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Atomic spectra: J.J.Thomson, a British physicist put forth the first model describing
the structure of an atom,' 1898 one ear after he discovered the elec on. The
model is referred to as the ~Plum puddin& model'. ccor mg thIS model, the atom
consists of a sea (pudding) of positive charges uniformly distributed over a sphere of
about lA diameter. The electrons (Plums) are uniformly embedded in this sphere.
(This model failed to account for the large angle scattering of alpha particles by
matter]
!
-c=~~_-~e::.:rford,
of a diameter of around a Fermi (1 O-~ U!.Jts core and it was referred to as the 'nucleus'.
Electrons are distributed in circular orbits round the nucleus. Centripetal force required to keep
the electrons in their orbits is provided by the electrostatic force of attraction of the nucleus. This
.........
..
--- -----------
--
:c.~ ~f-f1
----------------------
!:ummer and Pringsheim experimentally studied the spectrum of blackbody radiatioj! A graph of
specific intensity of ~iation, UldA corresponding to radiation of different wavelengths emitted
by a blabkbody is characterized by the following features:
..
--
----13 --r
__ '.:a..
a--
fi1,~';-'H\ ~
--1;>
fbL~.
./
"---..
3
3) Value ofUmax increases with rise in tempera
-~~>--~~
1. Stefan's fo;rth
8/
"unit area of a body is directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.
Ie Etotal a. T" or E = O'T", where cr is Stefan's constant.:; 5.672 x 1O-8Wm-2 K-4. Boltzmann
veri Ie
explains the increase in energy radiated by a body with rise in its temperature, it gives no
.
-.:lue to ~distribution ofenergy with respect to wavelength.
~
2...Wjen's displacement ~According to this law, the wavelength at which radiation
~ from a bod peaks is inversely proportional to its absolute temperature. Mathematically,
t~(...c..~~). l..n a. 110 lo.T = b, e..Wien's co~nt = 2,892....x 10-3 ~s ~lains the shifting of
~ ~o sho~erength side with rise in temperatureJurther Wien showed that the
power of its absolute
maxImum energy emitted
by a blackbody varies directly as the
, "..
temperature. ie U~ax a.
This agrees with experimental observations onlyatQ
wavelengths.
(a)
---"---~~~
~
:t'.
sm
rrs.
uat decrease .
~~
).u6 ~'J
U,dl = 87r,kT dl
,.
.l4
w'JJ'.-flq-q
}:101\ ~.
Rayleigh - Jeans law tallies with the experimental curve only for wavelengths
There is a discrepancy at lower wavelengths since the energy density of radiation IS expec e
affl~
wrJA
::>"
---------------~
- ------'
tend to infinity. This failure of classical Rayleigh-Jeans law at shorter wavelengths is referred to
... deduction of the law based on the well established fundamental~ of classical Physics.
Principles of classical physics thus failed to account for the salient features of blackbody
radiation spectrum.
theory and experimental results. Planck's quantum theory is based on the following hypothesis:
oscillations. He further propo~ed that each oscillator can have only a discrete set of
energy of oscillation 'E' which is directly proportional to the frequency 'v' or E = hv,
where 'h' is called Planck constant. The permitted energies of the oscillator are integral
multiples of 'hv'. In other words, the oscillation frequencies and hence energy are
11.
An oscillator may lose or gain ener ,ie emit or absorb energy only in terms of discrete
packets or 'quanta' of energy. Frequency of emitted or absorbed ra Iation is given by v =
- AE.
h
Where~
the
iii.
'photon'. In other words, the radiatotabsorbs and emits radiation only as photons
wavel~= :~
ma;~al
.. .
O'IJ 0
With the hypothesis of energy quantization, Planck arriv-ed at an expression. for the energy ... wtif
density of blackbody radiation as
"',~-------- - -
r(
'.'
U).dl =
87rhc [
15
dl
he
eiJiT -1
The above formula is called lanck's radiation ormula and is in total agreement with the
experimental facts and successfully removes the discrepancy between theory and experiment. It
reduces to Wien's distribution law at shorter wavelengths and Rayleigh-Jeans law at longer
--Wavelengths.
= 81tbe
AS
1
he
dl
e IkT -1
hc'
he
he
he
1) '" eikT
8nhe 1
-he
-C2
:c .
hc
. eAkT
Expanding as power senes,
I + AkT
hc
+
~
e AkT
( hc )2
AkT
+ ........ , ........... .
hc~
1 + -AkT or e AkT
hc
= -.
AkT
""'kT""
, ..
