SIMPLE MACHINE

1.0 Machine: A machine is a device used to receive energy in some form and convert it into some useful work.
1.1 Simple Machines: Simple machine is a device Used to lift heavier loads by exerting smaller efforts.
E.g., Lever, inclined planes, pulleys, wheel and axle, screw jack etc.,
1.2 input of Machine: The work done on the machine by the effort is known as input of machine.It is the product of
effort and distance moved by the effort.
Input of the machine = P x Y
1.3 Output of Machine: The actual-work done by the machine in lifting the load is called output of a machine. It is
equal to the product of the load and the distance moved by the load.
Output of the machine = W x X
1.4 Velocity Ratio: It is the ratio of distance moved by the effort to the distance moved by the load in a given time is
called the velocity ratio.
Velocity Ratio (V.R) =

distance moved by the effort

distance moved by the load

Y
X

1.5 Mechanical Advantage: The ratio of load (w) to effort (p) is called mechanical advantage:
Mechanical Advantage (MA) =

Load
Effort

W
= P

1.6 Efficiency of a Machine: It is defined as the ratio of work done by the machine to the energy supplied to
machine.
=

Output Wx M . A
=
=
Input
Py V . R

Where x = distance moved by load

y = distance moved by effort

1.7 Ideal machine: If there is no friction in the machine, then the output of a machine is equal to the input.Such
machine is called as an Ideal rnachine.
=

M.A
=1
V .R

The efficiency of Ideal machine is 10017

1.8 Reversible and Irreversible Machine: A machine is said to be a reversible machine, if it is capable of doing the
work in reverse direction after the effort is removed. The efficiency should be more than 50%.

A machine that is not capable of doing any work in the reverse direction after the effort is removed is called a
self-locking (or) Irreversible machine, for self locking machine its efficiency should not be more than 50%.

1.9 Law of Machine: It gives the relationship between the load lifted and the effort applied. It is given by P = mw+ c
Where 'c' is the minimum effort required to operate the machine and is equal to the frictional effort.

For Ideal machine C is equal to zero.

Ideal machine MA is equal to 1/m and maximum efficiency of lifting machine is

1
m x VR

2.0 Levers: A lever is rigid bar capable of rotating about a fixed point is called fulcrum. The purpose of lever is to left
heavier loads by applying a smaller effort.
2.1 Types of levers: Levers are three kinds.

A lever of the first kind or class consists of a fulcrum which is situated between the Weight and effort.
M.A can be less than, equal to, or more than 1.0 for a first-order lever.
Examples of first order lever crow bar, scissors, beam of Common balance, cutting pliers, see-saw etc.
A lever of the second kind consists of a weight situated in between the fulcrum and the effort.
In second class lever effort arm is more than load arm. M A is always greater than one.
Example of second order lever is Nut cracker, wheel barrow, lemon squeezer, foot bellows, punching machine
etc.
A lever of the third kind consists of an effort situated in between the fulcrum and the weight
in third class lever load arm is more than effort arm. MA is always less than one.
Examples for third order lever are, Human fore arm, fire tongs, nail cutter, forceps, stapler etc.,

3.0 Inclined Plane: An inclined plane is a smooth plane inclined at a certain angle ' ' with the horizontal.

1
sin

effort is parallel to plane M.A =

1
* The effort is parallel to base M.A = tan

4.0 Velocity ratio of a few simple machines:

D
d

Simple wheel and axle, VR =

2D
Wheel and differential axles, VR = d 1d 2

I system of pulleys; VR =2n

II system of pulleys ; VR = n

III system of pulleys VR =2n-1

'D' is dia. of wheel, d-= dia. of axle.

d1= dia. of bigger axle, d2= dia. of smaller axle.
n = no. of moving pulleys.
lz
Worm and- worm wheel VR = r n

l = Length of effort handle, r = radius of load drum, z = no. of teeth on worm wheel, n = multiplicity of threa

Screw Jack VR =

2 L
l

L = Length of effort handle, L = np = lead of screw, n = thread multiplicity, p = pitch of threads

Rack and pinion;

VR =

2 L
ZP

P = Pitch, I = length of handle, Z= no of teeth on pinion

5.0 Screw Jack: Screw Jack works on the principle of inclined plane. It is used to lift the vehicles up for repairs and
also for change of tyres and to lift heavy loads.

The screw threads follow a helix with helix angle . Helix angle tan = P/d
Effort (p) required to lift a load (w) is given by P = W Tan ( + ), where is angle of friction.
tan
efficiency of the screw jack is = tan ( + )

The maximum efficiency of a screw jack is given by max =

1sin
1+ sin

Efficiency of a screw jack is independent of the load lifted or the effort applied.
Screw jack is a self locking machine and square thread is used in a screw jack.

REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

1.0 Refrigeration: It is the process of removing heat from a body and maintaining the temperature of body is lower
than that of its surroundings.
1.1 Heat pump: It is a machine, which extracts heat from a cold body delivers it to a hot body.
Refrigerator: It is a storage chamber, in which the heat pump works and keeps it cool.
1.2 Refrigerant: It is a substance which works in a heat pump to extract heat from a cold body and to deliver it to a
hot body.
1.3 Capacity of refrigerator: It is the rate at which heat can extracted from the cold body. This rate is expressed in
tonne of refrigeration.
1.4 Units of Refrigeration: A tonne of refrigeration is equal to the amount of refrigeration produced by the melting
of 1 tonne of ice in 24 hours.
When one tonne i.e. 1000 kg ice melts 24 hours, it produces a cooling effect at the rate of 210 KJ/min or 50 cal/min.
1.5 Coefficient of performance: The Coefficient of performance (C.O.P) is the ratio of heat extracted in the
refrigerator to the work done on the refrigerant.
COP =

Heat Extracted
Work done

Actual COP
Relative COP = Theoritical COP

The coefficient of performance is the reciprocal of the efficiency of a heat engine.

