Matrices and Determinants

Matrices and Determinants
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics
Chapter 8
8.1
INTRODUCTION : MATRIX / MATRICES
8.2
SOME SPECIAL MATRIX
8.3
ARITHMETRICS OF MATRICES
8.4
INVERSE OF A SQUARE MATRIX
16
8.5
DETERMINANTS
19
8.6
PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS
8.7
INVERSE OF SQUARE MATRIX BY DETERMINANTS
21
27
Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page

8.1
INTRODUCTION : MATRIX / MATRICES
1. A rectangular array of mn numbers arranged in the form
a11 a12 a1n

a 21 a 22 a 2 n

a m1 a m2 a mn
is called an mn matrix.
2
e.g. 1 8 5 is a 23 matrix.
2
e.g. 7 is a 31 matrix.
3
2. If a matrix has m rows and n columns, it is said to be order mn.

2
e.g. 3
1
3 6
7 0 is a matrix of order 34.
2 5
0
4
9
1 0
e.g. 2 1
1 3
2
5 is a matrix of order 3.
0
3.
4.
b1
b2
is called a column matrix or column vector.

bn
a 2 a n is called a row matrix or row vector.
2
e.g. 7 is a column vector of order 31.
3
e.g. 2
is a row vector of order 13.
5. If all elements are real, the matrix is called a real matrix.
Page

6.
a11 a12
a 21 a 22

a n1 a n 2
a1n
a2 n
is called a square matrix of order n.

a nn
And a11 , a 22 , , a nn is called the principal diagonal.

3
e.g. 0 2 is a square matrix of order 2.
7. Notation : a
ij
8.2
m n
a
ij
m n
A , ...
SOME SPECIAL MATRIX.
Def.8.1 If all the elements are zero, the matrix is called a zero matrix or null matrix,
denoted by Om n .
e.g. 0 0 is a 22 zero matrix, and denoted by O2 .
Def.8.2 Let A a
(i) If a 0
(ii) If a 0
(iii) If a 0
ij
ij
ij
ij
be a square matrix.
for all i, j, then A is called a zero matrix.
for all i<j, then A is called a lower triangular matrix.
for all i>j, then A is called a upper triangular matrix.
n n
a11 a12 a1n

0 a 22
0 0
0 0 a nn
Upper triangular matrix
a11 0 0 0
a 21 a 22 0
a n1 a n 2 a nn
i.e.
Lower triangular matrix
1 0
e.g. 2 1
1 0
e.g. 0
0
0 is a lower triangular matrix.
4
3
5 is an upper triangular matrix.
Def.8.3 Let A a be a square matrix. If

diagonal matrix.
ij
n n
a ij 0
for all i j , then A is called a
Page

1
e.g. 0
0
0
3
0
0
0
4
is a diagonal matrix.
Def.8.4 If A is a diagonal matrix and a11 a 22 a nn 1 , then A is called an identity

matrix or a unit matrix, denoted by I n .
e.g.
1 0 0
1 0
I2
, I 3 0 1 0
0 1
0 0 1
8.3
ARITHMETRICS OF MATRICES.
Def.8.5 Two matrices A and B are equal iff they are of the same order and their
corresponding elements are equal.
i.e.
e.g.
a
4
N.B.
2 3 2 4
4 0 3 0
ij
m n
bij
m n
2
1 c
b
d 1
a ij bij
for all i , j .
a 1, b 1, c 2, d 4 .
2 1
2 3 1
and 3 0 1 0 4
1 4
Def.8.6 Let A a and B b .

Define A B as the matrix C c of the same order such that
c a b for all i=1,2,...,m and j=1,2,...,n.
ij
ij
m n
m n
ij
ij
e.g.
N.B.
ij
2.
Def.8.7 Let
e.g.1
ij
2 3 1 2
1 0 4 2
1.
m n
2
3
1
2
4
4 3
1 5
1
2 3 1
0
1 0 4 is not defined.
4
3
5 is not defined.
0
. Then A a
A a ij
ij
m n
m n
and A-B=A+(-B)
If A 1 0 2 and B 3 1 1 . Find -A and A-B.
Page

Thm.8.1
Properties of Matrix Addition.

