Marine Policy 71 (2016) 19

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Marine Policy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpol

Evaluating support for shark conservation among artisanal shing

communities in Costa Rica
Jason R. O'Bryhim a,b,n, E.C.M. Parsons a, Michael P. Gilmore c, Stacey L. Lance b
a

Department of Environmental Science & Policy, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA
Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, University of Georgia, Aiken, SC 29802, USA
c
School of Integrative Studies, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA
b

art ic l e i nf o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 9 February 2016
Received in revised form
3 May 2016
Accepted 9 May 2016

Many shark populations have experienced severe declines in the past few decades due to increased
demand for their products. As sheries managers, conservation biologists, and other invested groups
move to develop new conservation measures to better protect sharks it will be important to understand
the potential reactions (behaviors) local shermen will have to new regulations. To determine the potential behaviors local artisanal shermen in Costa Rica would have toward new conservation measures
for sharks a structured survey (n 72) was distributed to several shing communities along Costa Rica's
Pacic coast. Overall, 89% of shermen felt that protecting sharks was important with 97% stating a
willingness to support shark conservation. However, support dropped to 67% if they would have to
change some of their shing practices. Almost all shermen surveyed (93%) were in support of the
formation of marine protected areas (MPAs). Although, if MPAs restricted their current shing practices
support dropped to between 6% and 65% depending on the restrictiveness of regulations implemented in
the MPA. The majority (86%) of the shermen surveyed also indicated they would be more likely to
support new legislative measures to protect sharks if they were included in the decision making process.
The results suggest that artisanal shermen in Costa Rica are willing to protect sharks, but only if their
current shing practices are minimally impacted. It is therefore important that mangers work with these
communities to develop management plans that will provide the best protection possible for sharks
while also garnering local support to ensure continued compliance.
& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Artisanal shermen
Conservation
Sharks
Potential behaviors
Social surveys

1. Introduction
1.1. Sharks in decline
Shark populations have declined globally due to increased exploitation rates caused by both a higher demand for their products
and an increased level of bycatch [13]. It is estimated that nearly
100 million elasmobranchs (sharks, skates and rays) are caught
each year; however, true landings could be 34 times what is reported [1,36]. Due to current population declines approximately
one quarter of elasmobranch species are listed as vulnerable,
endangered, or critically endangered by the International Union
for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) [3]. Demand for shark ns, a
highly valued seafood product in several Asian countries, has been
a main driver for increased shark landings globally [3]. However,
reported catch rates for sharks and trade in their ns peaked
n
Corresponding author at: Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, University of
Georgia, Aiken, SC 29802, USA.
E-mail address: jobryhim@gmail.com (J.R. O'Bryhim).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2016.05.005
0308-597X/& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

around 2003 and had steadily declined by  20% by 2011 [3,7]. It is

unclear whether these declines are related to better management
or reduced success from population declines [3]. During this same
time period the trade in shark meat increased by 4.5% annually
despite its lower value, likely due to nning bans requiring landing
of whole sharks and growing markets for their meat in countries
like Brazil [7].
1.2. Artisanal sheries
Artisanal (or traditional) sheries are generally family-run lowtech enterprises, that focus their efforts near shore and for local
consumption [8]. However, the denition of artisanal sheries can
vary between countries and encompasses several categories of
operations [8]. For instance, in addition to the typical small-scale
artisanal sheries there are some more advanced artisanal sheries that have larger and more technologically advanced vessels
that travel greater distances and target mainly pelagic areas, but
still do not operate as what would be considered commercial eets
[9]. Globally, small-scale artisanal sheries employ  25 times as
many shers than advanced artisanal eets and produce roughly