The value of C.O.P is always greater than unity.
2.0 Methods of Refrigeration:

2.1 Dry- Ice Refrigeration: Solid carbon dioxide is known as dry ice. It can be pressed into thin slabs or flakes. Dry
ice absorbs heat if flakes are placed in a container during transportation over a long period.
2.2 Air Refrigeration: This method involves compression and subsequent expansion of air. Thigh pressure is
allowed to expand adiabatically its temperature falls. The cool air is circulated in a cold chamber to remove the heat
of products placed in it.

Air refrigeration system is largely used in air conditioning system of air crafts.
Air refrigeration system works on reverted Joule's cycle or Bell Coleman cycle.
Air refrigeration has limited used because of low C.O.P and bulky equipment.

2.3 Vapour Compression Refrigeration System: It is a type of a mechanical refrigeration system in which a suitable
working substance, termed as refrigerant is used.

The refrigerant used, does not leave the system, but is circulated throughout the system alternately condensing
and evaporating.
Vapour Compression refrigeration system consists of four basic components namely Compressor, Condenser,
Expansion Valve and evaporator.

Operation of Vapour Compression Refrigeration System

Compression process: .The dry state vapour at a low pressure is sucked from the evaporator during the suction
stroke of the compressor than the vapour is compressed to higher pressure and temperature.
Condensation process: The vapour under high pressure is delivered to the condenser. The vapour is condensed into
liquid form in the condenser using cooling medium such as water.
Throttling Process: high pressure liquid is expanded to evaporator pressure through a throttle valve.
Evaporation Process: The wet vapour of throttling passes through evaporator coils and absorbs heat from products
and gets evaporated.
* The condition of refrigerant in a cycle:
Before Compressor Low pressure dry saturated vapour

After Compressor

high pressure & high temperature vapour

After Condenser

high pressure liquid

After Expansion

valve low pressure wet vapour

The highest temperature occurs at compressor discharge.

The lowest temperature occurs after Expansion Valve.
In vapour compression refrigeration system, the refrigerant rejects heat in condenser.
Accumulator is placed in Vapour Compression refrigeration system between Evaporator and Compressor.
Accumulator is a device that drops liquid particles if present in vapour refrigerant leaving the evaporator.
The moisture in a refrigerant is removed by driers.
Drier is installed between condenser and Expansion valve. Driers are also Called Dehydrates.
A flash chamber is used in between the expansion valve and evaporator' td remove the flashed refrigerant,

Strainers are used to remove any foreign Matter from refrigerant.

Evaporative condensers are used when the water supply is limited. E.g. Ice plants, theatre air conditioning etc
Expansion devices-are used to regulate the flow of refrigerant.
2.4 Vapour absorption Refrigeration System : The idea of a vapour absorption refrigerator is to avoid compression of
the refrigerant.

A vapour absorption refrigeration system consists of evaporator, absorber, generator, condenser, Expansion valve
and a pump.
In a vapour absorption system two working fluids are employed, a refrigerant and an absorbent.
Most commonly Ammonia is used as refrigerant and water as absorbent It is also known as .aqua-ammonia.
The system is quiet in operation since absence of compressor.
Energy input generator is mainly heat which is a low grade energy,

2.3- Electrolux refrigerator:

There are no moving parts in Electrolux system. The pump may be omitted by the introduction of hydrogen into
the low pressure side.

The Electrolux refrigerator works on three fluids, (1) ammonia as a refrigerant (ii) Water as an absorbent and (iii)
Hydrogen as a pumping agent.
3.0 Refrigerants:
*A refrigerant is any substance which acts as a cooling agent by absorbing heat from another substance. It is a
working agent employed in a refrigeration system.
3.1 Properties of a refrigerant: An Ideal refrigerant should have the following properties.
* Low boiling and low freezing point.

* Stable over a wide range of pressures and temperatures.

*Height latent heat of vapourisation.

' Non toxic, Non flammable and non explosive.

Non Corrosive to metal.

* Low-specific heat in liquid state.

Refrigerants are classified into (a) Primary Refrigerants (b) Secondary Refrigerants
Primary Refrigerant: It is that which cools the substance by absorbing heat equal to its latent heat from them.
R717 Ammonia (NH)

Boiling point (BP) is -33 C and freezing point is - 78 C

Toxic, slightly explosive and inflammable,
Ammonia should be used with Steel pipes and never with copper, Brass or their alloys.
Extensively used in cold storages, ice plants, food refrigeration plants etc..
R744 Carbon dioxide (CO2):

Boiling point is - 78 C and freezing point is - 57C.

Colourless, non-to and non-flammable.
Non explosive and non-corrosive.

Used in marine application and as dry ice.

heavier working parts needed becaute of high- operating pressure&

R764 Sulphurdioxide (SO2):

* Boiling point is - 10-C and-freezing point is - 75.5 C..
* Non-flammable, non explosive and highly toxic .
* Works at low pressures.
R-11 (freon 11) Trichloro fluoro Methane (CCl3F)
* Boiling point is - 24 C and freezing point is -111 C.
* non toxic, non-flammable-and non-corrosive.
It is used with centrifugal compressors.
It is used in 50 tonnes capacity air conditioning plants.
R - 12 (freon - 12) Dichloro Difluro methane (C Cl2 F2)
Boiling point is - 30 C and freezing point is - 158C.
Non-toxic, non-flammable and non-explosive.
Used in domestic applications and water coolers.
it is corrosive to magnesium or aluminum.
R - 22 (freon-22) Chlorodifluoro Methane (CH Cl2 F2)

Boiling point is - 40.76 C and freezing point is - 16.0 C

Used with reciprocating compressor in large units such as package units and central air conditioning plants.
Azerotropes:

These are the mixtures of different halocarbons which behave like a compound.
R-500 is a mixture of 73.8% of R-12 and 26.2% of R-152.
R-501 is a mixture of R-22 and R-12 (75% + 25%)

R729Air:

Boiling point is - 194 C and critical temperature is - 140 C

Harmless, freely-available.
Equipment becomes bulky..
3.0 Air Conditioning:
Air conditioning is defined as the simultaneous control of temperature, humidity, air circulation and cleanliness of air
within an enclosed space.