<:
fiJI":\ ~ photoelectronsjs directly proportional to the frequency and is independent of
5) For U > Uo, for a given photoemissive surface, stopping potential is directly
proportional to the incident frequency, but is i~dependent of the intensity of
incident radiation. This wa.s7xperimentally studies by l 1ikattyn 1916
*'
lasSiCal theory of wave nature of electromagnetic radiation could not account for the absence of
photoelectric emission below threshold frequency of an emitter. It also could not explain the
Albert Einstein accounted for all the experimental]y observed facts of photoelectric effect in
_ ebased OD Planck's quantum theory of radiation He proposed that radiant energy from a
source is given out as discrete quanta or photons. When this photon interacts with an atom of the
photoemissive surface, exchange of energy takes placeCls quantized~ in terms of photon energy.
An electron of the photoemitter surface is bound electrostatically to its parent nucleus. Minimum
energy required to free a photoelectron from the surface of the emitter is called the 'work
function' (W) and the corresponding frequenc = (W~iS the threshold frequency of the
emitter. Each hotoemitter has its own characteristic Lesold frequenc . No photoemission is
possible for incident frequency less than the threshold frequency If the incident energy E = hu is
greater than W, an energy W is used to free the electron from the surface and the rest is carried
by the liberated electron as its kinetic energy (%m~). This leads to the famous Einstein
C; E =W + %m~
V-
!Jof
k: f
Xn
It is clear from the above equation that the kinetic energy and hence stopping potential increases
linearly with the frequency of the incident radiation but is independent of its intensity.
~ince each incident photon is responsible for the release of one photoelectron, the stl'ength of
-------------------------------------------------------
~J
Concept questions
1. When is non-relativistic mechanics "applicable?
V I... L c"
2. What is the range of nuclear diameter? IV I DIS" (I F4'MJ' )
3. Is gravity responsible for holding the electrons in orbit round the parent nucleus?
Justify your answer. f1qo ,..., -bh.- ~l.t.c.b/O(ff,~,..c "'klZ-l"s'J"-eS'~~~
4. What are the factors on which the specific intensity of ra~{ation from a blackbody is
(i) dependent and (ii) independent?
i.) T
t c- ) ~ ,,(;4'hj ~ ~
5. What is 'UV catastrophe'? Explain. R -,:j' ~ fre,t,~
U'~"t't;.q> (fA v~e...) /t "
6. Does a photon have mass? Explain. z..e.rb~.p ~~. ~,d;','t/J,~l("e--~d~ t;o ~.H.
7. Write Einstein's photoelectric equatib;i,'=$i:lniftg all the notations used. Hence,
define threshold frequency and work function of a photoemitter.
...:,
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~ ~Gt;)I/</~ I)
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c.t-,. l-t:y/
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a..
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M-)()rfo.l~ of c.-f\1.
$7:!;'Cl~,,",
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=0
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+-D :;6.--
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-r-=---::6+~;r:--rr~~~~'=4----/-- l(s =:
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to ~~M"-X -::-0
f
11;:::. =-'
:=:: I z +IL.
reS
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:::- 1-8
+/~
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--- LJ.O
(112;;
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Lf, g -I- Iz
V,L~ V 1
-------~~-
--
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,
,
)
In 1927, German Physicist, Werner Heisenberg proposed the uncertainty principle. This principle
of indeterminacy is the best known consequence of wave - particle duality put forth by Louis de
Broglie.
Classical mechanics deals with the motion of macroscopic objects. A macroscopic object is
represented by a point mass. The locus of the instantaneous position of this point mass gives the
trajectory of the body. Position and momentum of the body at any instant can be calculated
accurately, if the corresponding values at an earlier instant are kpown .
Quantum mechanics deals with microscopic particles in motion. Each moving particle is
described in terms of a wave packet represented by a wave function, which contains information
regarding the position and momentum of the particle. According to Born's intemretation, at any
~
given instant, the particle can be found anywhere within the packet. This sets a limit to the
-accuracy with which the instantaneous position of the partIcle can be measured. Ef the wave
packet is narrow, particle position can be determined with greater accuracy. But a large number
of waves with slightly varying speed and phase need to interfere to give rise to a narrow wave
packet. This implies that there will be greater uncertainty in the measurement of instantaneous
speed and hence momentum of the particle. On the other hand, if the wave packet is broad, the
momentum of the particle can be measured fairly accurately, but its instantaneous position
becomes more uncertainJThis uncertainty in the measurement of the physical quantities position
and momentum is expressed in the Uncertainty Principle by Heisenberg as: 'The product. of the
uncertainty in the simultaneous measurement of the position. and momenfum of a particle is
greater than or eqtial to n, wh;e11'"= Planck constant = 6.62x 10-34J5 , .
