1.

TOOLS
1.0 Bench work and fitting
1.1 Vices: - used for holding work. Size is specified by width of Jaws and Maximum
between the Jaws.

opening

* Bench Vice is also Engineer's parallel vice and also known as fitter's vice.
* Leg vice is used by black smith for heavy work. Suitable for heavy hammering and cutting
work.
* Pipe vice used for holding round section tubes, pipes.
* Hand vice is used for holding light work and for gripping rivets, keys, screws and
small drills etc.
* Pin vice is used for holding small diameter works such as wires and pins.
* Tool maker's vice useful for holding small work.
1.2 Hammers: - used to deliver blows. Made from forged steel and specified by its weight.
*. Ball peen hammer is also known as Engineer's hammer. This is chiefly used for chipping and
riveting.
* Cross peen hammer is used for bending, stretching, hammering.
Straight peen hammer used for stretching or peening etc.
* Soft hammer is also called mallet made of wood, hard rubber, lead and copper.
1.3. Chisels: - are used for cutting and chipping away pieces of metal. Made of high carbon steel.
* Flat chisel is used for general chipping operations.
* Cross cut chisel is also known as cape chisel. Used for cutting grooves in large surface.
* Round nose chisel useful for cutting oil grooves in bearings.
* Diamond point chisel used for cutting v-groove
1.4 Files: Files are used to cut, trim or finish a job of metal or wood. It is specified by its length
and made from high carbon steel or tungsten steel. A file can removes the metal only on the
forward stroke. Files are classified into four types.
(a) On the basis of length (b) on the basis of shape
(c) On the basis of grade.

(d) On the basis-of cut

* Round and half round files are used for round cutting, filing curved surfaces and enlarging holes.
* Knife edge file used for filing narrow slot, notches and grooves.
* A rough file used for cutting soft metals and trimming the rough edges of casting of soft metal.
*A second cut file used for harder metals.
* In single cut file teeths are cut at an angle of about 60 to the centre line of the file.
* In double cut file teeths are cut at an angle of 60 and the up cut at an angle of 70 to the centre
line.
* Raps files useful for filing wood, plastic hard rubber etc.
1.5 Scrapes: these are used for shaving or parting off thin slices or flaks of metal to make a fine,
smooth surface. Generally these are made from old files.
1.6 Hacksaw: - Hacksaw bladesthese are made from high carbon steel (or) high speed steel. The
metal is removed during the forward stroke and the return stroke is an idle stroke.

* Soft metals and plastics are being cut by coarse tooth saw.
* Tool steel, medium-hard steel, copper alloys are cut by the medium tooth saw.
1.7 Marking tools:Surface plate is used for testing the flatness of work itself and also used for marking out work.
Larger jobs marking out table is used. It is made of gray cast iron.
* Scriber are use to scribe lines on metal.
* Punch is used in bench work for marking out work, locating center etc. Made of high carbon
steel.
* Centre punch angle 90. Use to make a centre at a drilling point.
* Dot punch angle is 60. It is used to make perm

ant marking.

* Prick punch angle is 30-40. Useful for marking on jobs of thin metal sheets.
* V-Blocks are made of cast iron used for holding round bars during marking

and drilling.

*Angle plate is made of grey cast iron. It is used to hold the work in a vertical position for laying
out.
* Try square is use to set another edge or surface exactly at right angle to the already true edge or
surface.

2.0 Forging Took:1.1 Anvil: - It provides support when force is applied to the forced component. It is made of
cast steel or wrought iron Round hole provided on the face of anvil is known as prichel hole
and square hole is known as hardie hole.
2.2. Swage block: - Made of cast steel or cast iron. Used for squaring, sizing, heading, bending
and forming operations.
2.3 Tongs: - Used to hold the job and are made from mild steel.
2.4 Swages: They are used for work which has to be reduced and finished to round, square or
hexagonal form. These are made from high carbon steel.
2.5 Chisels: - These are made from high carbon steel.
* Cutting angle most commonly used of a cold chisel is 60.
* Cutting angle of a cold chisel various according to the type of material to be cut.
Aluminum - 30, copper - 45, Brass-50,
wrought Iron & mild steel - 55,Cast steel - 60",
tool steel - 70.
* Hot chisel included angle is 60.
2.6 Fullers: They are used for flocking down a piece of work.
2.7 Flatters: - These are made of tool steel. These are used for finishing flat surface.
3.0 Carpentry Tools:3.1 Marking and Measuring Tools:Bevel Square: - It is similar to try square but has a blade that may be swiveled to any
angle from CP to 180.
Mitre Square: - Used to mark and measure the angles of 45.
3.2 Combination Square: - It is a combination of six parts, namely
(a) a square (b) a 45' Bevel (c) a set square (d) a rule (e) Straight edge (f) a centre finder
3.3 Ganges: - It is used to mark lines parallel to the edge of .a piece of wood.
* Marking gauge has one marking point.
*Mortise gauge has two marking points one fixed and other movable.

