DAMAGE

ion devices
Hearing defender
Highly effective and
moderate cost.
Essential for
tarmac and
workshop
areas.
-

OISE IS THE GREATEST ENVIRON-

mental hazard to the aviation and

general community. Every year in
Australia, around 10,000 people
are awarded a total of $35 million in compensation payments for noise-induced hearing
loss. Awards exceed $100,000 in some cases.
When aviation noise is superimposed on
other noise sources in our daily lives (industrial, road traffic and recreational), individual and
collective exposure can become significant.
Regardless of your occupation within the aviation environment, you should understand the
health consequences of hazardous noise levels,
how to protect yourself against potential injury,
and how to protect others such as passengers.
If you are an employer, manager or supervisor, you also need to be aware of your "duty of
care" to provide an adequate warning of the
noise hazard in your work environment and to
provide protective hearing devices. You should
also be aware of your responsibilities to reduce
injurious noise in the workplace, regularly
monitor the noise hazard and organise hearing
assessments for staff at risk.
Engine noise, particularly from jet engines,
creates most of the hazardous noise in aviation.
Other sources include auxiliary power units
pro(APU),
pellers and heliHeadset copter rotors,
Strongly recom- aerodynamic
mended for flight
noise
transcrew. Enables
communication mission and
accessory gear
whilst providing
%:~ good protection boxes, avionics
from noise.
and other aircraft
P

systems, air conunits,

Ir
ground power
units, motor vehicles around the tarmac areas
and maintenance workshops.

The current unit of pressure is the pascal

(Pa). The reference level (P0) is a pressure of
20 micropascals (20 x 10-6 Pa)
Noise measurements are made using electro-acoustic methods. The sound meters used
must comply with international and national
standards.
If you want to do the mathematics, you will
see that by doubling the sound energy (intensity) you will alter the measured noise level
by 6dB. Therefore, a four-fold increase in
sound energy means a 12dB increase in the
measured noise level.
Therefore, if you are trying to reduce noise
in your workplace, a 6dB reduction represents
a halving of the environmental noise intensity.
Sound meters are usually calibrated electronically to match sound measurement to
human loudness perception.
Noise and health

The effects on health from excessive noise can

be divided into two broad classifications
auditory and non-auditory.
Auditory effects a high volume noise of any
kind (continuous or impulse noise) can cause
temporary or permanent damage to the hearing apparatus.
Noise induced hearing loss (NIHL) occurs
because exposure to excessive noise permanently damages the delicate hearing mechanism
of the inner ear. The noise initially causes a temporary hearing loss (or Temporary Threshold
Shift TTS). Normal hearing is recovered following TTS.
The extent of TTS depends on the intensity
of the noise, length of the exposure and the
characteristics (such as frequency) of the
noise. There are certain frequencies where the
ear is very sensitive to damage.
Noise between 500-3,000Hz encroaches on
the speech frequency range damage occurring in this range can result in difficulty hearing speech.
Damage occurring below 1500Hz can be
critical to people (LAMEs, for example) who rely
on hearing for tuning piston engines or diagnosing engine/accuracy faults noise for detection of faults.
Repeated exposure to excessive noise can
transform this temporary threshold shift into
a permanent, irreversible threshold shift. Both
temporary and permanent threshold shift can

Noise measurement

Measurement and evaluation of noise

involves:
Measurement of the sound energy.
Evaluation and estimation of its effect on
those exposed, where possible.
Sound pressure is measured in decibels,
which is a logarithmic scale where dB = 20 10gb
(P1/P0) in which P1 is the measured sound pressure and P0 is a reference sound pressure.

FLIGHT SAFETY AUSTRALIA AUTUMN 1997 19

How we hear with hairs

N

oise is sound energy which is produced

by energising air. It stimulates our
hearing as sound pressure on the
eardrum.
The eardrum (tympanic membrane) vibrates when excited by
this energy, and stimulates a tiny
chain of 3 small bones in the middle ear (the ossicles: malleusincus
and stapes).
Thrr
thrr en II 1,,r1
irl II
I I 10)0 LIII 00 3111(111 LJJI lOS III LI
IJ

II

stimulate specialised hair cells

inside the organ of Corti (organ of

bearing) located in the inriet

skull. These hair cells are designed to respon
to discrete frequencies
sound energy. Onc
they have bee
I1 W71 T11 Fl
excited, tli
chochle
I.w1in
transforn
the m

thes
hair cel
i n t
electria
signals.
Thes
electric
signals at
I:j1t, ii ii mT
then transmi
ted to the audit(
ry centre of the bral
via electrical pathways.
The result is the sound we hear, which
roughly in the frequency range of 2(

1/.