Let A, B, C be matrices of the same order and O be the zero matrix of the
same order. Then
(a) A+B=B+A
(b) (A+B)+C=A+(B+C)
(c) A+(-A)=(-A)+A=O
(d) A+O=O+A
Def.8.8
Scalar Multiplication.
Let A a , k is scalar. Then kA is the matrix
ij
m n
cij kaij , i, j .
i.e.
e.g.
kA ka ij
If A 5
m n
defined by
m n
2
6 ,
then -2A=
N.B.
C cij
3
A
2
(1) -A=(-1)A
(2) A-B=A+(-1)B
Thm.8.2
Properties of Scalar Multiplication.

Let A, B be matrices of the same order and h, k be two scalars.
Then (a) k(A+B)=kA+kB
(b) (k+h)A=kA+hA
(c) (hk)A=h(kA)=k(hA)
A
a . The transpose of A, denoted by A T , or A , is

Def.8.9
Let
defined by
a11 a 21 a m1
a a am2
A T 12 22
a1n a 2 n a nm n m
ij
e.g.
m n
3 2
A
, then A T
5 6
Page
3
e.g. A 4
0 2
T
6 1 , then A
e.g.
A 5 ,
N.B.
(1) I T
(2) A a
then A T
ij
m n
, then A T
Thm.8.3
Properties of Transpose.
Let A, B be two mn matrices and k be a scalar, then
(a) ( A T ) T
(b) ( A B ) T
(c) (kA) T
Def.8.11
A square matrix A is called a symmetric matrix iff A T A .

i.e.
e.g.
1
3
1
3
3
0
e.g.
1
0
1
3
3
3
Def.8.12
A is symmetric matrix
1
0
6
1
0
6
A T A aij a ji i, j
is a symmetric matrix.
is not a symmetric matrix.
A square matrix A is called a skew-symmetric matrix iff A T A .

i.e. A is skew-symmetric matrix
e.g.2
0
3
A
Prove that
1
3
0
5
A T A aij a ji i, j
1
5 is a skew-symmetric matrix.
0
Page

e.g.3
Is aii 0 for all i=1,2,...,n for a skew-symmetric matrix?
Def.12 Matrix Multiplication.

Let A aik m n and B b
C c
where
kj
ij
n p
. Then the product AB is defined as the mp matrix
m p
cij ai 1b1 j ai 2 b2 j ain bnj aik bkj .

k 1
i.e.
e.g.4
AB
a
k 1
ik
bkj
2 1
3 0
A
Let
1 4
m p
and
3 2
2 3 1
B
1 0 4
. Find AB and BA.

23
Page

e.g.5
N.B.
Thm.8.4
2 1
3 0
A
Let
1 4
3 2
1 0
and B
2 1
. Find AB. Is BA well defined?

2 2
In general, AB BA .
i.e. matrix multiplication is not commutative.
Properties of Matrix Multiplication.
(a) (AB)C = A(BC)
(b) A(B+C) = AB+AC
(c) (A+B)C = AC+BC
(d) AO = OA = O
(e) IA = AI = A
(f) k(AB) = (kA)B = A(kB)
(g) ( AB ) T B T A T .
N.B.
(1) Since AB BA ;
Hence, A(B+C) (B+C)A and A(kB) (kB)A.
(2) A 2 kA A( A kI ) ( A kI ) A .
(3) AB AC O A(B C ) O
A O or B C O
e.g. Let A 0 0 , B 0 1 , C 1 0
1 0
0 0
0 0
Then AB AC 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0

0 0 0 0
0 0
But A O and B C,
so AB AC O A O or B C .
Page

Def.
Powers of matrices
For any square matrix A and any positive integer n, the symbol
A A A
A .
A n denotes n factors
N.B.
(1) ( A B ) 2 ( A B )( A B )
AA AB BA BB
A 2 AB BA B 2
(2) If AB BA , then ( A B ) 2 A 2 2 AB B 2
e.g.6
1 2
Let A 1 0
2 1
3
2 4 0 C 1 0
, B
,
2
3 1 1
1 1
1
2
D
and