J.R. O'Bryhim et al. / Marine Policy 71 (2016) 19

the same amount of sh for human consumption

(30 million tonnes) [10,11]. In Latin America, small-scale artisanal
sheries are an important source of food and employment for local
communities, providing the main basis of revenue for 2 million
people [9]. The overall importance of small-scale artisanal sheries
cannot be overstated and if efforts are not rst concentrated on
understanding and properly managing these sheries and the resources they utilize, long-term sheries and shing based cultures
in these areas might not be sustainable [10].
Artisanal sheries in Costa Rica account for 7580% of the total
annual catch in the country [12]. They include small-scale sheries
that target coastal species (i.e. Cynoscion sp., Lutjanus sp., Centropomus sp.) using hand-lines, gillnets, and mid-water long-lines;
mid-scale sheries with slightly larger vessels traveling farther
from the coast and using gillnets and long-lines (i. e. surface,
bottom-lines, mid-water) to target larger species (i.e. Epinephelus
sp., Coryphaena hippurus, sharks); and advanced artisanal sheries
that utilize pelagic long-lines far off the coast targeting Thunnus sp.
(tuna), billsh, and other large sh species [12]. Within Costa Rica,
there are approximately 3500 licensed shing vessels that make
up the small-scale and mid-scale artisanal shing eet, accounting
for 61% of the total annual catch [12]. In the 1990s, exports of
marine products from Costa Rica only represented 0.4% of the
gross domestic product (GDP) [12]. Despite, the perceived low
economic value attributed toward sheries exports, Costa Rican
sheries still play an important role in creating employment for
coastal areas and small-scale artisanal sheries are still the main
source of marine products for domestic consumption [12]. Within
Costa Rica there is also a domestic market for shark meat that is
supplied by the artisanal sheries [7].
1.3. Traditional ecological knowledge
Over time, small-scale artisanal shing communities inherently
gain knowledge on the species they exploit as well as how their
shery impacts those species, which is known as traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) [1315]. Traditional ecological knowledge
is dened as a cumulative body of knowledge, practice and belief
evolving by adaptive processes and handed down through generations by cultural transmission, about the relationships of living
beings with one another and with the environment [16]. It is
specic to individual locations and represents the information
necessary for the optimal completion of specic tasks (i.e. hunting,
shing, etc.) that are generally required for the continued survival
of the people of that area [14]. For instance, TEK of highly productive shing grounds that produce yields necessary to help
sustain a population will be remembered and passed down while
those that do not will be forgotten [14].
Continuing within the context of sheries, TEK can also aid
researchers and resource managers by providing information on
the presence and distribution of particular species [17] including
key habitats to vulnerable life stages (i.e. nursing grounds) [18] as
well as spawning sites [19] for certain species. Artisanal shing
communities commonly catch sharks as either target species or
bycatch and from these experiences they develop knowledge as
well as perceptions about sharks and the impact their shery has
on them [12,2022]. For example, artisanal shermen in Costa Rica
have reported observing reductions in abundance of sharks in
their coastal waters (A. Bystrom, personal communication).
1.4. Working to conserve sharks in Costa Rica
By understanding the knowledge and perceptions artisanal
shing communities have about sharks and their shery (e.g.
current population trends within it, reasons for targeting sharks)
we can try to determine the types of management practices that

are best suited for shark conservation [14,22]. Previous research

has shown that an individual's knowledge and perceptions of a
species can guide their behaviors towards them, including whether they would support conservation of that species [21,2325].
Perceptions of the shery and the species being exploited within
the community are of particular importance because if there is not
a perceived imminent threat to the sustainability of that resource
then implementing protective measures and enforcing them can
prove difcult [26]. Therefore, it is critical to work with the local
shing communities to develop effective sheries management
plans and to understand how this might impact their culture and
shery if researchers are to combat reductions seen in sh stocks
(i.e. sharks) [14].
To understand TEK from a target population, like shermen,
and their perceptions toward a species and its exploitation, social
surveys (questionnaires) have previously been employed. Surveys
allow researchers to obtain data from large groups that can range
over a wide area (i.e. shermen scattered along a coastline). Researchers have previously used surveys to determine human impacts on wild species, and how people's perceptions can inuence
ecological management [27]. Therefore, surveys make it possible
to quantify how the perceptions of a group might be affecting the
implementation of conservation measures [22,27,28].
By better understanding shing communities, policy-makers
can work with them to develop legislation that is not only effective, but also supported by the shermen [14,29]. The behaviors of
these communities are what will ultimately impact whether
conservation measures are successful or not. Surveys provide the
ability to quantify potential behaviors that may be exhibited by the
shermen toward differing sheries regulations based on their
knowledge and perceptions [27,30]. For instance, O'Bryhim and
Parsons [25] determined that a person's knowledge of sharks
could predict their potential behaviors toward shark conservation.
Surveys can also be used to determine what variables may be
causing the varying knowledge levels and perceptions within a
shing community toward a particular species and shery [31,32].
Figuring out what causes changes in both perceptions and potential behaviors can determine what needs to be done for major
shifts in management policies to occur [32]. Therefore, a social
survey was used to determine the knowledge, perceptions, and
potential behaviors Costa Rican shing communities have toward
sharks and possible legislation that would better protect them in
their shery. The survey also attempted to identify the variables
that cause changes in perceptions and behaviors toward legislation
protecting sharks in Costa Rica. Better understanding of these
communities and involving them in the legislative process increases the chances of addressing their concerns. In addition, they
will be more likely to follow the regulations thus making the
difcult task of enforcement of regulations on the open ocean
easier. Gaining support and understanding from the shing community is crucial if conservation measures to protect sharks in
Costa Rica are going to be successful [33].

2. Methods
2.1. Fishing communities
To determine the knowledge, perceptions and potential behaviors that local Costa Rican shermen have about their shery and
sharks, and their support for conservation measures toward sharks
in their shing grounds, a structured survey (n 72) was conducted via face to face interviews in three shing communities
along Costa Rica's Pacic coast (San Juanillo, Coyote/Bejuco, and
Ojochal/Puerto Corts) from June 2013 to September 2014 [Fig. 1].
It is important to note that informed consent was obtained from

J.R. O'Bryhim et al. / Marine Policy 71 (2016) 19

Fig. 1. Map of Costa Rica indicating locations of the shing communities surveyed in this study.

