INDUSTRIA4LAND ENGI,VEERISG CHEMISTRY

March, 1930

227
-

Inflation of the Metalclad Airship, ZMC-2'

Chemical Control during Inflation
A. R. Carr2 and A. C. Good
COLI.EGE

OF THE

CITY OP DETROIT
A K D -4IRCRAFT DEVE1,OPMENT CORPORATION, DETROIT,A I I C i i

The inflation of the metalclad airship, the ZMC-2,

ib then firmly riyeted to n
HE first succesful allwas carried out in two stages. In the first stage the
supporting structure consistm e t a l a i r s h i p , the
air in the hull was displaced by carbon dioxide. In the
ing of equally spaced longiZMC-2, was designed
second the carbon dioxide was displaced by helium.
tudinal frames running from
and built a t the Grosse Ile
Carbon dioxide was separated from the helium by
bow to stern and a number
airport by the Aircraft Descrubbing the gas in a caustic tower and the purified
of transverse frames. Inside
vel o pin e n t Corporation, a
helium returned to the ship. In this manner a purity
the bottom part of the hull
dirision of the Detroit Airof over 92 per cent helium was obtained in the gasa r e t w o b a l l o n e t s , one of
c r a f t C o r p o r a t i o n , for the
filled hull.
2 2 , 6 0 0 c u b i c feet and the
United States Xavy. It was
Although the helium has diffused outward at about
o t h e r of 28,000 cubic feet
Completed after five years of
100 cubic feet per 24-hour day, no appreciable quantity
c a p a c i t y , the former being
e n g i n e e r i n g research and
of air has come through the metal wall of the hull,
placed toward the bow and
study. The ship is a single
which would cause a decrease in the lift of the ship.
the latter toward the stern of
structural unit in which the
Although the capacity of the ship, 200,000 cubic feet,
the ship. These ballonets are
metal plating is not only the
makes it too small for commercial purposes, its perm a d e of rubberized fabric
gas container but also carries
formance and characteristics prove the feasibility of
laced to the hull and are filled
a consideraljle portion of the
similar construction for larger, commercial units.
with air. Their purpose iq t o
direct stresses. Its size of
This is a distinct contribution to lighter-than-air concomDensate for change in
200,000 cubic feet, while large
pressire inside the 1 1 ~ 1 1 . ~
struction.
enough to meet all expeFiThe car is suspended from
mental requirements, is too
small to meet the demands of a commercial airship. However, the hull by suitable attachments. The power plant con+ts
its performance and characteristics compare very favorably of two Wright Whirlwind J-5-A engines carried on tubular
with the non-rigid fabric blimps used as training ships by the outriggers, one on each side of the car. Eight fins, a unique
Government. Moreover, it proves that airships can be built, feature, are equally spaced around the hull. The car conpossessing the advantages of all-metal construction wit'hout tains fuel tanks, control instruments, radio, blower, and chart
adding materially to the weight as compared with fabric table, and has places for two pilots, one mechanic, and about
ships and that these metal ships can be built large enough four student pilots.
The hull was constructed in two sections erected vertically.
for commercial purposes.
When completed, the two sections were placed in a horizontal
Description of Ship
position and riveted together. (Figure 2)
The % X C - 2made its first flight on August 19, 1929 (FigT a b l e 11-Performance D a t a of t h e Z M C - I
ure I), and passed its filial tests a t Lakehurst about a month Gross lift (100 per cent inflation with 92 per cent pure
helium a t 60' F. and 29.92 in. H g ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12,242 Ibs.
later. Its general characteristics and performance dat'a are Weight
empty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9,113 lbs.
given in Tables I and I1 (1).
Useful load.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 127 Ills

'