Psychrometer: Psychrometer is the stud of properties of mixture of air and water vapour. It is also called
Hygrometer.
Dry Air: Dry Air is a mechanical mixture of constituent gases which comprise atmospheric air excluding water
vapour.
Moist Air: Moist air is a mixture of dry air and water vapour. Water vapour in air is 'usually called moisture.
Humidity: The water vapour that is contained in or mixed with atmospheric air is the humidity.
Relative Humidity- : it is the ratio of mass of water vapour in a given volume of air to the mass of water vapour
required to saturate the same volume of air at the same temperature.
Absolute Humidity: Absolute humidity is the amount of water vapour present per unit volume of air.
Dry bulb Temperature (DDT): It is the temperature indicated by ordinary thermometer and is the direct measure of
sensible heat present in air.
Wet bulb Temperature (WBT): It is temperature indicated by thermometer whose glass bulb is\ covered by a piece
of wet cloth: It is a measure of enthalpy of air.
Humidification: Humidification is adding moisture to air keeping its DBT constant.
Dehumidification: Dehumidification is removal of moisture at constant DBT.

Cooling and dehumidification is usually done in summer air conditioning.

Heating and humidification is usually done in winter air conditioning.
Human Comfort:

Human comfort is mainly dependent on four factors namely (i) temperature (ii) humidity (iii) movement of air
(iv) Purity of air.
* Human comfort conditions maintained by summer and winter air-conditioning system are (25. 1 C), (50+ 5%)
R H and (21 1 C), 50% RH (30% min) respectively.

THERMODYNAMICS

1.0 Review of fundamentals :

1.1Temperature: It is defined as the degree of hotness or the level of heat intensity of a body. A hot body as a higher
temperature and cold body as the lower temperature. Temperature of a body is measured in different scale.
Conversion between various scales of temperature

C
100 =

F32
180

K 273
100

C= temperature in Celsius, F = Temperature in Fahrenheit, K= Temperature in

Kelvin.. _
At reading - 40 both centigrade and Fahrenheit gives same readings Thermometers and their ranges:

Mercury glass thermometer based on the expansion of mercury with increase of temperature. Its approximate
range is from 35 C to 350 C.
Alcohol in glass thermometer is used for measuring temperature range is from - 80 C to 70 C.
Pentane is used in glass thermometer range is from - 200 C to 30 C.
Constant volume gas thermometer is suitable for measuring temperatures in-the range from -269 C to-1600 C
Electrical thermometers are used to measure both low and high temperatures in the range from - 272 C to 1600 C
Pyrometer are used for measuring hi temperatures usually move 500 C.
Thermocouple thermometer can be used for measurement of a rapidly changing temperature. Approximate range is
from -250 C to 500C. .
Absolute Scale: A scale with - 273 C as zero and the magnitude of degree same as that of the centigrade scale is
called the absolute scale or Kelvin scale of temperature. It is denoted by 'K'.
K = C + 273
Absolute Zero: It is the temperature of - 273 c at which the pressure and volume of a perfect gas becomes zero.,
1.2 Pressure: defined as force per unit area.
Units in mks is kgf/cm2 (or) kg/cm2 PSI= Pascal N/m2, (used for very small unit), or bar,
1 bar = 105 N/m2= 100 KN/m2 =100 K Pa.
Pressures also stated in mm or cm of mercury
Barometer is an instrument used for measuring atmospheric pressure.
Manometer is an instrument used for measuring low pressure.
Atmospheric Pressure (Pat ) : This is the pressure exerted by air. Its value at mean sea level is 1.033 Kg/cm2 (or)
1.013 bar (or) barometric height of 760 mm of mercury.
Absolute Pressure (Pabs): Absolute zero of pressure will Occurs when molecular momentum is zero. Such a situation
can occur only when there is a perfect vacuum. The pressure measured from this level is called absolute pressure.
Gauge Pressure (Pg) : Instruments and gauges used to measure the value of pressure, actually measure difference
between the fluid pressure and the pressure of fluid (generally air) surrounding the gauge.
P = Pabs - Patm
Vacuum Pressure (P.): When the pressure of fluid is less than atmospheric pressure. The gauge reads on the negative
side of atmospheric pressure. This pressure is known as vacuum.
P=Patm - Pabs
1.3 Heat: heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred by virtue of temperature difference.
*Units in Mks = Cal (or) Kcal, S.1= J (or) K.J

Calorie: The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gm of water from 143 C to 15.5C
1 Cal = 4.2 J
Heat received or rejected by a body: The amount of beat received or rejected by a working body during the process
of heating or cooling is given by
Q=mc (T2-T1)
Where Q = heat gained or lost by the body in Kcal
m = mass of the body in kg. (T2-T1) = Temperature rise of body C or K.
C = Specific heat of substance Kcal/kg k.
1.4 Specific heat: Defined as the amount of heat required to rise temperature of a unit mass of any substance through
1.
Specific heat at constant pressure Cp : The amount of heat required to raise temperature of a unit mass of any
substance through 1 at constant pressure is called specific heat at constant pressure.
Specific heat at constant volume Cv : The amount of heat required to raise temperature of a unit mass of any
substance through 1 at constant volume is called specific at constant volume.
Cp for air = 0:24 Kcal/kg K. Cv for air = 0.17 Kcal/kg K. The ratio of Cp/Cv is called adiabatic index (r) for air r =
1.4
1.5 Mechanical equivalent of heat: The relation between the unit of work. This relation is denoted by "J' and is
known as Joule's equivalent or mechanical equivalent of heat. Q = W/J,