--
If fl x and flpx are the uncertainty in the measurement of X-component of position and
momentum of a particle, according to Uncertainty Principle,
flx flpx
~t
The above relation applies to all conjugate physical quantities whose product has the dimension
of action and unit Js. Ex: (i) Energy and time, (ii) angular momentum and angular displacement
Gamma ray microscope thought experiment
In a gamma ray microscope, the object is illuminated with high energy gamma rays. Using this
microscope, a thought experiment can be done to arrive at Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle. In
the idealizedexperiment, a single electron at rest is illuminated with a single gamma ray ph'Oion
and the scattered photon is caught through the objective of the microscope.
Limit of resolution of a microscope = flx
.
-------
- - '
'-'
---------------
A
.
2sl.na
-----_. -----------
12.
where L.\x = minimum distance of separation between two p<?il!ts that are just resolved ie shown
as separate by the microscope. In this case, it stands for the~~rror in the determination of
the position of the electron as it recoils after scattering the rncident gamma ray photo~
A. = wavelength of incident gamma ray photon. Extremely short wavelength gamma ray ensures
minimum uncertainty in the measurement of L.\x, ie the position of the electron
~~.>
'
~v..4~
1-1'(J
f~
------~~--------~~~~--~------~+X
Let 'A.'
=.V
.
The scattered photon can enter the microscope along any direction between
AB
and
AC
J h ~ina..)
ttrI.sinar
it
II
-._-
. . -.~.-.--~--------
13
h
Momentum imparted to the electron along X direction = AI
.i sin a.
momentum imparted to the electron along X direction = AI t A sin a.,The recoil electron has
.JIlaximum momentum when the photon is scattered along AB and minimum momentum when
the photon scatters along AC.
A
l1x~p
A
2hsina
=h
2 sina
A
Ie
~x ~Px
>h
ll.x
6.63 X 10- 34
=
10- 14
6.63 x 10-20kg m
C9.1XI0- 31 )2(3Xl0 8
S-I
by [~,Jp2C2 + mo2?J
)4 =
v'3.96XI0- 22
6.71X10
29
Neglecting the second term, E::: .../3.96 X 10- 22 ::: 1.99xlO- 11 J ::: 124MeV
But,_experimentally, it is found that the most energetic electrons given out by a radioactive
nucleus do not have energy greater than 4MeV. But an electron inside a nucleus is expected to be
emitted with e~rgy of around 124MeV. It can.... therefore be. concluded that electrons cannot
reside within the nucleus of an atom.
-----
-----
--- -------------
--- -
--
----
't
Concept questions
f.
r-
"------- - - - - - - - - -
-----
--
/ - \ Dcte _ _
~ ~Gse_
1:
II
II
!1
!I
Ii
I.
III,
((
A-c
==- 2l2>;h~
i:
l'
!'
LR ~ 4~
r;}7F
-----~--------------------------------------
---
-
-
_______ ,&0
~----~--------------------
)l
j'i
~---7c-7~:r'V5 01 J2d;;~~c~~
/
!I
!
II
--
-e/~7'O--n
an
--------------------~----~--------------~-----------------
....
11
stream of electrons IS expected to undergo diffraction from a crystalline solid in a way similar to
X-rays,in,accordance with Bragg condition: This rovides a direct experimental evidence of
d
. of matter. This w
t verified by G.P.Thomson in 19 an a er y Davisson
Germer in 1930.
Description of apparatus
. _ f
11 f ....-+__-.-
;-
G' is-an electron gun consisting ,of a tungsten. filament F. When heated to dull red with a low
tension battery, it emits electrons thermionically. These ,electrons are collimated through fine
holes in the diaphragms DI and I:>2. The fine pencil of electrons is accelerated through a potential
difference of 30V - 600V to strike the. target T. The target is a large single crystal of nickel (FCC
space lattice) with its faces cut.paraliel to (111) planes. The target can be rotated about an axis in
the plane of the figure, so that the impinging electrons are diffracted from all the (111) planes.
'Diffracted electrons are collected using a Farc;tday cylinder C. It consists of two coaxial cylinders
insulated from each other. The collector can be moved along a circular graduated scale to receive
electrons scattered between 20 and 90. A retarding potential is applied between the walls of the
collector to receive only those electhm!) as energetic as the incident electrons and repel the
slower secondary electrons. These electrons constitute a small current' whose strength is
measured using a sensitive g&lvanometer G cortnectedto the collector..
