

as 'ultraviolet catastrophe'. It js referred to as a catastrophe since there' were no flaws in the

... deduction of the law based on the well established fundamental~ of classical Physics.
Principles of classical physics thus failed to account for the salient features of blackbody

radiation spectrum.

Planck's quantum theory of radiation.

ax Ludwig Planck, a German Physicist

ucing the concepts of 'quantization' and

proposed the quantum theory of radiation.

'photon', hewas able to account for all th-; discrepancies between the predictions of classical

theory and experimental results. Planck's quantum theory is based on the following hypothesis:

i. The cavity of a radiator behaves as an assembly of 3 dimensional atomic oscillators

called Planck oscillators. These oscillators execute simple hannonic electrical

oscillations. He further propo~ed that each oscillator can have only a discrete set of

energy of oscillation 'E' which is directly proportional to the frequency 'v' or E = hv,

where 'h' is called Planck constant. The permitted energies of the oscillator are integral

multiples of 'hv'. In other words, the oscillation frequencies and hence energy are

quantized. Ie energy of an oscillator = nhu, where 'n' is an integer.

11.
An oscillator may lose or gain ener ,ie emit or absorb energy only in terms of discrete
packets or 'quanta' of energy. Frequency of emitted or absorbed ra Iation is given by v =

- AE.
h

Where~

the

diff""";; in the energy of the oscillator before and after eiU;;

~sion or a sorption of radiation. The quan~ with least energy ie hu is called a

iii.

'photon'. In other words, the radiatotabsorbs and emits radiation only as photons

[properties of a photon are: }

. '

-.
Though electromagnetic in nature, a photon is electrically neutral and hence is not
deflected by electric and magnetic fields

wavel~= :~

ma;~al

.. .

It exhibits dual nalilre of both a wave of

and of a
. I f,",<>~L = ~\ \1
k (10M -eJt..U'!JJ -1)')Q..&S ~"'-IVc,l'
.. J~A.V
I"t c
==7> =-~;:.li
partiC eo ~
_ N~~er of photons emitted per second by a radiator determines th intensity of
0"
radIatIOn
.
.
Ener ofthe hoton is determined b the fre uency of the source emitting it
Photon h zero rest mas
d hence has a speed of 3 x 108ms 1 in vacuum
Photon behaves e a material particle with mass while interacting with matter
and collides with matter elastically
Ct!>M uf E
Photons are not conserve~n number. They can be created and destroyed

O'IJ 0

With the hypothesis of energy quantization, Planck arriv-ed at an expression. for the energy ... wtif
density of blackbody radiation as

"',~-------- - -

r(

'.'

U).dl =

87rhc [
15

dl

he

eiJiT -1

The above formula is called lanck's radiation ormula and is in total agreement with the
experimental facts and successfully removes the discrepancy between theory and experiment. It
reduces to Wien's distribution law at shorter wavelengths and Rayleigh-Jeans law at longer
--Wavelengths.

Reduction of Planck's law to (i) Wien's law at shorter wavelengths

We have Planck's radiation formula UAdA

= 81tbe
AS

1
he

dl

e IkT -1
hc'

he

he

he

At shorter wavelengths, -Ak-T is large. :. eAkT 1 and (e AkT

__- - - - - - - - - - _ _ _ _

1) '" eikT

8nhe 1

-he

Substituting in Planck's formula, U",I\. dA = --AS -~ ciA = 81Ihc A-seAkT dA

eAkT

The above equation can be writtenas UAdA

where C1 = 81Ihc and C2 =

-C2

CIA-5 e AT dA ............... (1)

:c .

Equation (1) is Wien's law of radiation.

(ii) Rayleigh - Jeans law at longer wavelengths

hc

At longer wavelengths, AkT 1.

~

. eAkT
Expanding as power senes,

Neglecting higher powers pf; ,

I + AkT
hc
+
~

e AkT

Substituting in Planck's formula, UAdA

( hc )2
AkT

+ ........ , ........... .

hc~

1 + -AkT or e AkT

hc
= -.
AkT

= _~~~~ dA == ~~:~ dA or UAd:A = ~:T dl

AkT

""'kT""

's clearly indicates that Planck's law of radiation is the general

formula which
ectrum of blackbod adiation
c while Wien' slaw
and Rayleigh-Jeans law are specific to shorter and longer wavelength regions respectively]
Photoelectric effect: Emission of electrons by a metal surface when irradiated with
@ radiation
of suitable frequency is known as 'photoelectric effect'. The emitted

electrons are called 'photoelectrons' and the motion of photoelectrons in a closed

circuit constitutes the 'photo ectric c rrent'. The phenomenon of phot~electric effect
was first observed by einrich Hertz in 1887 and later by Hallwachs. In 1912,

, ..

