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SALMONIDS

Welcome to Expert Topic. Each issue will take an in-depth look at a


particular species and how its feed is managed.

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North America

Austria

Iran

1 Salmonidae

he Salmonidae family, collectively


known as Salmonids, comprises
of salmon, trout, chars, freshwater
whitefishes, and graylings, but it is the
trout and Atlantic salmon, of the genus
Salmo, which gives the family their
name. A slender teleost fish, they can
range in size between just 13 cm to a
whopping 2 m in length. With a single
row of sharp teeth, Salmonids are predators, choosing to feed
on smaller fish, aquatic insects and small crustaceans. Despite
spawning in fresh water Salmonids are mostly anadromous,
spending their lives at sea, choosing only to return to rivers to
reproduce.
Our Salmonid focus Rainbow Trout is native to the Pacific
drainages of North America, ranging from Alaska to Mexico,
although many countries report rainbow trout farming production,
primarily areas in Europe, North America, Chile, Japan and
Australia. Since 1874 it has been introduced to waters on all
continents except Antarctica, for recreational angling and
aquaculture purposes. Production greatly expanding in the 1950s
as pelleted feeds were developed. Trout fisheries are maintained,

or culture practised, in the upland catchments of many tropical


and sub-tropical countries of Asia, East Africa and South
America. As a result, several local domesticated strains have
developed (e.g. Shasta and Kamloops), while others have been
arisen through mass selection and cross-breeding for improved
cultural qualities.
The rainbow trout is a hardy fish that is easy to spawn, fast
growing, tolerant to a wide range of environments and handling,
and the large fry can be easily weaned on to an artificial diet
(usually feeding on zooplankton). They are capable of occupying
many different habitats, ranging from an anadromous life history,
to permanently inhabiting lakes.
The anadromous strain is known for its rapid growth, achieving
7-10 kg within 3 years, whereas the freshwater strain can only
attain 4.5 kg in the same time span. The species can withstand
vast ranges of temperature variation (0-27 C), but spawning
and growth occurs in a narrower range (9-14 C). The optimum
water temperature for rainbow trout culture is below 21 C. As
a result, temperature and food availability influence growth and
maturation, causing age at maturity to vary; though it is usually
3-4 years.
Source FAO

International Aquafeed - May | June 2016 | 39

SALMONIDS

THE USE OF PREBIOTICS IN SALMONID DIETS


Natural alternatives for improving production
by Fernando Roberti, Biorigin

ish production has been gaining


increasing importance in the protein
market and in the animal nutrition sector.
Estimates indicate that it will reach
160 million tonnes by 2030, with an
increasing participation of aquaculture1.
In this context, for supporting the
intensification of the production, which
on one hand requires increasingly
revenues, but on the other predisposes to disease outbreaks, the
use of functional compounds becomes essential.
To achieve an economically viable aquaculture, it is
fundamental to maximise nutrient digestibility and retention,
feed conversion rate, dietary nutrient balance, and minimising
fish mortality in antibiotic-free conditions through the
development of health-promoting diets. In this context, the
inclusion of prebiotics into fish diets plays a very important role
for these results to be reached.

by using a component that resists the passage along the gut


during digestion and mimics the specific carbohydrates groups of
intestinal cells4.
Moreover, MOS are also a fermentation substract for
beneficial bacteria which are able to produce organic acids.
This fermentation, in addition to promoting the growth of these
beneficial bacteria populations, leads to an acidification of the
intestinal environment due to the acid production. Importantly,
some of these acids are used as the major energy sources by
some gut cells5, helping to maintain the intestinal integrity.
Together, all these benefits generate a healthy environment,
which will favor nutrients digestibility and absorption. To reach
these benefits, however, it is important to select a good MOS
product that presents the following characteristics: high mannan
content, high mannan exposure obtained from a suitable
production process which ensures a good pathogens adhesion,
and a high total carbohydrates content for fermentation purposes.

Prebiotics

Beyond the benefits to performance, maintaining good


intestinal health is particularly important since many infectious
diseases initiate from the colonisation of the gut mucosa by
pathogens, and the efficiency of the intestinal barrier against this
process depends on the intestinal integrity and on the balance
of comensal bacteria6. In addition, the more intact the intestinal
barrier, the more pathogens will be avoided to translocate over
stressing conditions, reducing the risks of the development of
systemic frames.