1.ig.iiiI

be accompanied by "ringing in the ears" or

tinnitus, which can also become permanent.
There is no medical cure for tinnitus and
treatment for it is generally less than satisfactory. Hearing loss is bad enough, but if it is
accompanied by tinnitus, life can be miserable.
People suffering from occupational deafness experience a distortion of the sounds
they hear and they may no longer be able to
distinguish between some spoken words.
Hearing aids offer limited benefit for people
with NIHL.
Many jobs in aviation depend on good
hearing. This is the case for pilots and ATC5, as
well as for LAMEs, who can depend on sharp
hearing for special noise detection.
Tarmac workers depend on good hearing
to detect hazards and prevent accidents.
Cabin crew rely on good hearing to communicate with passengers, other crew and to
listen for auditory alarms or for indications
of mechanical problems. They have an important monitoring function.

Non-auditory effects: There has been much

debate over the interpretation of research into
these effects, but the strengthening consensus
is that unwanted continuous noise can interfere with human performance, resulting in:
Increased reaction times.
Reduced performance in reading, writing
and listening tasks, including reduced comprehension and short-term memory.
Reduced communication performance.
Reduced performance in tasks which
20 FLIGHT SAFETY AUSTRALIA AUTUMN 1997

demand continuous attention and accuracy.

Irritability and mood swings.
Interference with some visual tracking tasks
and visual performance generally.
Increased susceptibility to fatigue.
Dizziness, headache, nausea and other nonspecific symptoms, consistent with stress disorder.
If your hearing is impaired you will be
unable to communicate effectively - mistakes
will be made. Worse still, stress added to a noisy
environment results in a more severe reduction in performance, and the onset of that performance reduction will occur earlier.
Additional stressors can include:
Large temperature changes (heat and cold).
Hypoxia.
Vibration.
Poorly controlled humidity.
Increased pilot workload.

environment such as a workshop or hangar.

Passengers who have significant hearing
impairment can also present problems. They
can easily walk too close to live propellers
without suspecting danger. Tarmac crew
should ensure that all passengers keep to tarmac walkways.
In emergency evacuations, cabin crew must
take account of the need to communicate
with those who suffer a hearing impairment.
Also remember that if you are responsible
for the safety of others and are forced to wear
hearing protection, you will find yourself more
vulnerable to traffic hazards if you cannot hear
or see approaching vehicles, or hear people trying to communicate with you.
It is very important to make yourself as visible as possible around a busy tarmac, especially at night.
Audiometry
Audiometry is the assessment of the sensitivity
of hearing. The threshold of hearing is measured for a number of frequencies and the
graphical plot which results is an audiogram.
To be done properly the test should follow a
standardised protocol, be conducted in the
absence of any background noise, and be performed with a properly calibrated audiometer.
Audiograms can be used as a basic screening test, or in conjunction with other audiometric tests using diagnostic equipment.
An example of a typical normal audiogram
and an audiogram showing bilateral (both
ears) noise induced hearing loss are shown
below. Note significant threshold losses at the
higher frequencies (3,000, 4,000, 6,000 Hz).
Anyone who is regularly exposed to loud
noise in the workplace should have an audiogram done periodically to detect early changes
suggestive of hearing loss. How often these

Frequency in Hertz
20 500 100 15) 200 300 40)0 ()00 800
*10

Clues to hearing loss

In the early phases of hearing loss, you may
have no indication that there is a problem.
The loss can be subtle and therefore go unnoticed.
You may only start to suspect a problem if
you find yourself having increasing difficulty
listening to others speak, particularly if there
is already distracting background noise; if
others are having difficulty attracting your
attention; or if you find yourself asking for
read-backs on the radio. You should also be
suspicious of hearing loss in others who have
had near misses with vehicles on the tarmac
area or are "accident-prone' in a noisy work