T a b l e I--GeneraI C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e ZMC-I
149 ft. 5 in.
Length of hull. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Diameter of hull (max.). .........................
Fineness ratio. . . . . . . .
........
2.83
Displacement of hull
. . . . . . . . 202,200 cu. f t .
. , , . , . . , 50,600 cu. f t .
22,600 cu. f t .
Front ballonet displacement,,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rear ballonet displacement,,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23,000 cu. ft.
25 per cent
Ratio of ballonet volume to hull volume.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Thickness of s k i n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.0095 in.
24 f t .
Length of c a r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Width of car. . . . .
.............................
6 f t . 6 in.
.............................
3
2
Number of gas valves.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Number of f i n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
....
8
Total fin area
................................
440 sq. f t .
Total elevator
.................................
190 sq. ft.
Total rudder a r e a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95 sq. f t .
Total automatic rudder a r e a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
....
95 sq. ft.
Sumber of engines (Wright "Whirlwind" J-5) . , , . , , , . , , , . .
2
440 hp.
Power a t 1800 I. p. m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9 ft. 2 in.
Propeller diameter (all-metal). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The hull is 149 feet 5 inches long and 52 feet 8 inches in maximum diameter. The metal covering consists of Alclad alloy
sheets 0.0095 inch in thickness. These sheets are sewed
together by means of a special riveting machine invented by
the Aircraft Development Corporation. Since this covering
contains the lifting gas, helium, the seams and riveting must
be gasproof. This is accomplished by treating the lap seam
with a special bit'uminous material after riveting. The skin
Received December 3 0 , 1929.
Chemical engineer in charge of control tests during the inflation.

Crew (three). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
600 Ih?
Fuel (200 gal.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 i O O lbi.
Oil (2.5 gal.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
200 Ibs.
Ballast (50 gal.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 Ibs.
Passengers and cargo.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707 Ibs.
Range with 230 gal. fuel
Maximum possible range
Maximum speed a t 440 h
Cruising speed a t 220 hp.
Static ceiling., . . . . . . . . . .

680 miles

Apparatus Used for Inflation

Because it is very difficultt o separate helium from air, the

inflation of t'he ZMC-2 was carried out in two stages. In the
first stage carbon dioxide displaced the air in the ship. The
carbon dioxide was introduced a t the bottom and the air
forced out a t t'he top of the hull. I n the second stage the process was reversed. Helium was led in a t the top while carbon
dioxide was forced out the bottom of the hull.
When ready for inflation, the hull was suspended in the
hangar with the car, fins, valves, and connections in place.
The carbon dioxide cylinders were stored between the hull
and the wall of the hangar. These cylinders were attached
by means of two octopus manifolds to a 6-inch pipe line.
These manifolds were made of pressure tubing, allowing sixteen cylinders of carbon dioxide to be discharged into the
pipe line a t the same time. The 6-inch pipe line ran the lengt,h
of the ship. This line was tapped a t three points by lines

*
I S D U S T R I A L AAYD ESGIlYEERIA-G CHEMISTRY

March, 1930

229

ballonet n-as deflated first, helium being used to replace its

volume. Then the front ballonet was deflated while air was
being admitted to the rear ballonet. d check analysis indicated that a small amount of carbon dioxide was trapped in
the ballonet folds. The inflation was completed on the morning of iiugust 3.
Drying the Gas