Richardson and Compton experimentally collected the following data on

photoelectric emission:
1) Photoelectric emission is an instantaneou~rocess. Ie electrons are emitted as
soon as radiation is incident on the photoemitter surface
2) For every photoemissive surface, there is a minimum frequency of incident
radiation below which there is no photoemission. This is referred to as
'threshold frequency' (uo) of the emitter
.
.. .t..
3) For incident radiation of frequency U > uo, the strength o.!,photoelectric.urrent ~G~;
varies directly as the intensity of incident radiation, but is independent of its b...k~frequency
--~~
4) For all incident frequency U > Uo, maximum kinetic energy .2f-the emitted
"i'S

<:
fiJI":\ ~ photoelectronsjs directly proportional to the frequency and is independent of

~. ~I 1"/ the intensity of incident radiation

- _

5) For U > Uo, for a given photoemissive surface, stopping potential is directly
proportional to the incident frequency, but is i~dependent of the intensity of
incident radiation. This wa.s7xperimentally studies by l 1ikattyn 1916

*'

lasSiCal theory of wave nature of electromagnetic radiation could not account for the absence of

photoelectric emission below threshold frequency of an emitter. It also could not explain the

dependence of maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons on the frequency of incident radiation.

Albert Einstein accounted for all the experimental]y observed facts of photoelectric effect in
_ ebased OD Planck's quantum theory of radiation He proposed that radiant energy from a
source is given out as discrete quanta or photons. When this photon interacts with an atom of the
photoemissive surface, exchange of energy takes placeCls quantized~ in terms of photon energy.
An electron of the photoemitter surface is bound electrostatically to its parent nucleus. Minimum

energy required to free a photoelectron from the surface of the emitter is called the 'work

function' (W) and the corresponding frequenc = (W~iS the threshold frequency of the

emitter. Each hotoemitter has its own characteristic Lesold frequenc . No photoemission is

possible for incident frequency less than the threshold frequency If the incident energy E = hu is

greater than W, an energy W is used to free the electron from the surface and the rest is carried

by the liberated electron as its kinetic energy (%m~). This leads to the famous Einstein

@otoeleCtric equation, ~ hn = hno + %~~

C; E =W + %m~

V-

!Jof

k: f

Xn

It is clear from the above equation that the kinetic energy and hence stopping potential increases

linearly with the frequency of the incident radiation but is independent of its intensity.

~ince each incident photon is responsible for the release of one photoelectron, the stl'ength of

photoelectric current isdirectly--proportional t~ ~e int~.n;~i!y of th~_mic:1p~ .rndiation.but_is

iriaependent of its rrequency

Einstein's photoelectric theory provided a direct verification of Planck's quantum hypothesis.

-------------------------------------------------------

~J

Concept questions
1. When is non-relativistic mechanics "applicable?
V I... L c"
2. What is the range of nuclear diameter? IV I DIS" (I F4'MJ' )
3. Is gravity responsible for holding the electrons in orbit round the parent nucleus?
Justify your answer. f1qo ,..., -bh.- ~l.t.c.b/O(ff,~,..c "'klZ-l"s'J"-eS'~~~
4. What are the factors on which the specific intensity of ra~{ation from a blackbody is
(i) dependent and (ii) independent?
i.) T
t c- ) ~ ,,(;4'hj ~ ~
5. What is 'UV catastrophe'? Explain. R -,:j' ~ fre,t,~
U'~"t't;.q> (fA v~e...) /t "
6. Does a photon have mass? Explain. z..e.rb~.p ~~. ~,d;','t/J,~l("e--~d~ t;o ~.H.
7. Write Einstein's photoelectric equatib;i,'=$i:lniftg all the notations used. Hence,
define threshold frequency and work function of a photoemitter.
...:,
'V () - ~,..eo}) .1J. f 1'-41' .fQ 9 :;3. IA/-== ,{ IJ
~ ~Gt;)I/</~ I)

A)

fJl'

Z:::::

f),

BO-t;t,OM

L;tJt,:

c.t-,. l-t:y/
It- j4A"te", 6-~

E.::::.. V-t- -k-JI1,V ~ f1bV

Av.:= AJ

+-..L

a..