0
Evaluate the following :

(a) ( A 2 B )C
(b) ( AC ) 2
(c) ( B T 3C ) T D
(d) ( 2 A ) T B DD T
Page

e.g.7
(a) Find a 2x2 matrix A such that

1
1 0
1 0
2 A 3
A
1 1
1 1 .
2
2
(b) Find a 2x2 matrix A such that

2 1
2 1
A T A and 3 0 A A 3 0 .
3 1 1
0 1
(c) If 1 1 x 0 x , find the values of x and .
Page
10

e.g.8
cos
sin
cos . Prove by mathematical induction that

cos n sin n
A n
for n = 1,2, .
[HKAL92] (3 marks)
sin n cos n
Let A sin
Page
11

e.g.9
(a) Let A 0 b where a , b R and a b .

a 1
a
n
Prove that A
a n bn
a b for all positive integers n.

bn
(b) Hence, or otherwise, evaluate
e.g.10
95
[HKAL95] (6 marks)
0 1 0
(a) Let A 0 0 1 and B be a square matrix of order 3. Show that if A
0 0 0
and B are commutative, then B is a triangular matrix.

(b) Let A be a square matrix of order 3. If for any x , y , z R , there exists R
A
such that
x
x
y y , show that A is a diagonal matrix.

z
z
(c) If A is a symmetric matrix of order 3 and A is nilpotent of order 2 (i.e. A 2 O ),

then A=O, where O is the zero matrix of order 3.
Page
12

Properties of power of matrices :

(1) Let A be a square matrix, then ( A n ) T ( A T ) n .
(2) If AB BA , then
(a) ( A B ) n A n C1n A n1 B C2n A n 2 B 2 C3n A n 3 B 3 Cnn1 AB n1 B n
(b) ( AB ) n A n B n .
(3) ( A I ) n A n C1n A n1 C2n A n 2 C3n A n 3 Cnn1 A Cnn I
e.g.11
(a) Let X and Y be two square matrices such that XY = YX.

(i) ( X Y ) 2 X 2 2 XY Y 2
Prove that
n
n
n r r
(ii) ( X Y ) Cr X Y for n = 3, 4, 5, ... .
r0
(Note: For any square matrix A , define A 0 I .)

1
(b) By using (a)(ii) and considering 0
0
1
0
2
1
0
4
3
2
1
0
(3 marks)
4
3 , or otherwise, find
100
(4 marks)
Page
13

(c) If X and Y are square matrices,

(i) prove that ( X Y ) 2 X 2 2 XY Y 2 implies XY = YX ;
(ii) prove that ( X Y ) 3 X 3 3 X 2 Y 3 XY 2 Y 3 does NOT
implies XY = YX .
(Hint : Consider a particular X and Y, e.g. X 1 0 , Y 0 0 .)

[HKAL90] (8 marks)
1 0
b 0
Page
14

8.4
INVERSE OF A SQUARE MATRIX
N.B.
(1) If a, b, c are real numbers such that ab=c and b is non-zero, then
a
c
cb 1
b
and b 1 is usually called the multiplicative inverse of b.
(2) If B, C are matrices, then
C
B
is undefined.
Def.
A square matrix A of order n is said to be non-singular or invertible if and only if

there exists a square matrix B such that AB = BA = I.
The matrix B is called the multiplicative inverse of A, denoted by A 1
i.e.
AA 1 A 1 A I .
3 5
2 5
e.g.12 Let A 1 2 , show that the inverse of A is 1 3 .
Page
15

i.e.
e.g.13 Is
Def.
2
2
2

1
5
3

1
.
5
If a square matrix A has an inverse, A is said to be non-singular or invertible.

Otherwise, it is called singular or non-invertible.
5
3 are both non-singular.
e.g.
3 5
2
and
1 2
1
i.e.
A is non-singular iff A 1 exists.
Thm.
The inverse of a non-singular matrix is unique.
N.B.
(1) I 1 I , so I is always non-singular.

(2) OA = O I , so O is always singular.
Page
16

(3) Since AB = I implies BA = I.

Hence proof of either AB = I or BA = I is enough to assert that B is the
inverse of A.
e.g.14 Let A 7 4 .
(a) Show that I 6 A A 2 O .
(b) Show that A is non-singular and find the inverse of A.
2 1
(c) Find a matrix X such that AX 1 0 .