Prebiotics are non-digestible compounds able to modulate gut


microbiota and to selectively stimulate the growth of beneficial
bacteria2. Among prebiotics, mannanoligosacharides (MOS)
from the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae have been widely
researched and applied in animal nutrition.
The main described effects of MOS are related to pathogen
colonisation blocking, alongside growth and feed conversion
improvement. The use of MOS as a pathogen colonisation
blocker evolves from the concept that some sugars as mannose
could be used as inhibitors of pathogen adhesion to intestinal
cells3.
Therefore, the objective of including MOS in aquaculture
feeds is to reduce intestinal attachment of pathogenic bacteria

Importance of intestinal health for fish

Trial with rainbow trouts

A study* performed in a semi-intensive farm located in


Mazandaran, Iran, evaluated the effects of the dosages 0, 0.1,
0.25 and 0.4 percent of MOS (ActiveMOS, Biorigin, Brazil)

40 | May | June 2016 - International Aquafeed

included in a commercial feed for rainbow trouts. After 7


days of acclimation to the control diet, 300 fish juveniles were
randomly distributed into 12 tanks, with 25 fish in each tank
and 3 replicates (tank) per treatment (dosage of MOS), where
they were kept and evaluated during 60 days. Performance
and survival were evaluated once every 2 weeks and intestinal
bacteria evaluation was conducted at the end of the nutritional
trial.
According to Figures 1 and 2, all groups supplemented with
ActiveMOS had greater final body weight and lower feed
conversion rate. Among the different dosages, the supply of 1kg
of ActiveMOS/ton of feed led to the most interesting results
for final body weight and feed conversion rate. Concerning gut
microbiota, there was a trend of increase on lactic acid bacteria
populations in the dosage of 0.1 percent. It is important to point
out that dosages should be adjusted in function of phase, feed
intake, among other factors.
These results make clear the effects of MOS on fish
performance, through the greater final body weight and improved
feed conversion rate. The modulation of gut microbiota, with
increased populations of beneficial bacteria that improve
intestinal health, are the major explanation for the obtantion of
these results.

Conclusion

The positive effects of mannanoligosacharides have already


been proven in fish species. It is highly recommended to consider
the inclusion of these prebiotics as functional and natural
solutions for the design of health-promoting diets, as well as of
diets for early stages of fish production.
*Denji et al. Effect of dietary prebiotic mannan oligossacharide

Figure 1: Final body weight of rainbow trout fed different levels


of MOS

Figure 2: Feed conversion rate (FCR) of rainbow trout fed


different levels of MOS

(MOS) on growth performance, intestinal microflora, body


composition, haematological and serum biochemical parameters
of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) juvenile. Journal of
Fisheries and Aquatic Science, v. 10, p. 255-265, 2015.
References available upon request

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International Aquafeed - May | June 2016 | 41

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SALMONIDS

WAYS TO IMPROVE SALMONID DISEASE RESISTANCE

by Benedict Standen & Rui Gonalves, Biomin


ith an increasing pressure
to provide affordable
protein to an evergrowing population,
aquaculture practices
are expanding and
intensifying. High
stocking densities can
lead to animals becoming
stressed and immunocompromised, while also favoring the
proliferation of pathogens.

Unfortunately, disease outbreaks are inevitable and this


represents a major constraint for the sustainable development of
the industry. Nowhere is this more obvious than in high value
species, such as salmonids, where disease outbreaks can lead to
significant economic losses.
Salmon culture is often considered the holy grail of aquaculture.
Consequently, as an industry it has worked hard to reduce its
dependency on antibiotics, relying primarily on vaccination for
disease control. Although this approach has been effective, it
also has its limitations. This is especially true in cold water fish
because antibody production is temperature dependent: thus it can

Figure 1: Atlantic salmon with external appearance of a large furuncle under the skin (a). Insert shows open furuncle and (b) opened
peritoneal cavity of an Atlantic salmon with furunculosis showing extensive hemorrhaging in the peritoneal fat and wall (yellow arrows) and
within muscle (red arrow). SOURCE: www.agriculture.gov.au

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CROSS-CONTAMINATION
SALMONELLA
Figure 2: Survival of fish fed either a control diet, or diet
supplemented with Biotronic Top3 after A. salmonicida
challenge. Bars represent averages between three infection
routes, IP injection, immersion and cohabitation.

take a long time for fish to develop resistance through adaptive


mechanisms. The labour intensive and costly vaccination process
can also result in high levels of stress for fish.
The use of novel feed additives including enhanced acidifiers,
probiotics and yeast-based immunostimulants to provide
immediate prophylactic protection may comprise a less stressful
and more convenient alternative.

INCONSISTENCY
REGULATIONS

PATHOGENS

DOWNTIME

PROTECT YOURSELF
FROM THE ELEMENTS
PRODUCT CONSISTENCY
PROCESS FLEXIBILTY
VALIDATED KILL-STEP
FOOD SAFETY
VERIFIED EXTRUSION CERTIFICATION
SANITATION CONTROL

PLANT CERTIFICATION

MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Figure 3: Rainbow trout
with petechial lesions
around the operculum
(a) and the mouth and
tongue (b) after artificial
infection with Y. ruckeri.
Image (c) shows the
internal organs after
infection. Of particular
interest are the petechial
lesions on the pyloric
caeca (arrow) and the
blood filled intestine
(arrowhead).

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International Aquafeed - May | June 2016 | 43


ET-275C.indd 1

12/22/15 3:33 PM

Figure 4: Survival of fish fed either a control diet, or diet


supplemented with AquaStar Growout (low and high dose)
after Y. ruckeri challenge.