"

M-)()rfo.l~ of c.-f\1.

$7:!;'Cl~,,",

~
"

J41 V

1"1-::::::';"0

(!t.f<,:

- Ato~ i c S~..c..:bl"a... d- -tJu..

-l/ -

C..kq. ~~"" ~q..)

--' hlttckWy f'o..J i~'b n
- fh~to<.{-u:.t;(./c, -e-ff~"C'

c-t

q.

tu...ff (St~~""AI

-, ofO-J1It--tsi)

c,A:"
a..~II.c::..t>'f~~

~ ::z c/O

fo l' (;r: z... )

IYl

tYl

=0

:;:r

L-

-+ 0 =-!.Q...0

+-D :;6.--

Vs':;: slfs --. O/-ZA

26 : : :- ,CJ8

Vi 2l/S1-J/L~

-r-=---::6+~;r:--rr~~~~'=4----/-- l(s =:
~

to ~~M"-X -::-0
f

11;:::. =-'
:=:: I z +IL.

reS

,02. -!-,ol"2

.o8.2..A

~~I3~

10 ::::: (. 0 3 '2.,) (/6"-0)

./(-5

~,C?V

10 r ~z. )tV),n -v
I5 =-:t~ +0 =-

/'2.1\

Vs:: (. () )2.) (15'0

~

1.8

V(-.:::.- V5

+)/L

:::- 1-8

+/~

=--[3.8 v7

--- LJ.O

(112;;
-.,

1/5 + VL
Lf, g -I- Iz
V,L~ V 1

-------~~-

--

-~~

Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle or Principle of Indeterminacy

)

,
,
)

In 1927, German Physicist, Werner Heisenberg proposed the uncertainty principle. This principle
of indeterminacy is the best known consequence of wave - particle duality put forth by Louis de
Broglie.
Classical mechanics deals with the motion of macroscopic objects. A macroscopic object is
represented by a point mass. The locus of the instantaneous position of this point mass gives the
trajectory of the body. Position and momentum of the body at any instant can be calculated
accurately, if the corresponding values at an earlier instant are kpown .

Quantum mechanics deals with microscopic particles in motion. Each moving particle is
described in terms of a wave packet represented by a wave function, which contains information
regarding the position and momentum of the particle. According to Born's intemretation, at any
~
given instant, the particle can be found anywhere within the packet. This sets a limit to the
-accuracy with which the instantaneous position of the partIcle can be measured. Ef the wave
packet is narrow, particle position can be determined with greater accuracy. But a large number
of waves with slightly varying speed and phase need to interfere to give rise to a narrow wave
packet. This implies that there will be greater uncertainty in the measurement of instantaneous
speed and hence momentum of the particle. On the other hand, if the wave packet is broad, the
momentum of the particle can be measured fairly accurately, but its instantaneous position
becomes more uncertainJThis uncertainty in the measurement of the physical quantities position
and momentum is expressed in the Uncertainty Principle by Heisenberg as: 'The product. of the
uncertainty in the simultaneous measurement of the position. and momenfum of a particle is
greater than or eqtial to n, wh;e11'"= Planck constant = 6.62x 10-34J5 , .

--

If fl x and flpx are the uncertainty in the measurement of X-component of position and
momentum of a particle, according to Uncertainty Principle,
flx flpx

~t

The above relation applies to all conjugate physical quantities whose product has the dimension
of action and unit Js. Ex: (i) Energy and time, (ii) angular momentum and angular displacement
Gamma ray microscope thought experiment

In a gamma ray microscope, the object is illuminated with high energy gamma rays. Using this
microscope, a thought experiment can be done to arrive at Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle. In
the idealizedexperiment, a single electron at rest is illuminated with a single gamma ray ph'Oion
and the scattered photon is caught through the objective of the microscope.
Limit of resolution of a microscope = flx
.

-------

- - '

'-'

---------------

A
.

2sl.na

-----_. -----------

12.

where L.\x = minimum distance of separation between two p<?il!ts that are just resolved ie shown
as separate by the microscope. In this case, it stands for the~~rror in the determination of
the position of the electron as it recoils after scattering the rncident gamma ray photo~

A. = wavelength of incident gamma ray photon. Extremely short wavelength gamma ray ensures
minimum uncertainty in the measurement of L.\x, ie the position of the electron
~~.>

'

a = angular aperture of the microscope iethe

scattered photon may enter the objective of the
IImicroscope along any direction confined to a cone of semi vertical angle = a
.