1
Properties of Inverses
Thm.
Let A, B be two non-singular matrices of the same order and be a scalar.

(a) ( A1 )1 A .
Page
17

(b) A is a non-singular and ( A ) ( A ) .

T
(c) An is a non-singular and ( A n ) 1 ( A 1 ) n .

(d) A is a non-singular and (A)
A 1 .
(e) AB is a non-singular and ( AB) 1 B 1 A 1 .

Proof
Refer to Textbook P.228.
8.5
DETERMINANTS
Def.
Let A a be a square matrix of order n. The determinant of A, detA or |A| is

defined as follows:
ij
(a) If n=2, det A a11 a12 a11 a22 a12 a21

21
22
a11
det
A
a
(b) If n=3,
21
a31
a12
a22
a32
a13
a 23
a 33
or det A a11 a22 a33 a21 a32 a13 a31 a12 a23
a31 a22 a13 a32 a23 a11 a33 a21 a12
e.g.15 Evaluate
(a)
1
4
3
1
1
2
det
(b)
1
2
1
2
3
0
1
Page
18

e.g.16 If
N.B.
3
8
3
2
x
2
x
1 0,
0
a11
det A a21
a31
a11
or
a12
a22
a32
a22
a32
a12
find the value(s) of x.
a13
a 23
a 33
a23
a
a12 21
a33
a31
a21
a31
a23
a
a13 21
a33
a31
a23
a
a22 11
a33
a31
a22
a32
a13
a
a32 11
a33
a21
a13
a23
or . . . . . . . . .
By using
e.g.17 Evaluate
(a)
3
0
0
2
1
2
0
1
3
(b)
0
8
3
2
2
2
0
1
3
Page
19

8.6
PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS
a1
(1) a 2
a3
b1
b2
b3
c1 a1
c2 b1
c3 c1
a2
b2
c2
a3
b3
c3
a1
(2) a2
a3
b1
b2
b3
c1
b1
c2 b2
c3
b3
a1
a2
a3
c1 b1
c2 b2
c3 b3
c1
c2
c3
a1
a2
a3
a1
a2
a3
b1
b2
b3
c1
a2
c2 a1
c3
a3
b2
b1
b3
c2 a 2
c1 a3
c3 a1
b2
b3
b1
c2
c3
c1
a1
(3) a2
a3
0 c1
a1
0 c2 0 a 2
0 c3
0
a1
(4) a2
a3
a1
a2
a3
c1
a1
c2 0 a1
c3
a3
b1
b2
0
b1
b1
b3
a
1
a1 a2 a3
a
(5) If b b b , then 2
1
2
3
a3
a1 x1
(6) a2 x 2
a3 x 3
b1
b2
b3
c1 a1
c2 a 2
c3 a 3
b1
b2
b3
i.e. det( A T ) det A .
c1
c2
0
c1
c1
c3
b1
b2
b3
c1
c2 0
c3
c1 x1
c2 x 2
c3 x 3
b1
b2
b3
c1
c2
c3
Page
20

pa1
(7) pa2
pa3
b1
b2
b3
pa1
pa 2
pa3
N.B.
c1
a1
c2 p a 2
c3
a3
pb1
pb2
pb3
b1
b2
b3
c1
a1
c2 pa2
c3
a3
pc1
a1
3
pc2 p a2
pc3
a3
b1
b2
b3
b1
pb2
b3
c1
pc2
c3
c1
c2
c3
pa1 pb1 pc1

a1 b1 c1
(1) pa2 pb2 pc2 p a2 b2 c2
pa3 pb3 pc3

a3 b3 c3
(2) If the order of A is n, then det(A) n det( A)
a1
(8) a2
a3
b1
b2
b3
c1 a1 b1
c2 a2 b2
c3 a3 b3
N.B.
x1
x2
x3
y1
y2
y3
c1
c2
c3
z1
x1 y1 z1
C2 C3 C1
z2
x y 2 z2
2
z3
x 3 y 3 z 3
e.g.18 Evaluate
e.g.19 Evaluate
b1
b2
b3
(a)
1
1
1
a
b
c
1
0
6
2
4
7
0
5
8
(b)
5
3
7
y1
y2
y3
3
7
2
z1
z2
z3
7
5
6
b c
ca
ab
Page
21

e.g.20 Factorize the determinant

x
y
xy
y
xy
x
xy
x
y
e.g.21 Factorize each of the following :