J = 427 kg kcal

2.0 Laws of perfect gases :

2.1 Boyle's Law : Temperature being constant, pressure of a certain mass of gas is inversely proportional to its
volume.
P

1
V

P1 V1 = P2 V2

2.2 Charle's Law: Pressure being constant, volume of a certain mass of a gas is directly proportional to absolute
temperature.
V T

V1 V2
=
T 1 T2

2.3 Gay Lussac Law: Volume being constant pressure of a certain mass of a gas is directly proportional to absolute
temperature
P T

P1 P2
=
T1 T 2

2.4 Avagadro's Law: Under identical conditions of pressure and temperature equal volume of all gases contain same
number of molecules.
One kg molecules of any gas at NTP occupies 22.4 m3 of volume and it contains 6x1023 molecules.
General gas equation: Both Boyle's law and Charles law are combined together, which gives a general gas equation.
P1 V 1 P2 V 2
=
T1
T2
Characteristic equation of gas: It is modified form of general gas equation,
PV = MRT
R is known as characteristic gas constant. gas constant for air = 29.27 kg m/kg K in MKS
R= 0.287 KJ/kg K in SI
2:6 Universal gas constant (or) molar constant : It is the product of the gas constant and the molecular weight of the
gas.
Ru= MR

Where Ru is universal gas constant

M is molecular weight of the gas (kg. mole)

R is gas constant
The characteristic gas equation may be written in terms of molecular weight as PV = RT
The value of Ru is same for all gases.
The value of universal gas constant = 848 kg ml kg. m/kg.mole/K in MKS
Ru = 8.314 KJ/kg mole K in SI
2.7 Joule's Law: Internal energy of a gas is a function of temperature only and is independent of change in pressure
and volume.
Change in internal energy is proportional to change in temperature.
3.0 Latent Heat: The amount of heat absorbed during a change of state without rise in temperature is called Latent
Heat.
Latent heat of fusion of ice: The latent heat of fusion of ice is the amount of heat required to amen unit mass of ice
at 0 C into the water at 0 C. Value of latent heat of fusion of ice (L)
CGS System = 80 cal/gm

S. I System = 340 x 103 J/kg

Latent heat of Steam (or) Vapourisation of water: The latent heat of steam is the amount of heat required to
convert unit mass of water at 100 C into steam at 100 C.
Latent heat of steam in CGS system = 540 cal/gm
SI system = 2.26 x 106 J/kg
4.0 Thermodynamic Systems:

System is defined as a quantity of matter or region under study.

Surroundings: Everything external to the system is called surroundings.
Boundary: The system is separated from the surroundings is boundary.
Open System: Both mass and energy transfer take place across the system.
Closed system: Is a constant mats system, across the boundary of which only energy transfer take place.
Isolated System: Is a one in which there is no interaction either of energy or mass with the surroundings.
4.1 Thermodynamic Properties:
Intensive properties: There are independent of the mass in the system.
Examples Pressure, temperature, density etc.,
Extensive properties: These properties are related to Mass. If mass is increased, the value of the extensive properties
also increase.
Examples: Volume, weight, enthalpy, entropy, internal energy.
5.0 Laws of Thermodynamics:
5.1 Zeroth law of Thermodynamics: When two bodies are in thermal equilibrium separately with a third body then
they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other. It is the basis of temperature measurement.
5.2 First law of thermodynamics- : When a system executes a cyclic process, the algebraic sum of work transfer is
equal to algebraic sum of heat transfer (or) the heat and Mechanical work are mutually convertible.
53 Second law of Thermodynamics : Kelvin plank statement "It is impossible to construct an engine working on a
cyclic process, whose sole purpose is to convert all the heat supplied to it into equivalent work".
Clausius statement "Heat does not flow from a body at lower temperature to a body a higher temperature without any
external agency.
5.4 Thermodynamic processes:

Heat transferred during a constant volume process is equal to change in internal energy and work done is zero.
Internal energy and temperature of a substance is Constant in an Isothermal process.
In a adiabatic process the system will not have any heat exchange with the surrounding.
Work done by the throttling or free expansion process is always zero.

Efficiency of heat engine:

Q1Q2
Q
=1 2
Q1
Q1

Where Q1 is the heat absorbed by engine from source. Q2 is the quantity of heat rejected to the Sink.

For cannot engine working between temperature T1 and T the efficiency is given by

T 1T 2
T
=1 2
T1
T1

6.0 Fuels and Combustion:

6.1 Fuel : A fuel may be defined as substance (containing mostly carbon and hydrogen) which on burning with
oxygen in the atmospheric air, produces a large amount of heat. -

Wood, peat, lignite, bituminous and anthracite coals are natural, solid fuels, coke, charcoal and pulverized coal
are artificial solid fuels.
Crude Oil is a natural liquid fuel, here gasoline, kerosene, paraffin and heavy oils are artificial liquid fuels.
Natural gas is a natural gaseous fuel, coal gas, producer gas and mond gases are artificial gaseous fuel
6.2 Higher (or) Gross Calorific value: Heat liberated by unit mass or unit volume of fuel when burned completely
and products are cooled down to atmospheric temperature is called higher calorific value.

Higher calorific value of wild or liquid fuel can be determined by Bomb Calorimeter. The Combustion of fuel
takes place at constant volume in it.
Junkers gas calorimeter is used to determine higher calorific value of gaseous fuel.

6.3 Lower Calorific Value: When the heat absorbed or carried away by the products of combustion is not recovered
and steam formed during combustion is not considered, then the amount of heat obtained per kg of the fuel is known
as lower or net calorific value.