* Cutting gauge has a cutting knife held, in position by a wedge and used for gauging fine
deep fines.
3.4 Cutting Tools:Saws: - It is specified by the length of the blade.
* Rip saws are used to cut alone the grains of wood.
* Cross cut saws are used-to cut across the grains of wood. It is also known as hand saw.
* Panet saw is used mainly for fine and accurate cuts, and sometimes for ripping as well as
cross cutting.
*Tenon saw is also known as Back saw. It is mostly used for cross cutting for finer and more
accurate finish. Teeth are in the form of equilateral triangle.
* Dovetail saw is similar to tenon saw. Used where greatest accuracy is required.
* Composs saw is also known as turning saw it is used for cutting small curves.
* Bow saw is used for cutting quick curves.
* Coping saw is used for small radius curves.
* Pad saw is used for cutting keyholes.
3.5 Chisels: - They are driven into wood using blows.
* Firmer chisel used for taking winder cuts and finishing flat surfaces.
* Dovetail chisel used dovetail joints and other V-grooves.
* Mortize chisel used for to take heavy cuts.
3. 6 Planning Tools: - The planning tools or planes are cutting tools which are used for shaving
or smoothing plane surfaces.
3.7 Striking Tools
* Claw hammers are used for driving nails and extracting nails out of wood.
* Mallet is a wooden hammer.
3.8 Holding Tools:* Slash cramp is also known as Bar Cramp or T-Cramp. It is used for holding wider works.
*G-Cramp is used of smaller work.
* A Pincer is a tool used for pulling out nails from wood.

2. MEASUREMENTAND INSPECTION
1.0 Linear Measurement:1.1 Non Precision Instruments: - Accuracy is limited to 1rnm to 0.5mm.
* Steel rule is a direct measuring Instruments to read on accuracy of 0.5mm and 1/ 64th of an
inch. They are made of hardened Steel.
* Calipers are used to transfer and compare a dimension from one object to another.
* Jenny or hermaphrodite caliper is used for scribing line parallel to edge of a cylindrical job.
* Telescopic gauge is used for measuring the inside size of the slots or holes.
* Depth gauge is used to measure depth of holes, grooves and slots.
1.2 Precision instruments:External micrometer used to measure external dimensions like diameter of shafts, thinness of
parts to an accuracy of 0.01mm.
(b)British standard i.e., English micrometer has an accuracy of 0.001inch.
A Screw micrometer is used for measuring pitch diameter of screw threads.

A depth micrometer is used to measure depth of holes to an accuracy of 0.01mm and 0.001
inch.
Inside micrometer is used to measure diameter of holes up to an accuracy of 0.01 mm.
Vernier caliper is used to measure both outside and inside diameters of Shafts, thickness of
parts etc. to accuracy is up to 0.02 mm and 0.001inch.
Slip gauges are precision gauge blocks used for precise measurement of parts.
Dial indicator is a mechanical comparator and accuracy is up to 0.01 min
A pneumatic comparator is specially used in automatic size control
2.0 Angular Measurements:2.1 Non precision Instruments:(a) Bevel protectors are used to measure angles but not very accurate.
Adjustable bevel gauge is used for checking, comparing or transferring angles.
Combination set consist of three parts, they are square head, center head and bevel protector.
2.2 Precision Instruments:Vernier Bevel Protector is used to measure of angle to an accuracy of 1/12 (or) 5 minuses of a
degree.
Sine bar is a most accurate instrument used for measuring angles. It is specified by its distance
between centres of two rollers. 100mm length is most common.
(c)Sprit level is widely used for the static leveling of machinery and other equipment.
Auto collimator is an optical instrument used for measurement of small angular differences,
straightness and alignment.
3.0 Taper Measurement:A taper angle is measured by the following measuring instruments.
(a) Bevel protector. (b) Tool room microscope
(c)Auto collimating Telescope (d) Sine bar and dial gauge (e) Rollers slip gauges and
micrometers.
4.0 Surface Measurement
(a)Straight edges are commonly used for testing the straightness and flatness of plate surfaces.
Flatness is checked by a light test.
(h)Surface gauge is used to scribe lines at a given vertical height.
5.0 Gauges: Gauges are tools which are used for checking the size, shape
and
positions of various parts. But not provided with graduated adjustable members.

