O F F S H O R E

D E V E L O P M E N T

DEEPWATER-RISER TECHNOLOGY
Offshore reservoirs are being developed in
environments where water depths are
approaching 2000 m and well products
may contain aggressive chemical properties. Semisubmersibles; floating production, storage, and offloading (FPSO) facilities; tension-leg platforms (TLPs); and
spars are favored configurations in deep
water. While economically more viable
than jackets, the rapid evolution of these
concepts introduces challenging problems
in design of marine-riser systems as well as
in design of station-keeping (mooring) systems. New marine-riser concepts have been
developed to cope with the problems of
operation in deeper water.
MARINE RISERS

A marine riser is a pressure link that transports the well fluid, or one or more of its
components, from the seafloor to a primary
processing platform on the waters surface.
From an engineering-design viewpoint, the
external forces considered during design of
a riser include both static (depth) and
dynamic (currents and waves) water pressure. The motions of the platform under
consideration dictate the displacements
imposed at the waters surface. These
motions are critical in determining the
stresses experienced by the riser along its
length. The ability of a riser system to
accommodate platform motion depends on
both the riser configuration and the material from which the riser is constructed.
PL ATFORM MOTIONS

The maximum excursions of a platform

vary with water depth, platform hull shape
and mooring system, and environmental
conditions. Typically, FPSOs exhibit watchcircle radii of up to 30% of the water depth.
Semisubmersibles and spars may move by
20 and 15%, respectively. TLPs have a

This article is a synopsis of paper SPE

50140,Deepwater-Riser Technology,
B.A. Carter, SPE, Hamersley Iron, and
B.F. Ronalds, SPE, U. of Western
Australia, originally presented at the
1998 SPE Asia Pacific Oil and Gas
Conference and Exhibition, Perth,
Australia, 1214 October.
46

watch circle equal to approximately 10% of

their installed water depth. The maximum
horizontal offsets of platforms are an
approximately constant fraction of the
water depth because they largely depend on
the restoring force supplied by the platform
mooring system.
The heave component of platform
motion is relatively depth independent,
with the typical maximum design value
approximately 15 m for FPSOs and semisubmersibles in harsh environments.
Platform heave motions become a smaller
fraction of water depth as depth increases.
This trait is advantageous because relative
heave frequently dictates riser design. In
contrast, TLPs and spars exhibit heave
motions that are an order of magnitude
smaller, approximately 1.5 m.
FLEXIBLE RISERS

Flexible risers are constructed from pipe

with a layered profile. They deform easily in
bending but are stiff in response to tension,
torsion, and internal pressure. The structure
of flexible pipe requires complex manufacturing techniques, and its cost is very high.
Traditionally, flexible risers have been
used in shallow and moderate water depths
with floating platforms. The displacements
of these platforms are large relative to water
depth, and flexible risers have the advantage of being compliant while still fulfilling
their function. Fig. 1 shows typical configurations of flexible risers, including the
simple catenary and the lazy and steep variations of the S and wave catenaries.
Flexible pipe is used in the deepest field
developments, and the advent of new profiles
in the pressure-resisting layers will extend
the boundaries. However, use of flexible pipe
in ultradeep water is restricted by the capabilities of the pipe to withstand high external
pressures. Small-diameter pipe is used at the
greater depths because it is capable of withstanding high external hydrostatic pressure.
To prevent the layered flexible pipe from
buckling, devices that restrict the bend
radius are applied. Use of flexible pipe in
conjunction with harsh well products can
result in gas permeation between the layers
of the pipe. This can cause corrosion of the
armor layers, and the gas pockets can lead
to failure of the flexible pipe. Also, the

compliancy of flexible risers eliminates the

need for heave-compensation or tensioning devices.
RIGID RISERS

Traditionally, rigid risers are vertical lengths

of pipe constructed from steel. Rigid risers
are used on steel-jacket and concrete gravity-based structures, compliant towers,
TLPs, and spar platforms.
For compliant platforms, stress joints are
used at the base of rigid risers (where bending stresses are greatest) to prevent failure of
the steel at that point. The material of choice
for these joints frequently is titanium.
The high axial stiffness of rigid risers
introduces the need for heave compensation, and their use is limited by the stroke
amplitude of the compensating mechanism. When a rigid riser is not supported
laterally at intermediate points along its
length, tensioning devices enable it to resist
the loads of waves and currents. Tensioning
can be mechanical, where the riser attaches
to a compliant platform; in the form of
buoyancy modules attached along a risers
length; or a combination of the two.
The ability of rigid risers to accommodate horizontal platform motion increases
with water depth. As the length of riser
increases, the riser develops additional
bending flexibility.
HYBRID RISERS

As Fig. 2 shows, hybrid risers use a combination of two riser concepts. The lower portion of the riser consists of either a single
rigid pipe or a large-diameter vertical cylinder
housing a bundle of smaller production
tubes. These rigid sections extend from either
a flex or stress joint at the seafloor. The distance from the top of this rigid section to the
platform is spanned by flexible pipe.
The rigid section of the riser is constructed with self-buoyancy, reducing the weight
carried by the platform and facilitating rapid
connection and disconnection. Flexible
jumpers complete the link to the platform,
giving the riser inherent compliancy with
the motions of the vessel. Therefore, the
hybrid-riser system is a flexible-riser configuration connected to the top of a rigid riser.
The maximum motion that a hybrid configuration can accommodate is controlled
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D E V E L O P M E N T

Fig. 1Typical catenary riser configurations.

by the depth below the surface of the transition from flexible pipe to the rigid vertical
section. A hybrid riser can be configured to
withstand the same vessel motions as an
isolated flexible riser. The length of flexible
pipe can be increased (and bend restrictors
incorporated) to help the system withstand
large vessel motions.
The hybrid riser has a small footprint on
the seafloor and, overall, may require shorter lengths of pipe to transfer well products
to the surface than steel catenary risers
(SCRs) or flexible risers. The hybrid configuration has potential weaknesses
(including permeation of gases between the
layers of the flexible pipe) associated with
flexible risers. However, with the top of the
rigid section within the air-diving limit,

Fig. 2Hybrid-riser configuration.