~v..4~

1-1'(J

f~

------~~--------~~~~--~------~+X
Let 'A.'

wavelength of incident photon and A. = wavelength of scattered photon

Momentum of incident photon = p'

=.V
.

and momentum of scattered photon = p = it

The scattered photon can enter the microscope along any direction between

If the photon scatters along AC, X-component of its momentu.m. =

AB

and

AC

J h ~ina..)
ttrI.sinar
it

According to law of conservation of linear momentum,

II

-._-

. . -.~.-.--~--------

13

h
Momentum imparted to the electron along X direction = AI

.i sin a.

If the scattered photon travels along AB,

momentum imparted to the electron along X direction = AI t A sin a.,The recoil electron has
.JIlaximum momentum when the photon is scattered along AB and minimum momentum when
the photon scatters along AC.

Uncertainty in the momentum of the electron = ~Px

2h sin a.

A
l1x~p

A
2hsina
=h
2 sina
A

Ie

~x ~Px

>h

Application of Uncertainty Principle: Why an electron cannot be accommodated inside the

nucleus of an atom?
Nuclear diameter is of the order Of~f an electron is accommodated within the nucleus,
uncertainty in its position should not exc
the nuclear diameter.

Minimum momentum ofelectron = p = ~p, the uncertainty in its measured momentum

h
= -

ll.x

6.63 X 10- 34
=

10- 14

6.63 x 10-20kg m

According to wave mechanics, electron energy is given

where c = speed oflight in vacuum = 3 x 108ms -I and rno
E = .JC6.63XI0- 20 )2 (3XI08)2

C9.1XI0- 31 )2(3Xl0 8

S-I

by [~,Jp2C2 + mo2?J

rest mass of electron = 9.1 X 10-31 kg

)4 =

v'3.96XI0- 22

6.71X10

29

Neglecting the second term, E::: .../3.96 X 10- 22 ::: 1.99xlO- 11 J ::: 124MeV
But,_experimentally, it is found that the most energetic electrons given out by a radioactive
nucleus do not have energy greater than 4MeV. But an electron inside a nucleus is expected to be
emitted with e~rgy of around 124MeV. It can.... therefore be. concluded that electrons cannot
reside within the nucleus of an atom.

-----

-----

--- -------------

--- -

--

----

't

Concept questions

f.

r-

1. When is non-relativistic mechanics applicable?

2. What is the range of nuclear diameter?
3. Is gravity responsible for holding the electrons in orbit round the parent nucleus?
Justify your answer.
4. What are the factors on which the specific intensity of radiation from a blackbody is
(i) dependent and (ii) independent?
5. What is 'UV catastrophe'? Explain.
6. Does a photon have mass? Explain.
7. Write Einstein's photoelectric equation, explaining all the notations used. Hence,
define threshold frequency and work function of a photoemitter.
8. What is Compton shift? Does it depend on the scattering angle.
9. Distinguish between Compton scattering and Thomson scattering.

"------- - - - - - - - - -

-----

--

/ - \ Dcte _ _

~ ~Gse_

1:

II

II
!1

!I

Ii
I.

III,

((

A-c

==- 2l2>;h~

i:
l'

!'

LR ~ 4~

r;}7F

-----~--------------------------------------

---

-
-

_______ ,&0

~----~--------------------

)l

j'i

~---7c-7~:r'V5 01 J2d;;~~c~~
/

!I
!