6.4 Combustion of fuels:

One kg of carbon requires 8/3 kg of Oxygen for complete combustion and produces 11/3 kg of carbon dioxide.
One kg of Carbon requires 4/3 kg of Oxygen and to produces 7/3 kg of carbon monoxide.
One kg of hydrogen requires 8 kg, of Oxygen and produces 9 kg of water or steam.
1 kg of methane requires 4 kg of Oxygen and produces 1/4 kg of carbon dioxide and 9/4 kg of water (or) steam.
1 m3 of Carbon requires 1 m3 of Oxygen and produces 1 m3 of carbon dioxide.
The Volumetric analysis of dry fuel gases may experimentally be obtained by Orsat apparatus.
Atmospheric air consists of 23% Oxygen and 77% Nitrogen, by weight and 21% Oxygen and 79% nitrogen by
volume.
Petrol is distilled at temperature -65 to 220 C and Kerosene is distilled at 220 c to 345 C

Bituminous coal has the highest calorific value.

Transmission of heat:
Heat: Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred by virtue of temperature difference. Heat always flow
from a body at higher temperature to a body at lower temperature. This transmission of heat follows three methods.
They are
Conduction: The transmission of heat in a body without movement of its particles. E.g. In solids
Convection: The transmission of heat from one part to another in a body by the actual movement of its particles is
called convection. E.g. In liquids and gases heat flow by the method.

Radiation: The transmission of heat from one place to another without any material or medium in between is called
radiation.
E.g. Earth receives heat from the Sun.
7.2 Thermal Conductivity:-The amount of heat "Q' transmitted by conduction in a body is
Q=

KA ( T 1T 2 ) x t
L

T T
Where 'A' is the cross sectional area, ( 1 2 ) is the temperature difference between the two faces.
'L is the length of the rod. t time of flow of heal ,'K' is the coefficient of thermal conductivity (or) Thermal
conductivity of the material.
Units C.G.S : Cal/s.cm/K

S.I: J/sm/ k (or) w/m K

7.3 Absorption of Heat: When radiant heat is incident on the surface of a body, a part of it is absorbed and the
remaining part is reflected. The process in which heat is absorbed by a body is called absorption of heat.
7.4 Absorptive Power: The absorptive power of a surface is the ratio of the amount of heat absorbed by a surface to
the amount of heat incident on it.
7.5 Reflecting Power: It is the ratio Of the amount of heat reflected by a surface to the amount of the heat incident
on it.
7.6 Emissive Power: The emissive power of a surface is the amount of heat radiation emitted per second per uniarea
of the Surface per 1 C excess of temperature over the surroundings.
7.8Transmitting Power: It is the ratio of the amount of radiation passing through it to the total amount of radiation
incident on it.
7.8 Black Body: A perfect black body is one which absorbs all radiations incident on it. A perfect black body is a
good absorber as well as emitter of heat.
Platinum black absorbs 98% and lamp black about 96% of the incident radiation.
7.9 Stefan Boltzmann Law: The rate of loss of heat energy by radiation per unit area of the surface of a perfectly
black body is directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.
E=

AT4 is called Stefan's constant a = 5.675 x 10-8 W/m2K4

7.10 Kirchorffs law of radiation: The ratio of the emissive power to the absorptive power of all bodies is the same
and is equal to the emissive power of a perfectly black body.
7.11 Wien's Displacement Law: The radiation energy consists of different wavelengths. According to this, the
maximum wavelength energy is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature of the radiation.
m T = Constant
7.12 Newton's law of Cooling: The rate of cooling of a body is directly proportional to the mean excess of its
temperature over the surrounding.

8.0 Kinetic Theory of gases:

The pressure exerted by as gas is given by

P=

1
3

mnc-2

Where 'n' is the number of molecules of the gas per unit volume.
m is the mass of each molecule.
c-2 is the mean square velocity of the gas molecules.
9.0 Properties of Steam: Steam is vapour of water, and is invisible when pure and dry. It is approximately acts like a
gas.

Steam does not obey laws of perfect gases, until it is perfectly dry.
Sensible heat : Heat required to raise temperature of one kg of water, when heated at a constant pressure from
0 C to the temperature of formation of steam.
'

Heat absorbed (or) sensible heat (h) = tsat Kcal

Latent heat of steam (or) Latent heat of Vapourisation: It is the amount of heat required to evaporate 1 kg of water
at its boiling point without change of temperature. It is denoted by L.
Total heat of steam = h + xL for wet steam ;

= h + L for dry steam

where 'x' is the dryness fraction.

Super heated Steam: When the dry steam is further heated at a constant pressure, thus raising its temperature, it is
said to be superheated steam.
* The total heat required for the steam to be superheated is total heat of dry steam and heat of super heat.
Hsup = h + L + Cp (Tsup Tsat)
The difference (Tsup Tsat) is known as degree of Superheat.
Dryness fraction or quality of wet steam: It is the ratio of the weight of actual dry steam, to the weight of same
quantity of wet steam, and is generally denoted by 'x'.
Ws
X = W s +W
Where Ws = Actual weight of dry steam. W =Weight of water in steam.
Triple Point: It is the point where three states of matter, i.e., Solid, liquid and vapour coexist in equilibrium. The
triple point of water is 273.16 K at pressure of 610.2 Pascals.
Critical Point: When the pressure and saturation temperature increases, the latent heat of steam is decreases. It
becomes zero at a point, where liquid and dry steam lines meet is known as the critical point. The temperature
corresponding to critical point is known as critical temperature and the pressure is known as critical pressure.

For water, the critical temperature is 374 C and critical pressure is 225 kg/cm2 (or) 22.1 bar.

10.0 Steam Boilers:

10.1 A steam generator or boiler is, usually, a. closed vessel made of steel. Its function is to transfer the heat produced
by the combustion of fuel to water, and ultimately to generate steam.
* Boilers are mainly classified as fire tube and water tube boilers.