all participants before conducting the survey and that there were
no incentives for taking part in the survey; it was completely voluntary. All surveys were translated from English and delivered in
Spanish, but for the remainder of this manuscript the questions
and answers are provided in English.
The San Juanillo shing community is located on the Nicoya
peninsula north of Coyote and Bejuco. It consists of  30 shermen
who are members of the Asociacin de Pescadores de San Juanillo
(San Juanillo Fishermen Association, ASOPESJU) [Fig. 1]. The shing
grounds of San Juanillo were recently declared an rea Marina de
Pesca Responsable (Marine Area for Responsible Fisheries, AMPR),
which regulates shing activity within an area, specically banning the use of shrimp trawls [35,36]. This new protected area
designation, AMPR, was created in 2008 by the Costa Rica Fishery
and Aquaculture Institute (INCOPESCA, Instituto Costarricense de
Pesca y Acuicultura), and requires members of the shing community to shift toward sustainable shing methods to protect sh
populations and the community's livelihood [35]. INCOPESCA requires local shing associations to apply for AMPR status, which
includes a code of ethics by which the shermen will follow to
obtain a sustainable shery [37]. This code, which can regulate
shing methods, allowable sizes of sh, and total landings, is
supposed to be enforced by the shermen and INCOPESCA [37].
The majority (90%) of the members of the San Juanillo Fishermen
Association were surveyed in this study.
Coyote and Bejuco are adjacent shing communities that utilize
the same shing grounds along the Nicoya peninsula [Fig. 1]. Due
to their close proximity to one another and the fact that they use
the same shing grounds, surveys from these two communities
were combined to represent the overall area. These two communities include up to 100 shermen utilizing  40 boats depending
on the time of year and success of the shery. Both the Coyote and
Bejuco shing communities have shermen associations, the

Asociacin de Pescadores Coyoteos (Coyote Fishermen Association, ASPECOY) and the Asociacin de Pescadores Artesanales de
Bejuco (Bejuco Fishermen Association, ASOBEJUCO), respectively.
Within the shing grounds utilized by these two communities
exist two marine protected areas (MPAs) that are managed by
Costa Rica's Ministerio de Ambiente, Energa y Telecomunicaciones
(Ministry of Environment, Energy and Telecommunications, MINAET); the Caletas-Aro Refuge and Camaronal National Wildlife
Refuge [34]. These MPAs restrict certain shing methods, but allow
the use of bottom-lines [34]. However, the use of gillnets, which
are restricted in these areas, were witnessed being used when
landings from bottom-lines were low. Between the Coyote and
Bejuco communities 35 shermen completed surveys, representing all the individuals that were available during sampling trips.
The Ojochal shing community consists of a single family and
several transient shermen that utilize a portion of the mouth of
the Trraba and Sierpe river estuaries, adjacent to the TrrabaSierpe national wetland (Humedal Nacional Trraba-Sierpe)
[Fig. 1]. The local family consists of  5 shermen gillnetting from
2 to 3 boats. Another  510 shermen also utilize this area, but
are not local. They are transported to this location by a seafood
vendor from Puntarenas. All landings from these shermen are
immediately packed onto a truck with ice and brought to Puntarenas every few days. The mangrove forests of the TrrabaSierpe national wetland are ofcially off limits for shing and the
shermen are supposed to only utilize the waters outside the
mouth of the rivers.
Puerto Corts is a shing community adjacent to Ojochal along
the Trraba River (Rio Grande de Trraba) [Fig. 1]. This was once a
thriving shing community but recent declines in the total catch
have caused its population to dwindle. Few shermen are left in
this community and as many as possible were surveyed. Due to the
relatively small number of shermen within the Ojochal and

J.R. O'Bryhim et al. / Marine Policy 71 (2016) 19

Puerto Corts communities and their close proximity to one another, surveys from these two communities were combined to
represent the overall area. Between the Ojochal and Puerto Corts
communities 10 individuals completed surveys, with the majority
coming from Ojochal.
2.2. Statistical analysis
For all statistical analyses R statistical software (3.1.2) was used
[38]. The survey instrument contained four sections separated a
priori into the following categories: knowledge about sharks;
perceptions of shark populations; potential behavior toward shark
conservation; and participant demographics and shing practices.
Frequencies of responses for all questions were analyzed to determine variances between the demographic make-up of the
communities, perceptions of shark populations, and support for
various conservation measures to protect sharks. Demographic
and shing practice questions were treated as individual variables
to analyze their impacts on potential behaviors, as well as perceptions and knowledge. For the categories knowledge about
sharks, perceptions of shark populations, and potential behaviors
towards shark conservation, indices were created using the respective questions from the survey instrument. Frequencies of all
responses within the demographic/shing practices, knowledge,
perceptions, and potential behavior categories were analyzed.
The knowledge index consisted of 7 binary coded questions.
Participants were also given the option of answering, I dont
know, which was scored the same as an incorrect answer. To
create the knowledge index the responses on these questions were
added together to give a total score out of 7. Participants knowledge about sharks (knowledge index score) was based on the score
they received with a higher score indicating more shark knowledge. However, the shark knowledge index proved to be internally
unreliable (Chronbach's alpha1  0.03) and, therefore, was not
used in any further analyses.
The perception index (Chronbach's alpha 0.56), based on
7 questions, was used to judge a participant's perceptions on the
status of shark populations in Costa Rica, the impact of their
shery on shark populations, and whether they believed protective measures are needed to conserve them. Answers indicating a
perception that some shark populations were not declining, and
that protection was not needed, were scored with a  1, while
shermen who were not sure about a particular question and
answered I dont know received a neutral score of 0. Fishermen
that answered with a perception that some shark populations
were declining and needed increased protection received a score
of 1 or 2, depending on the question. Two possible positive scores
were used for 2 of the 7 attitude questions showing varying levels
of support for sharks. The score for each of the seven attitude
questions were then added together for each surveyed shermen
to give them a total possible score from  7 to 9 with a higher
score indicating the perceptions that shark populations are declining, due to negative impacts of their shery, and greater protection is needed.
The potential behavior index (Chronbach's alpha 0.72) was
derived from 13 questions designed to measure a participant's
potential behavior (i.e. support) toward legislation that would
protect sharks in and around the areas that they currently sh.
These included questions on the shermen's potential willingness
to support shark conservation legislation, the formation of marine
protected areas (MPAs) near their shing grounds, and whether
they were willing to alter their shing practices. The sums of the
1
How well a set of items or variables measures a single uni-dimensional latent
construct.