relative

* Plug gauge is used for checking holes of different shape and size.
* Ring gauge is used for testing external diameter.
* Taper gauge are used to test tapers of both internal and external. They are made in both plug
and ring style.
* snap gauge are used for checking external dimensions. Shafts are mainly checked by snap
gauge.
* Thread gauges are used to check the pitch diameter of threads.
* Screw pitch gauge is consists of a number of flat blades which are cut out to a given pitch
and pivoted in a holder. It is used to check the pitch of screw threads.
* Radius and fillet gauges are used to check the radii of curvature of convex and concave
surfaces.
* Feeler gauges are used to check clearance between matching surfaces.

* The thickness of sheet metal is checked by means of plate gauge and wire diameter by means
of wire gauge.

METALS
Metal is a mineral which is used in all works of Engineering. Metals are mainly two types i.e.,
ferrous metals and Non
Ferrous metals.
1.0 Physical properties: - Weigh, construction, color, Magnetization, conductivity and melting
point are physical properties of metal.
2.0 Mechanical properties
* Ductility: - The ability of metals to deform under tensile load is called ductility. The metals
with this property can be easily drawn into wires. Ex:-Mild steel.
*Brittleness is the ability of a metal which break or fail before much deformation take place.
Ex: - Cast Iron.
* Elasticity: - The ability of a material to regain its original shape after deformation when the
external forces are removed. Steel is most elastic material.
* Stiffness: It is the ability of material to resists deformation under stress.
* Plasticity: - It is the property of material which regains the deformation produced under load
permanently. This property is necessary for forging metals.
* Malleability: It is the ability of material to deform under compressive load. The metals with
this property can make into thin sheets. Example :- Aluminum, tin & lead.
* Toughness: it is property of material to resist fracture due to high impact loads like hammer
blow.
* Resilience: It is the property of a material to absorb energy and to resist shock and impact
loads. This property is essential for spring metals.
* Creep: - When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature for a long period of
time. It will undergo a slow and permanent deformation called creep. This property is
considered in designing I.C. Engines, turbines etc.
* Hardness: - It is the ability of material to resist scratching, wear, abrasion, cutting,
indentation and penetration.
* Fatigue: - Failure of material under reversal stress is called fatigue.
* Weld ability: It is the ability of material to be joined by welding.
* Cast ability: - Cast ability of metal refers to the ease with which it can be cast into different
shapes.
3. Pig Iron: - The product of blast furnace is pig iron. Iron ore, Coke, Limestone & Blast of air
are required to produce pig Iron. Lime stone acts as a flux and forms impurities into a liquid
slag. The important ores of Iron are Hematite, Magnetite, Limonite, Pyrite and Siderite.
Cast iron: - The product of the coupla is cast Iron. Pig iron, steel scrap, Coke and lime stone
are required to produce cast Iron. Cast Iron is an alloy of Iron, carbon and silicon. The carbon
content ranges from 2 to 4%.
* Types of cast Iron
(a) Gray cast Iron (b) white cast Iron (c) Spheroidal gray C.I. (d) Malleable cast Iron (e) Alloy
cast Iron.
Wrought Iron: - It is pure Iron. It is approximately 99%. Pure Iron and remaining carbon &
slag is left.
*It is soft and can be easily forged and welded.
* It is manufactured by melting white pig Iron in puddling furnace.