(a)
a3
a
1
b3
b
1
2a 3
(b) a 2
1 a3
c3
c
1
2b 3
b2
1 b3
[HKAL91] (4 marks)
2c 3
c2
1 c3
Page
22

Def.
Multiplication of Determinants.
a
Let A a11
21
a12
a 22 ,
b11
b21
b12
b22
a12 b11 b12

a 22 b21 b22
a b a12 b21 a11b12 a12 b22
11 11
a21b11 a 22 b21 a 21b12 a 22 b22
Then A B a11
21
Properties :
Page
23

(1) det(AB)=(detA)(detB)
i.e.
(2) |A|(|B||C|)=(|A||B|)|C|
N.B.
A(BC)=(AB)C
(3) |A||B|=|B||A|
N.B.
ABBA in general
(4) |A|(|B|+|C|)=|A||B|+|A||C|
N.B.
A(B+C)=AB+AC
e.g.22 Prove that a2

a
1
b
b2
AB A B
1
c (a b)( b c)( c a )
c2
Page
24

Minors and Cofactors
a11 a12 a13

Let A a 21 a 22 a 23 , then
a 31 a 32 a 33
Def.
A11
Since
a 22
a 32
a 23
a
A12 21
,
a 33
a 31
A a 21
a12
a 32
a13
a 33
Aij
, the cofactor of
a 23
a
A33 11
,
...
,
a 33
a 21
a
+ a 22 a11
31
a ij
, is defined by
a12
a 22 .
a13
a
a 23 11
a 33
a 31
a12
a 32
a21 A21 a22 A22 a23 A23
Thm.
(a)
det A if i j
a i1 A j1 a i 2 A j 2 a i 3 A j 3
if i j
0
(b)
a1i A1 j a2 i A2 j a3i A3 j
e.g. a11 A11 a12 A12 a13 A13

a11 a12
e.g.23 Let A a 21 a 22
a 31 a 32
det A if i j
if i j
0
det A , a11 A21 a12 A22 a13 A23 0 , etc.
a13
a 23 and
a 33
cij
be the cofactor of
a ij
, where
1 i, j 3.
c11 c21 c31

(a) Prove that A c12 c22 c32 (det A) I
c13 c23 c33

c11
(b) Hence, deduce that c12
c13
c21
c22
c23
c31
c32 (det A) 2
c33
Page
25

8.7
INVERSE OF SQUARE MATRIX BY DETERMINANTS
Def.
A11
The cofactor matrix of A is defined as cofA A21
A31
Def.
A12
A22
A32
A13
A23 .
A33
The adjoint matrix of A is defined as

A11 A21 A31
T
adjA ( cofA) A12 A22 A32 .
A13 A23 A33
e.g.24 If A c d , find adjA.

a
e.g.25
1 1
1 2
A
(a) Let
1 1
3
0 , find adjA.
3 2
(b) Let B 1 1
5 1
1
1 , find adjB.
1
Page
26

Thm.
For any square matrix A of order n ,

A(adjA) = (adjA)A = (detA)I
a11 a12 a1n

a a a
2n
A( adjA) 21 22
an1 an2 ann
A11
A
12

A1n
A21 An1
A22 An2
A2 n Ann
Page
27

Thm.
Let A be a square matrix. If detA 0 , then A is non-singular

and A1
1
adjA .
det A
Proof
Let the order of A be n , from the above theorem ,
e.g.26
3 2
Given that A 1 1
5 1
1
AadjA I
det A
1
1 , find A 1 .
e.g.27 Suppose that the matrix A c d is non-singular , find A 1 .

a
Page
28

e.g.28 Given that A 1 2 , find A 1 .

3 5
Thm.
A square matrix A is non-singular iff detA 0 .
e.g.29 Show that A 1 2 is non-singular.

3 5
Page
29

e.g.30
x 1 2 x 1
x 1 2 1 , where x R .
A
Let
7 x
5
(a) Find the value(s) of x such that A is non-singular.