In fire tube or smoke tube boilers, the flames and hot gases, produced by combustion of fuel, pass through the
tubes which are surrounded by water.
Examples of fire tube boiler are simple vertical boiler, Cochran boiler, Lancashire boiler, Cornish boiler, scotch
marine boiler and locomotive boiler.
In water tube steam boilers, the water is contained inside the tubes which are surrounded by flames and hot gases
from outside..
Examples of water tube boilers are Babcock and Wilcox boiler, Sterling boiler, Lamont boiler, Benson boiler and
Loffler boiler.
Cornish boiler has one large flue tube and Lancashire boiler has two large diameter flue tubes.
Locomotive boiler is a multi tubular horizontal internally fired and mobile boiler. There are about 157 thin fire tubes
and 24 thick or superheated tubes. The draught is produced by the exhaust steam from engine which is discharged
through the blast pipe to the stack or chimney.
10.2 Boiler Mountings: Boilers are provided with certain mountings which are essential for their safe operation.

(a)

Water level indicators: It is the important fitting, which indicates the water level inside the boiler to an
observer.
(b)
Pressure gauge: A pressure gauge is used to measure the pressure of the steam inside the boiler. The pressure
gauge is generally used is of Bourdon tube.
(c)
Safety Valves: This is a device attached to the steam chest for preventing explosions due to excessive internal
pressure of steam. The function of a safety valve is to blow off the steam when the pressure of steam inside the boiler
exceeds the working pressure.
They are four types :(i) Level safety valve (ii) Dead weight safety valve (iii) high steam and flow water salty valve
(iv) Spring loaded salty valve.

(d)

Spring loaded salty valves are mainly used for Locomotive and marine boilers.

Steam Stop Valve: It is the largest valve on the steam boiler. The main functions of a stop valve are to
control the flow of steam from the boiler to the main steam pipe and to shut off the steam completely when required.
(e) Blow off cock: It is fitted to the bottom of a boiler drum, The principal functions of a blow off cock are to empty
the boiler whenever required and to discharge the Mud, scale or sediments which are accumulated at the bottom of
the boiler.
(f) Feed check valve : It is a non-return valve, its function is to regulate the supply of water, which is pumped into
the boiler by the feed pump.
(g) Fusible Plug: It is fitted to the crown plate of the furnace or the fire its object is to put off the fire in furnace of
the boiler when the level of water in the boiler falls to an unsafe limit.
10.3 Boiler Accessories: These are the devices which are used as integral parts of a boiler, and help in running
efficiently.
(a) Feed pump: A feed pump is used to deliver water to the boiler at high pressure.
(b) Super heater: Super heaters are used to increase the temperature of saturated steam without raising its pressure.

(c) Economiser: An economiser is a device used to heat feed water by utilizing the heat in the exhaust flue gases
before leaving through the chimney. Its use results in saving of coal, and increase in evaporating capacity.
Draught: A small pressure difference is required to cause the air required for combustion to flow through the furnace
and remove the flue gases. This pressure difference is called drought. Draught is either natural or artificial.

Natural Drought is provided by a chimney or stack and the draught produced by a chimney due to the
difference of densities between the hot gases inside the chimney and cold atmospheric air outside it.
Mechanical or artificial draught is the draught produced by a fan, blower or steam jet.
If fan is located before the furnace is forced draught. It forces fresh air into the combustion chamber.
If fan is located near the chimney is induced draught. It sucks hot gases from the combustion chamber, and
forces them into the chimney.
Balanced draught is .a combination of induced and forced draught. It is- produced by running-both induced
and forced draught fans simultaneously.

Compressors

Free air is the air at atmospheric conditions at any specific location.

Standard air is the air at 20 C and 1 kg/crn2 and relative humidity 36%.
1 m3 of air at atmospheric condition weights approximately 1.3 Kg.
The most efficient method of compressing air is to compress it isothermally
The compressor capacity with decrease in suction temperature increase.
Aero planes employ the axial flow type of compressor.
Inter cooling in compressors results in saving of power in compressing a given volume to given pressure.
Cylinder clearance in a compressor should be as small as possible.
Optimum intermediate pressure in two stage compressor is geometric mean of two. i.e. P = P 1 P3
2

Mining industries usually employees compressed air motive power.

Reciprocating type air compressor is best suited for small quantity of air at high pressure.
Rotary compressor is best suited for large quantity of air at Low pressure.
The capacity of compressor will be highest when its intake temperature is lowest.
Gas turbine works on Brayton or Atkinsons cycle.
Gas turbine uses axial flow type of air compressor.
Kerosene is used is fuel in turbo jet engines.
A rocket engine for the combustion of its fuel carries its own oxygen.
In Jet engine the products of combustion after passing through the gas turbine are discharged into discharge
nozzle.
* Air craft units employ open type of gas turbine.
Fighter bombers use turbo jet type of engine.
Air fuel ratio in a Jet engine will be of the order of 60:1

Design of Machine Elements

1.0 Screw threads: A screw thread is formed by cutting a continuous helical groove a cylindrical surface. The helical
grooves may be cut either right hand or left hand.

The threaded portion engages with a corresponding threaded hole in the nut or machine part.

Screws have two general purposes in engineering. They acts as fastening to secure one member to other
member by to transmit power.

Terms used in Screw threads

Major diameter: It is the largest diameter of an external or internal screw thread. The screw is specified by this
diameter. It is also known as outside or nominal diameter.
Minor diameter: It is the smallest diameter of an external or internal screw thread. It is also known as core or root
diameter.
Pitch diameter: It is also called effective diameter. It is the diameter at one half of the thread depth.
Pitch: It is the distance between the two adjacent threads measured parallel to the axis of the screw.
Lead: The distance a screw thread advances axially in one turn.
Lead = pitch x no. of starts.
Crest: It is the top surface joining the two sides of a thread.
Root: It is the bottom surface of the thread.
Depth of thread: It is the distance between the crest and root of the thread measured normal to the axis.
Helix angle: The angle made by the helix of the thread at the pitch diameter with a plane perpendicular to the axis.
Thread angle: It is the angle between two flanks measured on axial plane.
Pitch
Spiral angle:

Spiral angle=

Pitch
Pitch Diameter

1.2 Forms of Screw threads: The following are the various forms of screw threads.
British standard with worth (B.S.W) thread: These are rounded V threads. The angle of thread is 55 .British
standard pipe (B.S.P) threads with fine pitches are used for steel and iron pipes and tube carrying fluids.
British Association (B.A) thread: These are rounded V threads. Angle of thread is 47 . These threads are often
used on screw for precision work.