* used for-nuts, chains, crane hoots, railway -cowling, pipe and pipe fittings, boiler tubes-etc.
3.3 Steel: Steel is fundamentally an alloy of Iron& Carbon with the carbon content varying up
to 1.5%.
* Steel is manufactured by the following processes.
(a) Open Hearth process
(d) Electric process

(b) Bessemer process

(e) LD process

(c) Duplex process

(f) Crucible steel process

* Steel can be divided into two types i.e., (a) Plain carbon steel (b) Alloy steel
* Plain carbon steels are classified based on carbon content is
1. Low carbon steel
2. Medium carbon steel
3. High carbon steel.
Low Carbon steel: - If carbon percentage is less than 0.1A% is called dead mild steel. Carbon
percentage is 0.15- 0.35% then steels are called mild steel.
High ductile and soft.
Used for Nuts, bolts, rivets, Chains, nails, wires, and thin Sheets.
Medium Carbon Steel: - The carbon percentage is from 0.35% to 0.6%.
Relatively harder, toughest and less ductile.
Used for making connecting rods, shafts, axles, crank shafts, pulleys, wire tops rails etc.
High carbon steel: - The carbon percentage is from 0.6% to 0.9% for tool steels carbon
percentage varies from 0.9% to 1.5%.
This is very hard and tough.
It acquires permanent magnetic properties.
Used for making springs, anvil faces files, cold chisels, punches, dies and cutting tools.
Alley Steel: - Steel that contains one or more alloying elements is called alloying steels.
High speed steel (HSS) is a alloy steel used for cutting tool. The most common type is known
as 18 - 4 -1 HSS and contains 18% tungsten, 4% chromium, and ly Vanadium. HSS is
extensively used for drills, Lathe, planner tools and milling cutters.
Stainless steel is a corrosion resistance steel it has 18% Chromium 8% Nickel and most
commonly known as 18/8 stainless steel. Used for surgical Instruments, Kitchen equipment,
utensils etc.
Invar contains nickel up to 36%. It has low coefficient of expansion. It is used for measuring
Instruments, clocks etc.
4.0 Non-ferrous Metals: The metals that do-not contain Iron are called Non ferrous metals.
4.1 Aluminum: - It is mainly produced from bauxite ore. It is of white blue color. It occurs in
* * abundance on the surface of earth.
* It is good conductor of heat and electricity.
* Light in weight, very malleable and can be rolled into thin sheet.
* Melting point is 660C.
* Used for making parts of aero plane, electric wires, utensils etc.
4.2 Copper: - It is reddish in color, Extracted from copper pyrites.
* Good conductor of heat, soft, flexible, ductile, tough and strong.
* Melting point is 1083 C.
* Used for electrical purposes, tubes and utensils.
4.3 Zinc: it is bluish white metal. It is mainly produced from zinc sulphide and zinc carbonate.

* It is good conductor of heat and electricity.

* It is used as a productive coating for Iron and Steel sheets.
* It is used to make brass and bronze.
* Its melting point is_ 420 C.
4.4 Tin: - It is silvery white metal obtained from tin stone.
* Soft and malleable.
* Its melting point is 230C.
* Used as a protective coating for Iron and steel and making bronze, gunmetal, bearing metal
and solder.
4.5 Lead: - Lead is a heavy metal and extracted from Galena. It is of bluish brown colour.
* It is very soft, malleable, ductile and tough.
* Melting point is 320C.
* Used in manufacture of storage batteries, electric cable coverings, soft solder, lead pipes,
fuse wires etc.
*It is a bright white metal. Its melting point is 960C.
5.0 Non - Ferrous alloy:S.No

Alloy
Duralumin

Composition
Al-94.3%, Cu-4%, Mn-0.5%

Uses
Building aero plane structures, automobile parts etc

Mg - 0.5%, Si - 03%.
2

Brass

Cu-70%, Zn -30%

Utensils, Condenser tubes etc

Muntz Metal

Cu-60%, Zn -40%

Electrical fittings, Condenser tubes.

Naval Brass

Cu-60%, Zn-39%, Sn- I %

Marine pans

Monel Metal

Ni-60%, Cu-38%, A1-2%

Bronze

Cu-70 to 95% Sn -25 to 5%

Steam turbine Blades and impeller of pumps

tc.

Bell metal.

Cu-80%, Sn-20%

Gun metal

Cu -83%, Sn-10%, Zn-2%

Solder

Sn-63 to 42%, Pb-37to 58%

10

Babbit metal

Sn-88%, Cu-4%, Sb-7%

11

Nichrome

Ni-80%, Cr-20%

12

White metal

Sn-35%, Cu-5%, AI-10%

13

German silver

Cu-55%, Zn-25%, Ni7-20%

Making coins, statues and ornaments etc.