II

--

-e/~7'O--n

Wave - particle dualism

de Broglie hypothesis of matte~ waves.
Introduction
In Compton effect, x-rays ar~ scattered incoherently l;>y the electron of the target material.
The change in the energy of the scattered x-r~diation could be explained only by
considering the collision between the incident x-ray photon and the' el~ctron as the elastic
collision between two material particles. On the ot:J:ler hand. x-rays 'are also known to be
diffracted by crystallirie solids. This can be interpreted success~lly only on the basis of
wave nature of x-radiation. The expel1ment of Frank a.ndHertz in 191f1- actuall~
that the energy of electromagnetic radiation iSabsorbed or emitted in discrete quanta, as
photons. Radiation in general has to be treated as ,a matC?rial.particle in. motion at times
and as a wave at other times. Radiation exhibits dual nature of being corpuscular and
wave like. Prompted by this, Louis de Broglie of France boldly suggested in 1924 that,
'since nature loves symmetry, matter which ordinarily behaves as particles should'
exhibit wave like properties under suitable conditions. M:atter should also exhibit
dual nature just as radiation does' This is known as 'de Broglie hypoiliesis of matter
waves'. Waves associated with matter in motion are referred to as matter waves.
de "Broglie wavelength
(1)
A photon of frequency 'v; has an. energy E = hv
where h = Planck const.int
A~cordin:g to special theory of relativity, if the same photon is considered. as a particle of
mjiss.'m' in motion,
.
its energy is E = mc2 _ _ (2)
where. 6 = speed of photons in vacuum
. .
From eq(l) & (2), E = hv = mc~ ....--:- (3) "
Momentum of the photon = p = mc = (hv/c)
(4)
. In terms offue wavelength 'A.' of photon, p = (h / A.)
de Broglie suggested that eq(4) is universal, applicable to material particles "also.
Ie an isolated quantity of energy 'E' is invariably associated witb a wave of frequency
v = (E/h) or wavelength A. = (hlp) = (b/mv), which incorporates bofP. wave and pLrticle
nature.
Wave nature is exllibited by matter in motion irrespective of its size. Matter waves
associated with macroscopic objects have negligible wavelength of the order of 10-2om
which is not observable. Wavelength of matter waves is considerable and significant in
. '
.
the case ofatomic and sub-atomic particles.
navisson and Germer experiment
~xperimenta1 verification of the existen,c~ .of matter waves consists in observing
phenomena exclusive to waves, such M interference, diffraction etc in the case 6f
material particles. In 1927, Davisson and Germer working with Bell Telephone
Laboratories in USA, accidentally found that x-rays were diffracted by a crystal of'nickel,
sifnilar to diffracti6n of light by objects' of the sam~. dimension as its' wav~length.
Davissoh and Genner calculated the e Broglie' wavelength associated with
eleclfon "
e same order of magru
accelera
y
to be arOund 1 ,w

an

--------------------~----~--------------~-----------------

....

11

)mexplM8f~ing in a soli<h Wavelength of x-rays is also of the same order of magnitude. A

stream of electrons IS expected to undergo diffraction from a crystalline solid in a way similar to
X-rays,in,accordance with Bragg condition: This rovides a direct experimental evidence of
d
. of matter. This w
t verified by G.P.Thomson in 19 an a er y Davisson
Germer in 1930.

Description of apparatus

. _ f

11 f ....-+__-.-

;-

G' is-an electron gun consisting ,of a tungsten. filament F. When heated to dull red with a low
tension battery, it emits electrons thermionically. These ,electrons are collimated through fine
holes in the diaphragms DI and I:>2. The fine pencil of electrons is accelerated through a potential
difference of 30V - 600V to strike the. target T. The target is a large single crystal of nickel (FCC
space lattice) with its faces cut.paraliel to (111) planes. The target can be rotated about an axis in
the plane of the figure, so that the impinging electrons are diffracted from all the (111) planes.
'Diffracted electrons are collected using a Farc;tday cylinder C. It consists of two coaxial cylinders
insulated from each other. The collector can be moved along a circular graduated scale to receive
electrons scattered between 20 and 90. A retarding potential is applied between the walls of the
collector to receive only those electhm!) as energetic as the incident electrons and repel the
slower secondary electrons. These electrons constitute a small current' whose strength is
measured using a sensitive g&lvanometer G cortnectedto the collector..
Experimental procedure for normal incidence m~thod

=
~

The electrons are made to strike the target normally. For a known low accelerating potential of
around 40V, the collector is moved slowly along the, eircular scale 'and the corresponding
galvanometer deflections are noted down. The experiment is repeated for different accelerating
potentials. A polar diagram of galvanometer deflection (a, measure of diffracted electron beam
intensity) versus scattering angle, alSI;> called 'colatitude' is drawn for each accelerating voltage.
Each point on the ~aph is <?btained with a vector whose length is proportional to the electron

::"
::0
~
~
~,

----------------------------------------~.--

current on a fixed scale and whose inclination witll y-axi~ is eq,ual to the scattering angle
cj).
' ,