10
20
30
40
50
60

70
so
90
100

41

110
120

Normal hearing (left and right)

Left ear damaged hearing

Right ear damaged hearing

screening tests need to be performed will

depend on your exposure and the quality of
hearing protection devices you have been using.
Some screening may need to be done every 3
or 6 months; in other cases annually, two yearly
or even less frequently. If you are in doubt,
arrange to have an audiometer test to be done by
an approved hearing laboratory, a designated
aviation medical examiner or your family practitioner. Check to see if their practice has an
audiometer first.
You need to recognise if you are already at
risk in your workplace, and whether or not
your workplace has been the subject of a noise
survey by an approved testing agency.
Ask your supervisor or manager if there is
a hearing conservation program in your area.
There are many methods available to deal
with noise, but much of the aviation environment relies on individuals wearing personal hearing protective devices (HPD5) for
protection. Ideally, this should be the last line
of protection in the workplace. However, in
practice it is usually the first option used for
protection because it is usually the cheapest.
Noise induced hearing loss can be exacerbated by other factors, which include:
Presbyacusis - the deterioration in hearing
that occurs with advancing age in the absence
of disease or injury.
Previous ear pathology, such as a perforated
eardrum from trauma, or chronic ear disease
during childhood.
Acute ear infections or disorders, a cold, the
"flu", Meniere's disease, which affects the balance organs, and other viral infections.
Some anti-malarial drugs and some antibiotics.
Alcohol abuse.
Recreational noise hazards, such as sports
shooting, or listening to loud music (especially in confined spaces).
Diving barotrauma.

tective device that is appropriate to the severity of the hazard. The device must meet Australian design standards. The options are:
Combination of foam ear plugs and ear
defender.
Communication headset.
Communication ear plug.
Active Noise Reduction (ANR),such as electronic noise cancelling headsets.
You should also attend to:
Correct fit.
Regular maintenance and inspection.
Access for users (whether the devices are for
personal issue or issue as required).
Proper storage to avoid damage and deterioration.
There are grades of protection which
depend on the quality of manufacture, cost
and functional requirements.
The technical specifications of the HPD
should be available from the vendor. The specifications must be compatible with your work
environment. If you are in doubt about the
requirements, get specialist advice about the
needs of your workplace.
Jeff Brock is acting director of aviation medicine, CASA.

The regulatory
requirements
The Regulations state that medical
certificate holders:
Must be free of any hearing defect
that is likely to interfere with the
safe exercise of privileges, or performance of duties, under the licence
that the person holds or has applied
for.
Must not, when in a quiet room,
have a hearing loss in either ear of
more than:
- 35dB at any of the frequencies of
500Hz, 1,000Hz or 2,000Hz; or - 50d13
at 3,000Hz;
unless the person passes a speech
test, or an operational check, by an
approved person carrying out the
examination in an aircraft of similar
ambient noise level to that in which
the relevant person is or will be
operationally involved.

THE AUSTRALIAN STANDARD

The national standard for exposure to noise in the occupational environment is an eight
hour equivalent continuous A-weighted sound pressure level, LAeq,8h of 85dB(A). For peak
noise, the national standard is a peak noise level, Lpeak of 1400(lin). The exposure to
noise is taken to be that measured at the employee's ear position without taking into
account any protection which may be afforded by personal hearing protectors.
The standard and a code of practice for management of noise and prevention of hearing loss are available from the Australian Government Publishing Service.

Protection
In order of priority, the following strategies
should be used to combat hazardous noise:
Noise control at source.
Noise control at the point of reception.
Noise control along the pathway to the subject(s).
These can be achieved in a number of ways:
Regulatory intervention including enforced
standards.
Engineering and design.
Sound insulation and absorption.
Enclosures.
Vibration isolation and damping.
Distance.
Reduced exposure time.
Noise attenuating devices.
You should use the personal hearing proFLIGHT SAFETY AUSTRALIA AUTUMN 1997 21