Making bells and gongs.
Making guns, bearing and boiler fittings.
Soldering.
Making crank shaft- bearing&
Electrical hearten, Iron, cookers etc
Large bearings of light load&
Ornaments, and resistance coils etc.

Aluminum. Cu = Copper, Mn =Manganese, Mg = Magnesium, Si = Silicon, Sn =Tin, Pb =

lead, -Cr-Chromium.

4. METAL JOINING PROCESSES

1. Metal joining process: Metal joining process is the process joining of similar or-dissimilar
metal by the application of heat. It is classified as follows
(a) Welding

(b) Soldering.

(c) Brazing

2. Welding: It is process of joining similar metals by the application of heat, with or without
the application of pressure and with or without the addition of filler metal.
3. Types of welding: fusion or non-pressure welding. The metal at the Joint is heated to a
molten state and then allowed to solidify. Since no pressure is applied in this process
Ex: Gas welding, Electric arc welding, Termite welding
Pressure or plastic welding: The metal pans are heated to a plastic state. Then they are
pressed together to make the joint. It is also known as pressure welding. No filler metal is
required for pressure welding.
Ex: Electric Resistance welding, forge welding.
4. Gas welding: It is a type of fusion, non pressure welding. This required heat to melt the
metal parts is supplied by a high temperature flame obtained by a mixture of two gases.
* Flame temperature of different gases
* Oxy - acetylene (3200C), Oxy hydrogen (1900C)
* Oxy-Methane (2000C), Oxy- water gas (2300C)
* Oxy- acetylene is widely used for welding purposes.
* Oxy- acetylene welding is particularly suitable for Joining metal Steels and plates of
thickness 2 to 50 mm.
* Oxy - hydrogen process is suitable up to plate thickness 7 mm only.
* Acetylene is manufactured with the action of water on calcium carbide.
* Acetylene is stored in cylinders in liquid form.
* Pressures of oxygen and acetylene are respectively 15000 kn/m2 and1600kn/m2.
* Oxygen cylinder is generally painted black, while acetylene cylinder is painted maroon.
4.1 Type of flame: Oxygen and acetylene can be ejected from the torch tip in three possible
mixtures.
Natural flame: This flame has equal quantity of oxygen and acetylene. This flame has two
zones. This is used for welding steel, stainless steel, cast Iron. Non ferrous metal like cooper &
Aluminum. This flame is used in cutting operation also.
Oxidizing flame: In this flame oxygen and acetylene are in the ratio of 1.2 to 1.5:1 i.e. excess
oxygen. This flame has two zones. It is used for welding copper brass and bronze.
Carburizing or Reducing flame: The ratio of oxygen to acetylene is 0.9:1 i.e. excess
acetylene. This flame has three zones. It is mainly used for welding allot steel.
4.2 Gas welding Techniques:
Leftward or forward welding: It also called back hand welding. Blow pipe is held in right
hand and the welding rod is on left hand. The weld is working from right to left.
* Inclination of the blow pipe with the work surface is between 60 to 70.
* Inclination of filler rod with the work surface is 30 to 40.