responses to these questions were used to create an index with a

scale from  13 to 13 with higher scores representing the likelihood of more pro-shark conservation behavior (i.e. individuals
more willing to support shark conservation in their areas).
Due to the knowledge index proving to be unreliable, it was not
possible to test how demographic factors would impact knowledge about sharks, nor how knowledge about sharks may then
impact perceptions and potential behaviors toward them. Instead,
whether the shermen's perceptions of shark populations as well
as varying demographic variables could directly impact their potential behavior toward shark conservation was tested using a
standard multivariate regression analysis. This approach was also
used to test how various demographic variables (i.e. age, education, community) impacted perceptions of sharks and their shery.
Linear regressions were used to determine if individual variables
could signicantly predict potential behavior toward shark conservation or perceptions of shark populations. One-way analyses of
variance (ANOVA) were used to compare demographic variability
between communities, responses to individual questions and
overall scores within the three indices between the three shing
communities. If responses between communities were signicantly different we then used a Tukey's multiple comparison of
means to determine which communities had signicantly different answers.

3. Results
3.1. Demographics and shing practices
Of the 72 shers surveyed, all were male. The age of the shermen ranged from 18 to 60 years, with a mean age of 37.6 years,
for all three shing communities combined. There was no signicant difference between average ages between communities
(F0.68, p 0.51). The average education level was 6.4 years of
schooling for all locations, with no signicant difference between
shing communities (F 1.29, p 0.28). Fishermen from all surveyed communities had an average of 1620 years of shing experience, with bottom-lines being the most common shing gear
used for all communities (93%). Signicantly fewer shermen in
the Ojochal/Puerto Corts shing community used bottom-lines
compared to the other two (F 13.23, p o0.001). The Ojochal/
Puerto Corts shing community also had more shermen using
hand-line shing gear compared to the other communities
(F4.07, p 0.02). All shermen responded that they shed within
a 10 km distance of shore, and averaged 3140 h of shing effort
per week. Fishermen of the San Juanillo community spent signicantly less time shing compared to the other communities
(F6.70, p 0.002). Overall, only 4% of shermen indicated they
directly targeted sharks, with no signicant differences between
communities (F 1.78, p 0.18).
Of the shark species shermen declared they encountered/
caught, the smoothhound (Mustelus spp.) and scalloped hammerhead (Sphyrna lewini) were the two most commonly named by
shermen in the three shing communities. However, fewer
shermen from Ojochal/Puerto Corts indicated they had encountered/caught smoothhound compared to the other two
communities (F 4.34, p 0.02). Fewer San Juanillo shermen also
reported catching sharpnose sharks (Rhizoprionodon longurio)
(F8.63, po 0.001). The majority of shermen (86%) indicated
they would retain captured sharks, with the majority selling their
meat (85%) or keeping them for personal use (67%). Almost no
shermen surveyed (1%) kept sharks to remove and sell their ns.
Average demographic and sheries practices results can be found
in Tables 1 and 2.

J.R. O'Bryhim et al. / Marine Policy 71 (2016) 19

Table 1
Demographic information collected from artisanal shermen from the Ojochal/
Puerto Corts, Coyote/Bejuco, and San Juanillo shing communities in Costa Rica.

Average age
(years)
Average years of
education
Average years of
shing
% That own their
own boat

Total
(n 72)

Ojochal/Puerto Corts
(n 10)

Coyote/BeSan Juanillo
juco (n 35) (n 27)

37.6

33.7

37.5

39.2

6.4

6.8

5.9

6.9

1620

1620

1620

1620

35

40

31

37

Table 2
Information on current shing practices collected from artisanal shermen from
the Ojochal/Puerto Corts, Coyote/Bejuco, and San Juanillo shing communities of
Costa Rica.
Ojochal/Puerto Corts
(n 10)

Coyote/Bejuco
(n 35)

San Juanillo
(n 27)

Fishing method (%)

Hand-line
4
Bottom trawl
1
Gillnet
33
Bottom-line
93
Other
6

20
10
50
60
40

3
3
23
100
0

0
0
41
96
7

Distance from shore shed (%)