American National Standard threads (USS threads) :These threads have V shape and included angle of thread of
60 . The tops and bottoms of threads are flat.
Unified Threads: The thread form V shaped and angle being 60. The thread has rounded crests and roots.

Square threads: These threads are named so because of their shape. The depth and width of the thread is equal to
half the pitch. These are widely used for transmission of power in either direction. Because of higher efficiency Such
type of threads are usually found on the feed mechanisms of machine tools, valve spindle, screw jack etc

Acme threads: It is a modification of square threads It is much stronger than square read and included angle is
29.These threads are frequently used on screw cutting lathe, bench vice etc
Knuckle threads: These are square thread with corners rounded off, which make the threads capable of withstanding
great strain & rough use. Depth of thread =

1
2

pitch, radius at top and bottom =

1
4

x pitch.

Buttress threads: The thread angle is 45.The front face is perpendicular to the axis of the screw. It used for
transmission of power in one direction only. The railway carriage couplings have buttress threads.
Metric thread: It is an Indian Standard thread and is similar to BSW threads. It has an included angle of 60.
1.3 Types of screw fastenings: Screw fasteners are used to fasten or hold parts together. These are allowed the parts
to be disassembled whenever necessary.
Through bolts: A through bolt is a cylindrical bar with threads for the nut at one end and head at the other end. It is
passed through drilled holes in the two parts to be fast end together and clamps them securely to each other as the nut
is screwed on to the threaded end.
Tap bolts: A tap bolt or screw differs from a bolt It is screwed into a taped hole of one the parts to be fastened
without the nut.
Studs: Stud is a round bar threaded at both ends. One end of the stud is screwed into a tapped hole of the parts to be
fastened, while the other end receives a nut on it.
Cap Screws: The cap screws are similar to tap bolts except that they are of small size and a variety of shapes of
heads.
Machine Screws: These are similar to cap screws with the head slotted for a screw driver. These are generally used
with a nut.
Set Screws: These are used to prevent relative motion between the two parts. They may be used instead of key to
prevent relative motion between a hub and a shaft in light power transmission members.
1.4 Locking Devices:
Jam nut or lock nut: A most common locking device is a Jam Lock or check nut. A thin lock nut is first tightened
down with ordinary force, and then the upper nut tightened down upon it.
Castle nut: It consists of a hexagonal portion with a cylindrical upper part which is slotted in line with the centre of
each face, the split pin passes through two slot in nut and a hole in the bolt. Castle nuts are extensively used in
automobile industry.
Spring lock washer: These are made from spring steel and may be split single or multi coil. The split type washer
has the edges of the split raised in opposite directions.
1.5 Designation of Screw Threads
Size designation of screw threads: According to the Indian standards, the size & the screw thread is designed by the
letter 'M' followed by the diameter and pitch, the two being separated by the sign 'X'.
Tolerance designation: This shall include

(a)A figure designating tolerance grade 7 for fine grade, 8 for medium grade and 9 for coarse grade.
(b)A letter designating the tolerance position as, H for unit thread,d for bolt thread with allowance and 'h for bolt
thread without allowance.
E.g:M1 0- 8d means, A bolt thread of l0 mm size of coarse pitch and with allowance on the threads and normal
tolerance grade
1.6 Tee headed bolt: It is used to damn work pieces on a machine tool table.
1.7 Eye bolt: It is used to lift heavy machines, like electrical motors.
1.8 Wing nut: It is used where adjustment required to be made frequently. It can be open by a thumb and finger. E.g.
hack saw rebate connected to frame by a wing nut.
1.9 Washer: It is a cylindrical piece of metal placed & low the nut to provide flat surfaces. It allows the nut to be
screwed or more tightly A washer is specified by its hole diameter.
2.0 Keys and Couplings:

A key is a piece of metal inserted between the shaft and hub of the pulley to connect these together in order to
prevent relative motion between them.

Keys are divided into five types, namely,

(i)
Saddle keys (ii) Sunk keys (iii) Tangent keys (iv) round keys and (v) Splines
i.
Saddle keys: These are provided fully in the hub only. These keys are used for light loads as there is a
tendency to slip under heavy loads.
ii.
Sunk Keys: These are provided half in the keyway of the shaft and half in the key way of the hub or boss of
the pulley. The sunk keys are of following types, Rectangular sunk key, square sunk key, parallel sunk key, gib
head key, father key and woodruff key.
Wood ruff key is an easily adjustable key. It is a piece from a cylindrical disc having segmental cross sections.This
key is largely used in machine tools and automobile construction.
Gib head key: It is a rectangular sunk key with a head at one end known as gib head. It is usually provided to
facilitate the removal of key,
The usual proportions of the gib head key are width, w =

and thickness of key (t) =

d
4

d
and thickness at large end t = 6 , width W=

d
4

2w d

3
6

Whered is the diameter of the shaft or diameter of hole in the hub.

Rectangular Sunk Key: It has rectangular cross section and having uniform taper on the top side is in 100.
Square Sunk Key: It has square cross section and tapered 1 in 100 on the top side. The width and thickness are equal
d
to i.e. W=t= 4
Feather Key: A key attached to one member of a pair and which permits relative axial movement is known as feather
key.

Tangent Keys: These keys are fitted in pair at right angles and each key is to withstand torsion in one direction only.
These are used in large heavy duty shafts.
Round Keys: The round keys are circular in section and fit into holes drilled partly in the shaft and partly in the hub.
These are usually considered to be most appropriate for low power drives.
Splines: Some times, keys are made integral with the shaft which fits in the keyways broached in the hub. Such shafts
are known as splined shafts.
Shaft Couplings: A coupling is a device used to make permanent or semi permanent connection between two
adjoining shafts.