Right ward or backward welding: It is also known as forehand welding. The weld is made
from left to right.
*Inclination of the blow pipe with the work surface is between 40 to 50and filler rod with the
work surface is 30 to 40.
Vertical welding: It does, not require any edge preparation for plate thickness up to 15mm.
*Inclination of the nozzle of the blow pipe with vertical work surface is depends on plate
thickness and is in between 25to 90.
* Filler rod with the vertical work surface is nearly 30.
5.0 Electric arc welding: The source of heat for electric arc welding is an electric arc. The arc
is produced between an electrode and the work
* Air gap between work and the electrode is approximately 3mm.
* The temperature at the centre of the arc is5500c to 6000C.
* AC or DC Supply can be used for arc welding
* For AC welding supply, transformers are used to step down the usual supply voltage (200400v) to the normal open circuit winding voltage 50-9OV.
* Welding is going on; arc voltage is of the order of I8-40v.
5.1 Comparison of DC and AC arc welding:
* DC arc welding is suitable for both ferrous and non ferrous metals. A.C arc welding is not
suitable for non ferrous metal.
* Arc stability is more in D.C. whereas less in A.C
* Non coated bare electrodes can be used in DC. Only coated electrodes are used in A.C arc
welding.
* In DC arc welding positive terminal connected to the work and negative terminal to the
electrode. Whereas in A.C any terminal can be connected to the work or Electrode.
* D.C is less efficiency. Whereas AC more efficiency.
52 Electrodes for Arc welding: Electrodes for arc welding are classified into two categories
Consumable electrodes: They get consumed during the welding operation. They are may be
either bare or coated type.
* Bare electrode has limited applications like minor repair of poor quality work of welding.
* Electrode coated with flux material such as asbestos.
* Flux coated electrodes main functions are to stabilize arc, provide a protecting atmosphere
and formatting of slag.
Non-Consumable electrodes: These are made of carbon, graphite or tungsten. Which do not
consume during welding process.
6.0 Arc welding Methods: The electric arc welding is classified in to
(A) Metal Arc welding
(B) Carbon Arc welding
(C)Submerged Arc welding
(D) Metal inert gas (MIG) Arc welding
(E) Tungsten inert gas (TIG) Arc welding metal arc welding.
6.1 Metal arc welding: The consumable flux coated electrode is used. Both AC and DC
welding machines are used. The angle between gee-electrode and work should be 70.
6.2 Carbon arc welding: A non consumable carbon electrode is used. Electrode is connected
to the negative terminal and the work is the positive terminal. Only DC supply is used in
carbon arc welding. The Temperature produced is about 3200c.
6.3 Submerged arc welding: It is sometimes called hidden arc welding. The arc is formed
between the end of a continuous i.e. depositing surface, under layer of protective mineral
powder known as the flux or melt. The bare electrode is fed from a reel down through the gun
or nozzle.

6.4 Metal inert gas(MIG) welding: It is a gas Shielded metal arc welding process which uses
the high heat of an electric arc between a continuously fed, consumable electrode wire and the
material to be welded for Aluminum or copper, or argon helium mixture are used. Titanium
requires pure argon.
6.5 Gas Tungsten Arc welding (TIG): It is similar to MIG welding except-electric are
between a non consumable tungsten electrode and the material to be welded. Argon is more
widely used for shielding. This process is not used as often on plate over 6.4mm thick.
7.0 Resistance welding: In resistance welding the metal parts to be joined are heated to a
plastic state over a limited area by their resistance to the flow of an electric current and
mechanical pressure is used to complete the weld. There are two copper electrodes in the
circuit
Heat generated in watt hours

H= I2 RT

Where R =Resistance, I = current in amps, T = time

Voltage used is very low 4 to 12v.

* Type of resistance welding.

Spot welding: Spot welding is used to join overlapping, sheets or plates of metal at small areas
this weld be used to weld steel and other metal strips up to 12 mm thick.
Seam welding: It is a continuous type of spot welding over two overlapping metal sheets or
plates. Instead of using pointed Electrode, roller type copper electrodes are used.
Projection welding: In this welding a number of spots can be welded in one closure of the
press.
Butt welding: there are two types of butt welding namely, (i) upset Butt welding and (ii) flash
butt welding.
Upset Butt welding: The two parts to be welded are placed in contact by clamping edge to
edge in copper Jaws. It is extensively used for joining bars or pipes end to end.
Flash Butt wielding: in this type, the two parts to be welded are clamped in copper Jaws of the
welding machine and brought together in a light. Contact or with a small air space between
them. It is used for welding body, tubes, wheels axles and flame in the automobile contraction
work.
8.0 Thermit welding: It is a fusion welding process. The welding is done by pouring super
heated liquid thermit steel around the parts to be welded. Thermit steel is a mixture of finely
divided aluminum powder and Iron oxide at the ratio of 1:3 by weight. It is used for welding
very heavy parts as Joining of rails, cables, shafts, broken machinery frames and broken teeth
of large gears etc.
9.0 Welding defects:
Poor fusion: It is usually caused by insufficient heat and too fast travel of electrode.
Under cut: It is due to excessive weaving speed, big electrode, and excessive current.
Porosity: The formation of blow holes, gas pockets, on the surface of the weld. This is due to
the presence of gases in the metal, moisture in the flux and presence of rust, grease.
Cracks: Due to incorrect welding technique or using a filler metal having a different rate of
contraction compared to that of parent metal.
Spatter: It refers to the small particles or globules of metal scattered around the vicinity of
weld along its length.
10.0 flame Cuing: Iron and steel sheets and plates can be cut by using oxy-acetylene is based
on the fact that ferrous metals are subjected to oxidation.