010 km
100

100

100

100

3140

2130

Total
(n 72)

Average hours spent shing per week

3140
4150

Fishermen that regularly catch these shark species (%)

Scalloped
86
70
89
Hammerhead
Silky
3
10
3
Tiger
14
20
20
Blue
1
10
0
Sharpnose
25
40
40
Blacktip
47
50
51
Smooth-hound
88
60
91
Bull
22
40
26
Whitetip Reef
25
10
37
Nurse
3
10
3
Thresher
7
10
11
Oceanic Whitetip
0
0
0
Other
3
0
3
Unsure of Species
3
0
0

0
4
0
0
41
93
11
15
0
0
0
4
7

What shermen do with landed sharks (%)

Keep the sharks
86
90
Sell the meat
85
90
Sell ns
1
10
Personal use
67
50

83
83
0
63

85
85
0
78

Directly target sharks (%)

4

13

89

3.2. Knowledge
The average number of correctly answered knowledge questions among the shermen was 4.18 out of 7 questions in total. The
average number of correct answers did not differ signicantly
between the three shing communities (F 2.07, p 0.14). However, shermen of the Ojochal/Puerto Corts community answered
correctly the question on shark reproduction signicantly more
often than the other two communities (F 4.07, p 0.02) [Table 3].
As noted above, the knowledge index proved to be unreliable and
could not be used to represent shermen's knowledge of sharks, to
determine how this may impact their perceptions of shark

Table 3
Percentage of respondents from the Ojochal/Puerto Corts, Coyote/Bejuco, and San
Juanillo shing communities of Costa Rica that answered the various knowledge
questions correctly or incorrectly.
Total (n
72)

Ojochal/Puerto
Corts (n 10)

Coyote/Bejuco San Juanillo (n

(n 35)
27)

How many types/species of shark would you estimate there are in Costa
Rican waters?
Correct
1
0
3
0
Incorrect
99
100
97
100
Most sharks will breed and reproduce within their rst year of life like
many other sh species?
Correct
25
60
20
19
Incorrect
75
40
80
81
Sharks in general produce a small number (less than 20) of young per
breeding season compared to other sh?
Correct
69
70
63
78
Incorrect
31
30
37
22
Sharks are very susceptible to overshing?
Correct
65
60
60
Incorrect
35
40
40

74
26

Many of the shark species found in Costa Rica use its coastal waters for
mating and raising their young?
Correct
97
100
94
100
Incorrect
3
0
6
0
Sharks in general live for only a few years (less than 5) like many other sh
species?
Correct
63
70
63
59
Incorrect
37
30
37
41
Shark nning is banned in Costa Rica?
Correct
97
100
Incorrect
3
0

populations or
conservation.

their

potential

94
6

behaviors

100
0

toward

shark

3.3. Perceptions
The average score for surveyed shermen's perceptions on the
status of shark populations was 6.25, on a scale from  7 to 9.
Higher perception scores indicated shermen with stronger beliefs
that shark populations were in decline and that greater protection
for sharks is currently needed. Perception index scores did not
differ signicantly between the three shing communities
(F0.28, p 0.76). The majority of shermen from all three communities indicated they have encountered fewer sharks in their
sheries (83%) and believed that the numbers of sharks were decreasing (82%) in Costa Rican waters [Table 4]. However, only 58%
believed that too many sharks were currently being caught in the
waters of Costa Rica. Of the shermen surveyed, 89% believed it
was important to protect sharks with 81% indicating that better
laws were needed for their protection. Despite the vast majority of
shermen believing sharks needed to be protected, 57% of shermen indicated that sharks were detrimental to their shery. There
was a signicant difference between the Ojochal/Puerto Corts
and the Coyote/Bejuco communities on whether they believed
sharks were helpful, or harmful, to their shery (F 3.267,
p 0.044) with, on average, more shermen from Ojochal/Puerto
Corts indicating sharks were helpful to their shery.
3.4. Potential behaviors
On average, surveyed shermen scored a 4.49, on a scale of
 13 to 13, for their potential behaviors toward shark conservation
in Costa Rica. Higher scores indicated potential behaviors more
supportive of shark conservation. The potential behavior index

J.R. O'Bryhim et al. / Marine Policy 71 (2016) 19

Table 4
Perceptions of respondents from the Ojochal/Puerto Corts, Coyote/Bejuco, and San
Juanillo shing communities of Costa Rica toward sharks, shark conservation, and
their shery. All values are percentages.
Total
(n 72)

Ojochal/Puerto
Corts (n 10)

Coyote/Bejuco (n 35)

San Juanillo
(n 27)

Have you seen more, less, or the same number of sharks in your shery in
recent years?
Less
83
80
86
82
Same
8
0
11
7
More
3
0
3
4
Dont Know
6
20
0
7
Do you think the number of sharks in Costa Rican waters is increasing,
decreasing, or stable based on what you have observed in your shery?
Decreased
82
70
83
85
Stable
7
0
11
4
Increased
5.5
10
6
4
Dont Know
5.5
20
0
7
Do you think it is important to protect sharks?
Yes
89
80
89
No
7
0
8
Dont Know
4
20
3

93
7
0

Are laws to better protect sharks needed in Costa Rica?