(b) If x=3 , find A 1 .
N.B.
A is singular (non-invertible) iff A 1 does not exist.
Thm.
A square matrix A is singular iff detA = 0.
Page
30

Properties of Inverse matrix.

Let A, B be two non-singular matrices of the same order and be a scalar.
(1)
(A ) 1
A 1
(2) ( A 1 ) 1 A
(3)
( A T ) 1 A 1
(4)
( A n ) 1 A 1
for any positive integer n.
(5) ( AB ) 1 B 1 A 1
(6) The inverse of a matrix is unique.
(7) det( A 1 )
N.B.
1
det A
XY 0
X 0 or Y 0
(8) If A is non-singular , then AX 0 A 1 AX A0 0

X 0
N.B.
XY XZ
X 0 or Y Z
(9) If A is non-singular , then AX AY A 1 AX A 1 AY

X Y
(10) ( A 1 MA) n ( A 1 MA)( A 1 MA ) ( A 1 MA)
a
a 0 0
1
0
b
0
(11) If
, then M 0
0 0 c
0
a
a 0 0
n
(12) If M 0 b 0 , then M 0
0 0 c
0
e.g.31
0
b 1
0
A 1 M n A
0
0 .
c 1
0 0
b n 0 where n 0 .
0 cn
1
4 1 0
1 3
1 0 0
4 and M 0 1 0 .
Let A 1 3 1 , B 0 13
0 3 1
0 33 10
0 0 2
(a) Find A 1 and M 5 .

(b) Show that ABA 1 M .
(c) Hence, evaluate B 5 .
Page
31

e.g.32 Let A 1 5 and P 1

(a) Find P 1 AP .
3 8
1 .
(b) Find A n , where n is a positive integer. [HKAL94] (6 marks)
Page
32

e.g.33 (a) Show that if A is a 3x3 matrix such that A t A , then detA=0.
1
2
74
(b) Given that B
2
1
67
74
67 ,
use (a) , or otherwise , to show det( I B ) 0 .

Hence deduce that det( I B 4 ) 0 .
[HKAL93] (7 marks)
e.g.34 (a) If , and are the roots of

roots are
2 , 2 and
(b) Solve the equation
x
2
2
2
x
3
x 3 px q 0 ,
find a cubic equation whose
.
3
3 0
x
Hence, or otherwise, solve the equation

x 3 38x 2 361x 900 0 .
[HKAL94] (6 marks)
Page
33

a11 a12
M ,
a21 a22
e.g.35 Let M be the set of all 2x2 matrices. For any A

define tr ( A ) a11 a22 .
(a) Show that for any A, B, C M and , R,

(i) tr (A B ) tr ( A) tr ( B ) ,
(ii) tr ( AB ) tr ( BA) ,
(iii) the equality tr ( ABC ) tr ( BAC ) is not necessary true.
(5 marks)
(b) Let A M.
(i) Show that A 2 tr ( A) A (det A) I ,
where I is the 2x2 identity matrix.
(ii) If tr ( A 2 ) 0 and tr ( A) 0 , use (a) and (b)(i) to show that
A is singular and A 2 0 .
(5 marks)
(c) Let S, T M such that ( ST TS ) S S ( ST TS ) .
Page
34

Using (a) and (b) or otherwise, show that

( ST TS ) 2 0
[HKAL92] (5 marks)
Page
35

e.g.36 Eigenvalue and Eigenvector
3 1
0 and let x denote a 2x1 matrix.
Let A 2
(a) Find the two real values 1 and 2 of with 1 > 2

such that the matrix equation
Ax x
(*)
has non-zero solutions.
(b) Let x1 and x2 be non-zero solutions of (*) corresponding to
1 and 2 respectively. Show that if
x
x
x1 11 and x2 12
x21
x22
x11 x12
is non-singular.
x21 x22
then the matrix X
1 0
0 2
(c) Using (a) and (b), show that AX X
1 n 0 1
and hence A X
where n is a positive integer.
n X
0 2
n
Evaluate
[HKAL82]
Page
36

Matrices and Determinants

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Matrices and Determinants

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Matrices and Determinants

Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

Advanced Level Pure Mathematics