and the exhaust line. Each station except the exhaust line
controlled three sampling tubes from the top, equator, and
bottom of the hull, respectively. The arrangement of the
sampling tubes is shown in Figure 3. Samples were analyzed
a t the four stations simultaneously. These samples were
drawn through small rubber tubes inserted into the hull, the
tubes remaining open to insure a fair sample from the ship a t
all times. The gas was sampled a t 10-minute intervals so
Since no drier was used, the gas in the hull contained con- that the time between two successive analyses a t any level
siderable water vapor. Some of this vapor, about 250 cc. in was one-half hour. The results of these analyses are shown
all, condensed and was drained from the hull. To rid the ship in Figure 4. During the carbon dioxide inflation the perof the excess weight due to this water vapor, the tower of the centage of carbon dioxide indicated directly the progress of
the inflation. During the helium inflation the percentage of carbon dioxide subtracted from 100 indicated approximately the per cent of helium in
the ship. White's modification of the Hempel
buret and a pipet filled with caustic solution
were used for absorbing the carbon dioxide.
Final tests made a t the end of the inflation period
but before the gas was passed through the drier
gaye the following average results: carbon dioxide,
2.3; oxygen, 0.1; and carbon monoxide, 0.0 per
cent. After the gas had been circulated through
the drier, the carbon dioxide had been reduced to
Figure 3-Position and Number of Sampling Tubes on Hull
an average value of 0.67 per cent. This coupled
with the removal of water vapor brought the
scrubber was dismantled and rebuilt as a drier. It, was fitted purity to above 92 per cent helium, which compares
with three trays over which the gas from the hull might pass. very favorably with the results obtained in inflating other
It was placed in a horizontal position with 950 pounds of ships. The helium in the cylinders had a purity of 96.6
caustic on the trays and the bottom. To prevent the caustic per cent. These final analyses were made in an Orsat apfrom being carried over into the hull, two cloth blankets were paratus, absorbing the carbon dioxide in caustic, the oxygen
fastened over the offtake from the drier. This drier offtake in alkaline pyrogallate, and the carbon monoxide in cuprous
discharged into an expansion chamber as a further means of chloride solution.
preventing the carrying over of caustic. Caustic indicators
The condensate drained from the bottom of the ship showed
were placed in the line to detect any caustic which might traces of sodium hydroxide. Analyses of this condensate
be carried over.
indicated the presence of not more than 0.008 per cent sodium
A blower of 150 cubic feet per minute capacity forced the hydroxide, so it was apparent that there could be no harmful
gas into the bottom of the drier, caused it to travel four times effects from this source.
the length of the apparatus, and discharged it from the top.
Discussion of Results
Drying was accomplished in the intervals between trial
flights: After beingused for 25 hours the drier was opened.
Since the hull of the ship was constructed as a single comIt was observed that some of the caustic had melted and partment filled with air, the problem was one of displacing the
formed icicles which hung
from the screen which
composed the trays. The
drier was then recharged 90
and run for 30 hours more.
At this time the gas was Bo
found to contain 0.67 per
cent carbon dioxide. The
caustic in the drier had ' O
served a double purpose.
It had not only dried the 60
gas but also removed a
large proportion of the re- 5o
maining carbon dioxide.
Chemical Control
Tests-Gas Analysis

The purpose of the

chemical control tests was
to show a t all times the
exact progress of the inflation and the purity of the
gas in the ship after inflation. To accomplish this
the gas in the hull was
sampled a t five stationsthe bow, stern, each side,

o\o 4o

3o

20

3,-29

e-1-29

Figure 4-Variation

81-29

of Carbon Dioxide Content during Inflation

8 3 Z3

I S D C S T R I A L A S D ESGIA-EERIXG CHEMISTRY

230

air with helium. Because carbon dioxide is cheap, available

in large quantities, and easily separated from helium, it was
decided to displace the air with this gas. This method of
inflation had previously been used on a test section of the hull
with good results. An attempt was made to carry out the
inflation in such a manner as to allow the carbon dioxide to
displace the air with as little mixing of the gases as was possible. Since there are two chief causes of the mixing of these
two gases-i. e., diffusion and turbulent flow of gas from the
containers-it was necessary to determine the conditions of
operation which would minimize the effect of these phenomena. As turbulence is mainly caused by rapid movement
of the gas, an attempt was made to keep the velocity of the
incoming carbon dioxide well within the region of quiet flow.
Diffusion, on the other hand, depends upon a number of factors, among which are time, difference in density of the gasec,
and the diffusing area. Taking all these factors into account,
a rate of input of carbon dioxide of about 10,000 cubic feet
per hour way tried, found satisfactory, and maintained
throughout the inflation.
Stratification of the carbon dioxide and air was quite
complete. This was partially visible to the naked eye. During the inflation the interior of the ship was illuminated.
Through the peep holes one could observe the moirture condensing out of the air and lying as a blanket of fog on the layer
of cold carbon dioxide in the lower part of the ship. -1s the
carbon dioxide rose higher and higher in the hull, the layer of
fog preceded it. Results of the gas analysis also verified the
completeness of stratification as shown by Figure 4, which
gives the percentage of carbon dioxide a t various levels in
the hull plotted against time during the inflation. The lower
sampling tubes almost immediately indicated 100 per cent
carbon dioxide. The rise in percentage of carbon dioxide was
rapid, once appreciable quantities of the gas appeared in any
tube. About 33,000 cubic feet of carbon dioxide were lobt
in purging, which is extremely low.
During the helium inflation stratification was not nearly
so complete. This was due chiefly to the great difference in
density betv-een helium and carbon dioxide. The input could