Yes
81
70
83
No
16
10
17
Dont Know
3
20
0

81
19
0

Do you see sharks as being helpful or harmful to your shery?

Helpful
35
70
20
41
Harmful
57
0
3
18
Dont Know
8
30
77
41
Do you think too many sharks are currently being caught in Costa Rica?
Yes
58
60
57
59
No
22
10
23
26
Dont Know
20
30
20
15
Do you think shing for sharks should continue or that they should be
protected?
Protect
86
80
97
74
Continue
7
0
0
19
shing
Dont Know
7
20
3
7

scores were not signicantly different between shing communities (F 0.57, p 0.57). Almost all surveyed shermen (97%) indicated they would be willing to potentially support shark conservation in Costa Rica [Table 5]. However, support dropped to 67%
if the conservation measures resulted in any changes to their
current shing practices. The vast majority (86%) of shermen
indicated they would be more willing to potentially support shark
conservation measures if shing communities were included in
the overall decision-making process. The same percentage (86%)
also indicated they would be willing to work with researchers and
public ofcials on shark conservation issues. When asked about
the use of MPAs as a mechanism for shark conservation, 93% of
shermen indicated they would potentially support this. Though,
as regulations for the MPAs became more intrusive on their shing
practices, potential support declined to a low of 6% when the
proposed MPA was a year round, no take zone [Table 5]. Overall,
82% of shermen indicated the potential of attempting to stop
landing specic shark species, with 71% potentially willing to stop
landing all species of shark. When asked if they were possibly
willing to use shing gear that reduced the likelihood of catching
or injuring sharks, 78% said they would if the new gear was provided to them with only 57% willing to if they had to purchase the
gear on their own. There was no signicant difference between
each shing community for all potential behavior questions except
for whether they would be willing to stop catching all shark
species. The Ojochal/Puerto Corts community was signicantly
opposed to not catching any sharks, when compared to the other

Table 5
Potential behaviors of respondents from the Ojochal/Puerto Corts, Coyote/Bejuco,
and San Juanillo shing communities of Costa Rica toward shark conservation. All
values are percentages.
Total
(N 72)

Ojochal/Puerto
Corts (N 10)

Coyote/Bejuco (N 35)

San Juanillo
(N 27)

Would you be willing to support shark conservation in Costa Rica?

Yes
97
100
100
93
No
3
0
0
7
Dont Know
0
0
0
0
Would you still support shark conservation in Costa Rica if it resulted in
you having to change some of your current shing practices?
Yes
67
40
68.5
74
No
28
30
28.5
26
Dont Know
5
30
3
0
Would you support the formation of marine protected areas that would
protect sharks?
Yes
93
90
97
89
No
6
10
3
11
Dont Know
0
0
0
0
Would you still support the formation of a marine protected area if it included portions of your current shing grounds?
Yes
65
50
69
67
No
34
40
31
33
Dont Know
1
10
0
0
Would you still support the formation of a marine protected area if it restricted certain types of shing gear?
Yes
39
40
37
41
No
60
50
63
59
Dont Know
1
10
0
0
Would you still support the formation of a marine protected area if it
completely restricted all types of shing in that area to only certain times
of the year?
Yes
15
20
6
26
No
84
70
94
74
Dont Know
1
10
0
0
Would you still support the formation of a marine protected area if it restricted all types of shing within the protected area during the entire
year?
Yes
6
10
0
11
No
93
80
100
89
Dont Know
1
10
0
0
Would you be more likely to support legislation protecting
ermen were included in the decision making process?
Yes
86
70
86
No
6
0
9
Dont Know
8
30
5

sharks if sh92
4
4

If you had to purchase it, would you be willing to use a different type of
shing gear that is less likely to catch or injure sharks?
Yes
57
40
63
56
No
35
20
34
41
Dont Know
8
40
3
3
If you were provided it, would you be willing to use a different type of
shing gear that is less likely to catch or injure sharks?
Yes
78
60
83
78
No
14
0
17
15
Dont Know
8
40
0
7
Would you be willing to stop catching certain species of sharks?
Yes
82
50
89
85
No
8
10
5.5
11
Dont Know 10
40
5.5
4
Would you be willing to stop catching all species of sharks?
Yes
71
10
83
78
No
19
50
11
19
Dont Know 10
40
6
3
Would you be willing to work with researchers and public ofcials to help
protect sharks?
Yes
86
80
94
78
No
8
0
3
19
Dont Know
6
20
3
3