Experimental procedure for normal incidence m~thod
=
~
The electrons are made to strike the target normally. For a known low accelerating potential of
around 40V, the collector is moved slowly along the, eircular scale 'and the corresponding
galvanometer deflections are noted down. The experiment is repeated for different accelerating
potentials. A polar diagram of galvanometer deflection (a, measure of diffracted electron beam
intensity) versus scattering angle, alSI;> called 'colatitude' is drawn for each accelerating voltage.
Each point on the ~aph is <?btained with a vector whose length is proportional to the electron
::"
::0
~
~
~,
----------------------------------------~.--
current on a fixed scale and whose inclination witll y-axi~ is eq,ual to the scattering angle
cj).
' ,
.I
I
44V
,~~~
48V
54V
68V
. From the' above graphs,' it is clear that as the accelerating voltage is ~increased, a distinct
'hump' starts appearing and it Qecomes most prominent at a potential of 54V and a
colatitude of 50. At higher potentials, this hump gradually smoothens out., Th~ hump at
54V indicates that at a scattering angle of 50, maximum electr~ns, are collect.ed by the
Faraday cylinder. This means that at that angle the amplitude 'of electron wave is
maximum. This is'indicative of the fact that the component waves refl~cted from (111)
parallel planes of the nickel crystal are in phase with each other in that direction and
hence they constructively interfere with each other giving rise to a maximum. This is
similar to the diffraction of x-rays by crystalline solids and hence Bragg conditiori has to
be satisfied. Interplanar distance for (111) planes ofnickel is d = 0.91A
Glancing angle corresponding to a colatitude' of 50 is e= (180 - 50)/2 = 6,5 ,
Since only'one hump is observed, it corresponds to first order ofdiffraction. Ie n = 1
Substituting in Bragg condition 2d sin 6 = n ~ wavelength of electrons exhibiting wave
characteristic is given by A. = 2 x 0.91 sin 65 = 4.X 0.91 x 0.9063, = 1.65A
According to de Broglie hypothesis, wavelength of matter waves associated' with these
electrOns of mass = m = 9.1 x 10-31kg and energy E = 54eV= 54 x 1.6 x 10-19J is given
by
A. == h, / (2Ettl)Y2 = 1.67A. which is in excellent agreement with ,the ,experimentally
calculated value. This clearly establishes that a beam of electrons possess wavelike
. characteristics
,J
----------~~10 f~
,
~
~.
!t
s.
----------- ---r
- ,.
. r
.
---,-"
---
c.~t ~/".
t
t
!t
t
9
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
which a high variable voltage in the range of kV is applied from the secondary of an induction
coil. Air at a desired low pressure is admitted into the discharge tube through a needle valv~ V'.
Electrons produced during discharge are collimated into a fine beam b the diaphragm tube A,
which also acts as the anode. The camera part of the apparatus consists of a photographic plate
for recording the diffraction pattern and fluorescent' screen S ror visual display' of the same.
Camera part is highly evacuated~' '. ,.,
the fine pencil of electrons from the discharge tube is made to fall normally on a thin foil F of
silver or gold. A series of concentric rings similar to Deby~-Scherrer pattern is obtain~4 on the
photofilm. The film is developed and the diameters of the concentric rings are measured" using a
microscope. The experiment is repeated for different accelerati~g potentia}~ and, ,with foils of
different materials.
.
'. .
.
Theory:. The foil F is a polycrystal of the material ie silver or gold. It consists of a large number
of single crystallites with random orientation. For a given angle of incidence of electrons, there
are always sufficient numbers of single crystallites with th~ right orientation and with parallel
atomic planes with the right interplanar spacing satisfying Bragg condition for diffraction. Each
set of patallel planes give rise to one diffraction ring.
Consider one such ring of diameter D.Let L be the distance between the foil p'and the photo
plate P. If is the glancing angle corresponding to a set of parallel planes of interplanar distance
'd', 29 is the angle between the incident and the diffracted beam of electrons. '.':
,
,
,,
,
,
,
&
12Aut-"", ~t.cc.-
'.,
~,
10
;<'\
'.
~//
').., for
small
of
I __
~_ (2) where
From eq. (1) & (2), (dD/2L),= (h/.J.2meV)~ or (D..fV) = (2hLldv'2me )= a constant.
Thomson verified the above equation for the same ring. for different accelerating potential and
for different scattering materials .
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