.I

I
44V

,~~~

48V

54V

68V

. From the' above graphs,' it is clear that as the accelerating voltage is ~increased, a distinct
'hump' starts appearing and it Qecomes most prominent at a potential of 54V and a
colatitude of 50. At higher potentials, this hump gradually smoothens out., Th~ hump at
54V indicates that at a scattering angle of 50, maximum electr~ns, are collect.ed by the
Faraday cylinder. This means that at that angle the amplitude 'of electron wave is
maximum. This is'indicative of the fact that the component waves refl~cted from (111)
parallel planes of the nickel crystal are in phase with each other in that direction and
hence they constructively interfere with each other giving rise to a maximum. This is
similar to the diffraction of x-rays by crystalline solids and hence Bragg conditiori has to
be satisfied. Interplanar distance for (111) planes ofnickel is d = 0.91A
Glancing angle corresponding to a colatitude' of 50 is e= (180 - 50)/2 = 6,5 ,
Since only'one hump is observed, it corresponds to first order ofdiffraction. Ie n = 1
Substituting in Bragg condition 2d sin 6 = n ~ wavelength of electrons exhibiting wave
characteristic is given by A. = 2 x 0.91 sin 65 = 4.X 0.91 x 0.9063, = 1.65A
According to de Broglie hypothesis, wavelength of matter waves associated' with these
electrOns of mass = m = 9.1 x 10-31kg and energy E = 54eV= 54 x 1.6 x 10-19J is given
by
A. == h, / (2Ettl)Y2 = 1.67A. which is in excellent agreement with ,the ,experimentally
calculated value. This clearly establishes that a beam of electrons possess wavelike
. characteristics

, .G. P. Thomson's experiment

iscovered the electron in 1897. His son, G. P. Thomso iIi 1927
ex eri
wav na
a eam 0 e ectrons. He obtaine a
diffraction pattern by directing a beam of highly energetic e ectrons on a foil of silver.
The diffrac~on pattern" was similar to De1e- Scherrer x-r,ay powder photograph of a
polycrystalhne substance.
.

,J

----------~~10 f~

,
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!t

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- ,.

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Experimental arrangement and procedure: The apparatus consists of a discharge tube AC to

t
9

,
,
,
,
,
,
,

which a high variable voltage in the range of kV is applied from the secondary of an induction
coil. Air at a desired low pressure is admitted into the discharge tube through a needle valv~ V'.
Electrons produced during discharge are collimated into a fine beam b the diaphragm tube A,
which also acts as the anode. The camera part of the apparatus consists of a photographic plate
for recording the diffraction pattern and fluorescent' screen S ror visual display' of the same.
Camera part is highly evacuated~' '. ,.,
the fine pencil of electrons from the discharge tube is made to fall normally on a thin foil F of
silver or gold. A series of concentric rings similar to Deby~-Scherrer pattern is obtain~4 on the
photofilm. The film is developed and the diameters of the concentric rings are measured" using a
microscope. The experiment is repeated for different accelerati~g potentia}~ and, ,with foils of
different materials.
.
'. .
.

Theory:. The foil F is a polycrystal of the material ie silver or gold. It consists of a large number
of single crystallites with random orientation. For a given angle of incidence of electrons, there
are always sufficient numbers of single crystallites with th~ right orientation and with parallel
atomic planes with the right interplanar spacing satisfying Bragg condition for diffraction. Each
set of patallel planes give rise to one diffraction ring.

Consider one such ring of diameter D.Let L be the distance between the foil p'and the photo

plate P. If is the glancing angle corresponding to a set of parallel planes of interplanar distance
'd', 29 is the angle between the incident and the diffracted beam of electrons. '.':

,
,
,,
,
,
,

&
12Aut-"", ~t.cc.-

'.,

~,

10
;<'\

'.

~//

From the diagram, tan 26 :: 28 (for small 8)

ring.

= (RlL) or- 8 = (Rl2L), where R is the radius of the

Substituting in Bragg condition 2d sine = nA., 2de =

').., for

small

ein the first order,

(2dRJ2L) = ~ or (dD/2L) ='). , _ _ _ (1)

If V is th~ accelerating potential the disc~arge tube, ').., = (hI.J 2meV)
. 'e'
. is the charge on electron
. and m is its mass.

of

I __

~_ (2) where

From eq. (1) & (2), (dD/2L),= (h/.J.2meV)~ or (D..fV) = (2hLldv'2me )= a constant.

Thomson verified the above equation for the same ring. for different accelerating potential and
for different scattering materials .

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