Shaft couplings are used to provide for the connection of shafts of units that are manufactured separately such
as motor and generator, and to provide for misalignment of the shafts.
Couplings are divided into- two groups, (i) rigid coupling (ii) Flexible coupling.
3.1 Rigid coupling: Rigid coupling is a solid coupling; it is used to connect two shafts which are perfectly aligned.

Sleeve or muff coupling, clamp or split muff or compression coupling, and flange couplings are rigid type of
couplings.
3.2 Flexible coupling: It is used to connect two shafts having both lateral and angular misalignment.

Bushed pin type coupling, universal coupling and Oldham couplings are flexible type of couplings.

A universal or hooks coupling is used to connect two shafts whose axis intersects at a small angle. The
inclination of the shafts may be constant, but in actual practice, it varies when the motion is transmitted from one
shaft to another. Hooke's couplings are mainly found in the transmission from the gear box to the differential or back
axle of the automobiles.
4.0 Shafts: A shaft is rotating machine element which is used to transmit power from one place to at another.

Shafts are usually cylindrical, but may be square or cross shaped in section. They are solid or hollow in cross
section.
As axle is similar in shape to the shaft, it is a stationary machine element and is used for the transmission of
bending moment only
Spindle is a short shaft that imparts motion either to a cutting tool or to a work piece.
The material used for ordinary shafts is mild steel. When high strength is required on alloy steel such as
nickel, nickel chromium steel is used.
A shaft may be a transmission shaft, such as counter shafts, line shafts, head shafts and all factory shafts (or) a
machine shaft such as crank shaft.
Length of standard shaft will not exceed 7 meters on the account of transport difficulties.
The twisting moment or torque transmitted by the shaft

x
fs d3
16

where T =Twisting moment (or) Torque ,fs = Torsional shear stress, d = diameter of the

(ii) For a hollow shaft T =

x
fs d3(1-k4) Where K = ratio of inside diameter and outside diameter of the shaft = di /do.
16

(i)

T=
solid shaft_

di and do = outside and inside diameter of the hollow shaft.

(iii)

Power transmitted in watts by the shafts p = P=

2 NT
60

watt ; Where T =Twisting moment in N-m

N = speed of the shaft in r.p.m

(iv) Horse power transmitted by the shaft, P=

2 NT
4500

hp; Where T =Twisting moment in kg.f.m

N = Speed of the shaft in r.p.m.

5.0 Riveted Joints:

A rivet is a short cylindrical bar with a head integral to it. The cylindrical portion of the rivet is called shank or
body and lower portion of shank is known as tail.
The rivets are used to make permanent fastening between the plates such as in Structural work, ship building,
bridges, tanks and boiler shells.
The material of the rivets must be tough and ductile. They are usually made of low carbon steel, nickel steel,
brass, aluminium and copper.

5.1 Types of rivet heads

The snap heads are usually employed for structural work, machine rivets and boiler plates.
The counter sunk heads are mainly used for ship building where flat surfaces are necessary.
5.2 Types of Riveted Joints:

Lap joint: A lap joint is that in which one plate overlaps the other and the two plates are then riveted together.
Butt joint: A butt joint is that in which the main plates are kept in alignment butting and a cover plate is placed either
on one side or on both sides of the main plates.
5.3 Terms used in Riveted Joints:
* Pitch: It is the distance from the centre of one rivet to the centre of the next rivet measured parallel to the seam.
* Back Pitch (Pb ) : It is the perpendicular distance between the centre lines of the successive rows.
* Diagonal Pitch (Pd ) : It is the distance between the centres of the rivets in adjacent rows of zig-zag riveted joint.
Margin or Marginal pitch (m): It is the distance between the centres of rivet hole to the nearest edge of the plate.
5.4 Failures of a Riveted Joint:

Tearing of the plate at an edge: A joint may fail due to tearing of the plate at an edge. This can be avoided by
keeping the margin, m = 1.5 d, whered is the diameter of the rivet hole.
Tearing of the plate across a row of rivets: The resistance offered by the plate against tearing is known as
tearing resistance or tearing strength. Tearing resistance, Pt = (P-d) t x ft
Shearing of the rivets: The resistance offered by a rivet to be sheared off is known as shearing resistance.

Shearing resistance (Ps) = n

d2 fs (for single cover) =1.875 x n

d2 fs (for double cover)

Crushing of the rivets: The resistance offered by a rivet to be crushed is known as crushing resistance.
Crushing resistance, Pc = n.d.t. fc
5.5 Diameter of rivets: The diameter of a rivet hole (d) may be determined by using Unwin's empirical formula, i.e.,
d=6

(Where t is greater than 8 mm),

6.0 Cotter joints

A cotter is a flat wedge shaped piece of rectangular cross. Section and its width is tapered either on one or
both sides.
The taper varies from 1 in 48 to 1 in 24.
A cotter joisnt is a temporary fastening and is used to connect rigidly two co-axial rods,
It is usually used in connecting a *ton to the cross head of a reciprocating steam engine.

7.0 Fly Wheel

A fly wheel used in machines serves as a reservoir which stores energy during the period when the supply of
energy is more than the requirement and releases it during the period when the requirement of energy is more
than supply.
Fly wheel is a main part in I.C engines, reciprocating compressors and pumps.
Co-efficient of fluctuation of speed: The difference between maximum and minimum speed during a cycle is
called the maximum fluctuation of speed. The ratio of maximum fluctuation of speed to mean speed is called
coefficient of fluctuation of speed.
Coefficient of fluctuation of speed, Cs =

2( N 1N 2)
N1+ N2

N1 and N2 is maximum and minimum speed in rpm during a cycle respectively.