11.0 Soldering: Soldering is the process of Joining two pieces of metal by adding a fusible
alloy or metal called solder. It is used as a filler rod. The work pieces are not- melted in the
soldering process.
* A Soldering is an alloy of lead and tin.
* It has a low melting temperature in the-range of 150 - 350C.
* Zinc chloride is used as a flux in Soldering
* Soldering Iron bit is made up of copper because its ability to absorb and give up heat.
11.1 Type of Soldering: The different compositions of solder for different purpose are
(I) Soft solder = lead 37%, tin 63%
(ii) Medium solder =lead 50% tin sock
(iii)Plumber's solder = lead 70k tin 30%
(iv) Electrician's Solder = lead 58%., tin 42% 12.0 brazing: It the process of joining two similar or dissimilar metals by a fusible alloy called
"spelter". It is similar to soldering except that speller is used instead of solder.
* The Most commonly used flux in brazing is borax.
* Fluorides, chlorides and boric acid also used as a flux.
* The melting point of the- filler metal in brazing should be above 420c.
* Silver alloys made of silver and copper with a milting range of600-800c are used for
brazing any metals.

5. SHEET METAL WORK

1.4 Sheet metal works is generally regarded as the working of metal, from 16 gauges to 30
gauges, with hand tools and simple machines into various forms by cutting, forming into shape,
and Joining.
* Metals used in sheet metal work are black Iron, galvanized Iron, S.S, Copper, brass,
Aluminum, tin plate and lead.
* Zinc coated Iron is known as galvanized Iron. This is popularly known as G I Sheet.
2.0 Sheet metal hand tools: Basic tools used in sheet metal work.
(i) Measuring tools: Steel rule, folding rule, circumference rule, Vernier caliper, micrometer,
thickness gauge, and sheet metal gauge. (ii)Straight edge (iii) steel square (IV) scriber (iv)
Divider, (vi)Trammel points, (vii) Punches (viii) Chisels, (ix) Hammers, (x) snips or shears (xi)
pliers (xii) grooves and rivet sets (xiii) soldering Iron
3.0 Sheet metal operations:
3.1shearing: It designates a cut in a straight line across, a strip, sheet or bar. This procedure
leaves a clean edge on the piece of metal that is sheared or cut. The basic shearing operations
are
Curing off: This means severing a piece from a strip with a cut along a single line.
Parting: It signifies that scrap is removed between the two pieces to part them.
Blanking: cutting a whole piece from sheet metal.
Punching: It is a operation of producing circular holes on a sheet metal by a punch and die.
Notching: This is a process of removing metal to the desired shape from the side or edge of a
sheet or strip.

Slitting: Shearing is conducted between, rotary blades. It cuts the sheet metal length wise.
Lancing: This makes a cut part way across a strip.
nibbing: Cutting any shape from sheet metal by nibbing machine.
Trimming: It is the operation of curing away excess metal in a flange or flash from a piece.
3.2 Bending: It occurs when forces are applied to localized areas, such as in bending a piece of
metal into a right angle and forming occurs when complete items or parts are shaped.
3.3 Drawing: it is a operation of producing thin walled hollow or vessel shaped parts from
sheet metal.
3.4 Squeezing: It is a quick and widely used way of forming ductile metal. The squeezing
operations of sizing, coining, bobbing, riveting etc.
4.0 Sheet metal Joints:
Hem: It is an edge or border made by following. Three common type of hems are single hem,
double hem and wired edge.
Seam: It is a joint made by fasting two edges together. Most common type of seam & are
Lap Seam: Lap joint by soldering.
Single seam: Used to join a bottom to vertical bodies
The double Seam: its formed edge is bent upward against the body.
The dovetail seam: Used to join flat plate to a cylindrical piece.