In the fish challenged by immersion, mortality remained


unchanged (approximately 30%) by dietary regime. In the
cohabitation infection route group, mortality was 10 percent in
control fish, while no mortalities were observed in fish treated
with Biotronic Top3 (Figure 2). Fish surviving the challenge
were examined for the presence of A. salmonicida using
microbiological and molecular methods.
Many of these fish tested positive for the pathogen, suggesting
that they might be asymptomatic carriers. The proportion of
carrier fish was lower in the Biotronic Top3 group (25%) when
compared with those that received a control diet without the
supplement (75%). These results suggest that Biotronic Top3
may help to provide protection against A. salmonicida and also
to reduce the spread of disease by removing the pathogen from
previously infected fish.

Probiotics

Figure 5: Survival of fish fed either a control diet, or diet


supplemented with Levabon Aquagrow after Y. ruckeri
challenge.

Acidifiers

Acidifiers represent an exciting approach to pathogen control.


Acidifiers have two modes of action; firstly in their dissociated
form they create a hostile environment for pathogens by lowering
the pH. Secondly, they can have a direct antimicrobial effect
by entering pathogenic cells. Once in the cytoplasm the acids
will dissociate, reducing cytoplasmic pH, disrupting protein and
enzyme synthesis and ultimately killing the pathogen from the
inside.
Biotronic Top3 (BIOMIN GmbH) is a commercial acid-based
product that contains a phytochemical component which prevents
bacterial pathogens from dividing, and also has a quorum
quenching effect by disrupting bacterial communication. In
order to improve the mode of action of the previous components,
Biotronic Top3 also includes a unique permeabilising complex
which weakens the cell wall of Gram-negative pathogens by
breaking down the lipopolysaccharide layer.
The efficacy of Biotronic Top3 in providing protection against
Aeromonas salmonicida in rainbow trout was assessed. Although
A. salmonicida infection is not unique to salmonids, it is the
etiological agent of furunculosis, a serious septicemic disease
which causes large losses within the salmonid industry (Figure
1). Rainbow trout were split into two triplicate treatments; a
control treatment fed a commercial diet and a test treatment
fed a commercial diet supplemented with Biotronic Top3
at a final dose of 0.8 g/kg. After 175 days, fish were exposed
to A. salmonicida via three routes of infection; challenge by
intraperitoneal (IP) injection, immersion and cohabitation. After
35 days the survival rates were assessed.
Unsurprisingly, IP injection caused the highest mortalities
when compared with other infection routes and the protective
effect of Biotronic Top3 was more pronounced in this group.
Rainbow trout in the control group showed 75 percent mortality,
significantly higher than the group receiving the Biotronic Top3
supplemented diet where mortality was just 30 percent.

Probiotics can also improve disease resistance in salmonids.


It is well known that probiotics, particularly lactic acid bacteria
(LAB), can inhibit pathogen growth directly via the production
of bacteriocins. In vitro trials demonstrate that the LAB strains
in AquaStar Growout (BIOMIN GmbH) can provide a broad
spectrum of antagonism against some of the most important
aquaculture pathogens including Aeromonas, Edwardsiella,
Streptococcus, Vibrio and Yersinia.
To investigate this effect in vivo, rainbow trout were split
into three treatments, control vs AquaStar Growout (at 2 g/
kg and 5 g/kg), fed for eight weeks and then subsequently
challenged with Yersinia ruckeri (via oral intubation). Y. ruckeri
is a Gram-negative pathogen which causes enteric red mouth
disease in salmonids (Figure 3). After two weeks the survival was
significantly higher (43% and 38%) in both AquaStar treatments
(low and high dose, respectively) when compared with the
control treatment (12%) (Figure 4).

Immune stimulation

While acidifiers, and to a certain extent probiotics, may improve


disease resistance by providing direct pathogen antagonism,
other feed additives may provide protection by stimulating the
hosts own immune system. For example, Levabon Aquagrow
E (BIOMIN GmbH) is an autolysed yeast product specifically
developed to bring immuno-modulatory benefits to aquatic
animals.
To test the effect on disease resistance, rainbow trout were split
into two treatments, control (basal diet) and a diet supplemented
with Levabon Aquagrow at 4 g/kg. After eight weeks of feeding
the experimental diets, fish were challenged with Y. ruckeri, via
immersion, at a dose of 1.6 x 104 CFU/ml. Dead and moribund
fish were monitored and after two weeks the survival rate was
calculated. In the unsupplemented control treatment, survival
was 68 percent, significantly lower than the Levabon Aquagrow
supplemented diets, where survival was 86 percent (Figure 5).

Conclusion

For some individuals, the issue of disease control in aquaculture


may appear as an insurmountable challenge. However, this
should be viewed as an opportunity to embrace and promote the
use of sustainable feed additives, such as enhanced acidifiers,
probiotics and immunostimulants. While the exact mechanisms
which underpin their effectiveness may still elude us, it is clear
that their use in aquafeeds can provide protection against a range
of pathogens, ultimately resulting in improved survival, improved
production and consequently higher profitability.

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