Tol. 22,

KO.

not be kept within the region of quiet flow without considerable diffusion. While the volume was small and the area exposed to diffusion was not great, stratificationwas fairly complete, as shown by Figure 4. When appreciable quantities
of helium had displaced the carbon dioxide, trouble began.
Some of the causes of the rapid rise of helium in the exhaust
before the scrubbing was started were as follows: The diffusing area, which was about 6000 square feet, had been at its
maximum for some time; the gas came into contact with the
tops of the inflated ballonets, causing a surging motion;
the rate of input of helium had been increased. However,
it is doubtful if diffusion between carbon dioxide and helium
could have been prevented.
The insertion of a drier or refrigerator between the scrubber
and the hull would be a decided improvement. Spacing
the sampling tubes symmetrically above and below the
equator of the ship would give a more accurate check of the
progress of inflation. The rate of input of helium was about
10.000 rubic feet per hour.
Conclusions

The results show that the method employed i b relatively

simple and efficient for inflating this type of ship. One hundred per cent ballonet could not be employed in a ship of this
size. In a large ship, where 100 per cent ballonet may be
used, the usual method of inflation can be carried out.
Final conclusions concerning the diffusion of helium from
this ship have not been reached, as it has been under study for
too short a time. However, approximately 100 cubic feet of
helium are added every 24 hours to replace leakage froin the
hull. The purity of the gas in the ship has not decreased due
to inward leakage of air. This fact is a decided advantage
over the fabric ship, which allows appreciable inward leakage
of air with a corresponding loss of lift.
Literature Cited
( 1 ) Fritsche, J l e c h . E n g , 61, 905 (1920), gives complete description of

design, construction, and erection of the Z M C - 2 .

A Derivation of Duhrings Rule

A. McLaren White
G E O R G IS~C H O O L

OF

TIXHKOLOGY,
ATLANT.4, GA.

CRIKG the last few years the necessity for obtaining

a simple yet accurate method of relating vapor pressures and temperatures has led to the rediscovery of
Duhrings rule. This relation has given valuable results
when applied to solutions of salts in water ( I ) , to solutions of
organic liquids (4), and to pure liquids. Duhrings rule has
been regarded as entirely empirical, though from its wide
applicability and validity it would seem that it should have
some thermodynamic basis. It is the object of this paper to
point out how Drihrings rule niay be reconciled with thermodynamics.
Inasmuch as the Duhring relation inrolres vapor pressures
and temperatures, it seems logical to believe that it must be
connected with the Clausius-Clapeyron equation. This
equation in its approximate form may be stated as

d In p/dT = AH/RT2

(1)

where p is the vapor pressure, T the absolute temperature,

and AH the heat of vaporization. The vapor is here as1

Received November 29, 1929.

sumed to be a perfect gas, and the volume of the liquid negligible compared with that of the vapor. If the heat of vaporization is assumed to be constant over a small range of teniperature, this equation may be integrated, obtaining
l n p = -AH/RT
C
(2)
This equation proves experimentally to yield a straight line
over small ranges of temperature.
Now for t x o different substances, a and b, let the vapor
pressures be equal at absolute temperatures, T , and Tb.
Substituting in Equation 2 and equating the result<,

This may be rearranged to read:

(4)

Equation 4 should aleo represent a straight line, as was suggested by Cox ( 2 ) ,since in its derivation the heats of vaporization were assumed constant over the small range of tempera-