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maintenance and component changeout is

easier than for deepwater flexible risers.
A disadvantage of the hybrid riser is that
the size of the production tubing in the
rigid section of riser is restricted by the
maximum available diameter of the flexible
riser. Use of larger rigid pipes requires a
manifold at the top of the rigid section.
SCRS

These risers consist of pipe (either reeled or

segments welded end to end) hung from a
platform to the seafloor in a near-catenary
shape. SCR applications have been limited
to import and export functions.
Only one catenary configuration has
been used. The simple catenary relies on
the self-buoyancy of the pipe for its configuration. Double catenaries have been studied (steep- and lazy-wave configurations)
and are assisted in attaining their shape by
external buoyancy elements. These configurations are similar to the flexible-riser
arrangements used on floating platforms.
A potential advantage of the simple- and
lazy-wave-catenary configurations is that
the pipe lies parallel to the seafloor and
does not necessarily require installation of a
riser base. The steep-wave-catenary
arrangement meets the seafloor nearly perpendicularly and requires a riser base.
Therefore, the steep configuration may find
application as a production riser, while the
simple and lazy configurations may be suited to export or import functions.

Flex/Stress Joints. As a platform undergoes an offset at the waters surface, the

shape of the catenary and, consequently,
the stresses along the pipe change. The connection of an SCR to a platform requires a
joint capable of accommodating angle
changes at the top of the SCR caused by
variations in platform position. Flex joints
have been used and are attached to a platform at an angle of between 10 and 20 to
the vertical. A low angle to the vertical minimizes tension in the riser and influences
whether vortex-induced vibrations occur. A
higher angle to the vertical reduces the
maximum bending moments experienced
in the lower sections of the riser.
Touchdown Point (TDP). The TDP is the
critical point on simple and lazy catenaries
(i.e., the hot spot) for fatigue failure. Vessel
motions in the plane of a catenary have a
greater effect on the stresses in the riser than
do vessel motions out of the plane.
Furthermore, second-order (or slow-drift)
motions have the largest influence on the
fatigue of an SCR. The nature of SCRs is such
that the TDP is essentially a touchdown
region rather than a single point. Vessel
motions cause the location of the TDP to
move as the length of the riser on the seafloor
increases (an offset in the slack direction) or
decreases (an offset in the taut direction).
If used for export and import functions, the
large backtensions encountered in some
SCRs can require laying of a significant length
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of pipe on the seafloor (past the TDP) before

a change in pipe direction can be accommodated. Alternatively, a riser base can be incorporated to take these loads. The problem of
the constant abrasion experienced by the pipe
in this touchdown region has been solved by
use of bonded-rubber coatings.
Water Depths. Because of the bending and
the rigidity of steel pipe, in water depths
less than 300 m, flexible pipe offers the
optimum solution for risers to floating platforms. In depths between 300 and 2000 m,
SCRs may be a feasible alternative.

D E V E L O P M E N T

life of the welds of these alloys is shorter

than for the parent metal; however, it is still
greater than that for steel. Excessive wear
was observed when the steel drillstring
came into contact with the titanium drilling
riser. In this case, the problem was overcome with an internal rubber liner.
Titanium alloys exhibit excellent corrosion, erosion, and cavitation characteristics.
Titanium alloys are cathodic with respect to
steel, so galvanic protection is required for
steel with titanium-alloy interfaces. Also,
exposure to chlorides and galvanic potentials greater than 800 mV leads to formation of brittle hydrides.

TITANIUM RISERS

The search for new materials for use in

marine risers led to development of titanium and its alloys for use in offshore environments. The drilling riser on the Heidrun
TLP was constructed with titanium and
installed in 1995. Other uses of titanium
include components of fire-water and ballast systems and heat-exchanger piping.
Properties. Titaniums density and elastic
modulus are approximately one-half those
values for steel. Titanium alloys exhibit
high yield and tensile strengths. The fatigue

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Future Developments. The trend to use

titanium in positions of high stress and
fatigue, such as at riser bases, may lead to
applications of titanium in other critical
areas, including the TDP of SCRs.
Extending this concept further, production
risers constructed entirely from titanium,
either rigid risers or titanium catenary risers, also are feasible.
GENERAL DISCUSSION

Flexible risers have been used extensively

in moderate water depths. At greater

depths, use of flexible pipe is restricted to

low-diameter pipe. In deeper water, riser
configurations can be developed with
greater flexibility that are better able to
accommodate horizontal and vertical
motions of a platform at the water surface.
While rigid and catenary configurations
develop horizontal flexibility, their flexibility in the vertical direction is critical to their
design. Depending on the material used,
minimum depths are required for the riser
to withstand heave motions of a platform.
Hybrid risers and SCRs are feasible
options in deep water, and the envelopes of
their applicability are growing as confidence
in the technology grows. Their use is being
found to be feasible for shallow as well as
deep water. These alternatives, along with
the introduction of flexible, strong, and
durable materials like titanium, are emerging as competitive options across a wide
range of marine-riser applications, both
technologically and economically.
Please read the full-length paper for
additional detail, illustrations, and references. The paper from which the
synopsis has been taken has not been
peer reviewed.

APRIL 1999