J.R. O'Bryhim et al. / Marine Policy 71 (2016) 19

two communities. Results for all potential behavior questions can

be found in Table 5.
3.5. Indices model
The potential behavior of shermen toward shark conservation
could not be signicantly predicted by the joint predictive power
of their perceptions of sharks and their shery, age, education,
shing experience, boat ownership, whether or not they used
certain types of gear, distance from shore shed, hours shed per
week, whether they targeted sharks, shark species landed, if they
retained sharks and what they did with those sharks, nor which
community they were from (F 0.87, p 0.65). However, a sherman's perceptions of the status of shark populations could signicantly predict his potential behavior when tested individually
(F 5.07, p 0.028, R2 0.07). With higher perception scores that
indicate they believed shark populations are declining and greater
protection is needed for sharks predicting potential behaviors
more supportive of shark conservation. None of the demographic
variables could signicantly predict a sherman's potential behavior toward shark conservation when tested individually. A sherman's perception of sharks and their shery could not be signicantly predicted by the joint predictive power of age, education, shing experience, boat ownership, whether or not they used
certain types of gear, distance from shore shed, hours shed per
week, whether they targeted sharks, shark species landed, if they
retained sharks and what they did with those sharks, nor which
community they were from (F 1.03, p 0.47). However, shing
experience (F 4.05, p 0.05, R2 0.05), and whether or not they
shed with bottom-lines (F 4.36, p 0.04, R2 0.06), could signicantly predict perceptions of sharks and their shery
individually.

4. Discussion
4.1. Demographics and shing practices
Despite the geographical separation between the surveyed artisanal shing communities, their demographic make-ups were
quite similar. Overall the shermen surveyed were of a similar age,
education level, and had similar levels of shing experience. Slight
differences did exist between the species of sharks they caught,
how long they spent shing per week, and the percentage of
shermen within each community that used specic types of gear.
4.2. Knowledge about sharks
Fishermen surveyed from all three communities displayed an
overall average knowledge about sharks and current shark legislation in Costa Rica. However, they lacked knowledge on the diversity of shark species in Costa Rica and some aspects of general
shark biology. Many shermen believed that sharks matured at a
younger age more similar to other teleost sh. Believing that
sharks can breed more frequently, allowing for greater population
replacement, could potentially lead to the shermen having the
perception of their shery having less of an impact on shark populations. Again, the knowledge index proved to be unreliable and
further research would be necessary to better determine how
knowledge of general shark biology could affect the perceptions of
artisanal shermen about the impact of the shery on shark populations and their potential behavior toward shark conservation.
4.3. Perceptions of sharks and their shery
The vast majority of shermen surveyed held the perception

that shark populations in Costa Rica are declining and that protective measures are both needed and important for their conservation. However, despite the fact the majority indicated they
have seen less sharks in recent years only about half of the shermen indicated that Costa Rican sheries were catching too many
sharks. These results could signify that nearly half of these shermen do not view their sheries as a signicant contributor to the
current shark population declines. Over half of the shermen also
perceived sharks as being harmful to their shery in some way.
Fishermen surveyed were not able to elaborate on how sharks
would be harmful to their shery, but potential issues could include competition with shermen for target species and damage
to shing gear caused by sharks. It is possible that artisanal shermen do not perceive their particular sheries as having a large
enough impact on shark populations when compared to industrial
eets operating in Costa Rica. However, small-scale artisanal
shing communities employ substantially more shermen than
advanced-scale eets and are known to operate within shark
nursing grounds [10,39]. Within Costa Rica, they have been found
to catch substantial quantities of juvenile sharks like the endangered scalloped hammerhead [40]. The perception that their
sheries are not catching too many sharks could also be explained
by their misunderstanding of shark biology. If they believe shark
populations have similar population growth patterns to other
teleost sh they might not perceive the current exploitation rates
of sharks by their sheries as a problem. However, in this research
no association was found between understanding that sharks
mature later than other sh and the perception that shark populations are declining and in need of protection. Again, further research would be needed to determine if knowledge of shark
biology could signicantly impact shermen's perceptions of shark
populations.
Among the artisanal shermen surveyed, increased shing
experience resulted in weaker perceptions that shark populations
are in decline and that increased protection is needed. One would
hypothesize that shermen with more experience would be more
likely to have witnessed declines in landings of sharks causing
stronger perceptions that declines are occurring. However, this
was not the case and potentially could be the result of the older
generation shermen, with more experience, being less willing to
admit that their shery is having negative impacts on certain
species. Alternatively, it is possible that there have been changes in
the information being provided by schools and both governmental
and non-governmental agencies. Thus, younger shermen with
less experience potentially could have received different information that resulted in different perceptions about sharks.
Further research of these two groups would be needed to determine the cause of the differences in perception of shark
populations.
4.4. Indices model
The results from indices model (standard multivariate regression analysis) found that Costa Rican small-scale artisanal shermen that perceived that shark populations were overshed and in
decline, were more likely to potentially support new conservation
measures to protect sharks in Costa Rica. Previous studies have
found that attitudes, similar to perceptions, have the ability to
guide, inuence, direct, shape, or predict an individual's potential
behavior towards a species and its conservation [21,23,31]. From
this study the prediction would be that if shermen do not perceive an imminent threat to shark populations, and believe that
some protective action needs to be taken, then they would be less
likely to support new conservation initiatives for sharks.

J.R. O'Bryhim et al. / Marine Policy 71 (2016) 19

4.5. Behaviors toward shark conservation

Almost all shermen surveyed indicated they would potentially
support shark conservation in Costa Rica, including the potential
use of MPAs. However, potential support for shark conservation
and specically the use of MPAs dropped dramatically as increasing restrictions to the shermen's current shing practices
were introduced. This is despite the fact that two of the three
surveyed locations (Coyote/Bejuco, San Juanillo) currently have
some type of MPA within their shing grounds. There was also no
difference in support for various types of MPAs among the communities, despite protected areas currently existing in some of
these locations. This is likely due to the fact that few restrictions
currently exist within the protected areas of the surveyed communities and they are not strongly enforced. Therefore, it is almost
as if these locations have no protected areas. In all communities
surveyed, the more intrusive the proposed conservation measure
was to their current shing practices, the less potential support it
garnered from shermen, whether or not protected areas were
currently present. This indicates that the shermen surveyed
would only support conservation measures that do not substantively impact their current shing practices. Yet, for conservation measures to be effective at protecting sharks, some
changes to current shing practices must occur. Therefore, a
middle ground must be found between the shermen and sheries managers that will both garner support from the shermen
and provide an adequate amount of protection for shark
populations.
Based on the results from this survey, nearly half of the shermen were willing to potentially support restrictions on certain
types of shing gear within a proposed MPA. Restrictions on certain types of shing gear could signicantly reduce the number of
sharks landed in these sheries. Specically banning the use of
gillnets that catch sh indiscriminately, and generally do not allow
for live release, could prove to be effective at reducing total shark
landings. Currently, MPAs or Marine Areas of Responsible Fisheries exist at two of the three areas surveyed in this study.
However, only the shermen of the Coyote/Bejuco community,
which are required to use only bottom-lines in the two MPAs
within their shing grounds, face any real restrictions on their
current shing practices. Despite the restrictions, it has been observed that if shermen do not meet necessary catch amounts for
subsistence when using the required shing method (bottomlines), then many of them will start using banned gillnets (Arauz,
personal communication). Therefore, the challenge will be not
only gaining support for new conservation measures but ensuring
they are properly enforced.
The majority of shermen surveyed also indicated they were
willing to use different types of shing gear that would be less
detrimental to sharks, especially if the gear was freely provided. It
should be noted that any sheries managers attempting to regulate these sheries must be careful not to implement regulations
with too high a level of restrictions without the involvement and
general consent from the communities. When increased restrictions on gear use and time limitations how long and what time
of year they could sh in an MPA were introduced, they garnered
almost no support. By gaining support from these communities we
can increase the chances that new conservation measures are
followed with the possibility of these communities self-regulating,
which reduces the need for expensive enforcement [29]. The vast
majority of shermen indicated they are potentially willing to stop
catching sharks and are willing to work with researchers and
sheries managers to come up with a way to accomplish that goal.
Conservation measures must be developed that both limit the
number of sharks being caught while not negatively impacting the
economic value of the sheries that these communities depend on

to survive.

5. Conclusion
Developing effective legislation to protect the marine environment can be very difcult due to ineffective enforcement
caused by the high cost of attempting to patrol these areas. One
way to reduce enforcement costs and increase compliance is to
include artisanal shermen in the decision making process. The
rst step is to understand how they view their impact on the resource and their support for its conservation. Overall, support
within the artisanal shing communities in Costa Rica for new
shark conservation measures was high. However, support declined
as proposed legislation potentially obstructed the shermen's
ability to continue their current use of their shing grounds. If
effective legislation protecting sharks is to be created the shing
communities must be convinced that the management plans
would cause minimal disruption to current shing practices. Trying to enforce unsupported protective legislation on the approximately 3,000 licensed artisanal shers on Costa Rica's Pacic coast
would be ineffective. By working with the shermen the potential
compliance will be increased. Further educating the shermen on
the implications of the impacts of their sheries and the potential
benets of new protective legislation is also important so they can
make informed decisions about the direction of their shery.
Conducting sociological studies on artisanal shing communities
provides a valuable source of information on the current status of
their sheries and their willingness to work with conservationists
to protect marine species. Implementation of social surveys, such
as this one, can potentially increase the success of future conservation legislation and should be used in other areas (i.e. within
Latin America) where small to mid-scale artisanal sheries are
important sources of revenue for a substantial portion of the population and are currently having substantially negative impacts
on the marine environment.

Acknowledgements
We would like to thank everyone in Costa Rica who helped
make this research possible including: Dr. Ted Bradley, Randall
Arauz, Maike Heidemeyer, Andy Bystrom, Taylor Clarke, Dr. Ingo
Wehrtmann, PRETOMA, the University of Costa Rica, and the
shermen who were willing to participate in this research. We also
would like to thank Chelsie Romulo for producing the map for this
paper. Finally, we would like to thank the Rufford Foundation,
United Kingdom (ref. number 13921-1) for being the main funding
agency of this research as well as George Mason University, United
States and the Explorers Club Washington Group Exploration and
Field Research Grant Program for nancial assistance. This research was also partially supported by the Department of Energy,
United States under Award number DE-FC09-07SR22506 to the
University of Georgia Research Foundation. Permission to conduct
this research was granted by the George Mason University Human
Subjects Review Board (Protocol #8665).

Appendix A. Supplementary material

Supplementary data associated with this article can be found in the
online version at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2016.05.005.
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