6. MECHANICAL WORKING OF METALS

1.0 It is simply plastic deformation performed to change dimensions, properties and surface
condition of a metal by means of mechanical pressure.
* If plastic deformation above re-crystallization temperature but below melting point is hot
working.
* If plastic deformation below re-crystallization temperature is cold working.
Hot working methods:
Hot rolling: Rolling is the most rapid method of forming metal into desired shape by plastic
deformation in between rolls.
* bars, plates, sheets, rails and other structural sections like I-section, channel section, Equal
angle and T-sections. Etc is manufactured by rolling.
Piercing: It is the process employed for the manufacturing of seamless tubes.
Drawing: It is the process of making cup shaped parts from flat sheet metal blanks.
Hot spinning: it is a process of making circular sections from sheet metal. It is carried on lathe
Extrusion: It is a process in which heated billet or slug of metal is forced by high pressure
through an orifice that is shaped to provide the desired form
Rods bghgg* W--ks brass cartridges, lead cover cables, aircraft parts and many hardware items
are typical product of extrusion.

Searks less tubes in mass production are manufactured by the extrusion process.
1.2 Cold working methods:
Cold drawing: The operation involves the forcing of metal through a die by means of a tensile
force applied to the exit side of the die. All the wire that is available is produced by cold
drawing through dies.
Cold Spinning: It is the operation of shaping very thin metal by pressing it against a form
while it is rotating.
* Used in making of bells on musical instruments, light fixtures, kitchen ware, and large
processing kettles.
Cold extrusion: It is similar to that of hot extrusion. Collapsible medical tubes and toothpaste
tubes are made in this method.
Cold heading: It is a cold forging process, used primarily for the manufacture of bolts, screws,
rivets and similar items.
Thread rolling: It is used for mass production of threaded parts.
Rotary swaging: It is the process used to reduce the cross sectional area of rods and tubes.
Coining: Process involves the impression and rising of images or characters from a punch and
die into the metal.
* Coins, medals and other such similar parts are produced by this process.
7. HEAT TREATMENT
1.0 heat Treatment: Heat treatment can be defined as the process of changing the structure
and properties of metal by controlled heating and cooling.
Purposes of heat treatment:
* To relieve the internal stresses.
* To refine the grain size so as to improve the mechanical properties
* To improve the mach inability.
* To increase corrosion and wear resistance.
1.1Critical temperature: When steel is heated at high temperature, then at a certain
temperature change starts in the internal structure. The temperature at which this change starts
take place is called critical temperature.
1.2 Lower critical temperature: The temperature at which the change in structure start taking
place is called lower critical temperature. This is about 723 C.
1.3 Higher critical temperature: The temperature at which constituents Iron and carbon mix
up completely and becomes one. This point of temperature is called upper critical point.
1.4 Heat Treatment processes:
Annealing: It is the process of heating steel slightly above its critical range holding it there
until the temperature of the piece is uniform throughout and then cooling at a slow rate.
* The primary purpose of annealing is to soften and to increase the ductility.
* It also relieves internal stress.
Normalizing: It is the process of heating the metal above the upper critical temperature and
cooling in air.
* The purpose is to refine the grain structure, relieve the internal tresses and to improve the
machine ability.

Hardening: It is the process of heating steel to a temperature within or above its critical range
and then cooling it rapidly in oil or water or other suitable solutions.
* The purpose of Harding is to develop high hardness, wear resistance and ability to cut other
materials.
Tempering: It is the process of heating the hardened steel below lower critical temperature,
holding at this temperature for sufficient time and slow coolie
* Tempering reduces the hardness, brittleness and increases toughness.
Carburizing: It is a process whereby carbon is absorbed into the surface of steel alloys. It
consists in heating of steel to a red heat, in contact with some carboneous material.
* The process is carried out on low carbon steels for producing hard surface.
Nitriding: It is a process of case hardening ferrous alloy of suitable composition by absorption
of nitrogen. This is done by heating in an atmosphere of ammonia.
Cyaniding: It is a Case hardening process in which both carbon and Nitrogen added to the
surface layers of the steel.
Induction hardening: It is a surface herding process in which the part to be surface hardened
is placed within an induction coil through which a high frequency current is passed.
Flame hardening: It is a surface Harding process in which the part is heated to hardening
temperature with an oxy-acetylene flame.

8. Foundry
1.0 Foundry: It deals with the process of making castings in moulds prepared by patterns.
1.1 Casting: It is the process of pouring molten metal, into mould and allowing it to solidify
* In order to prepare a component by casting the following are required.
(a) pattern (b)molding sand (c) molten-material
1.2 Types of patterns:
Most commonly used types of patterns are single piece pattern, split pattern
Match plate pattern, cope and drag pattern, gated pattern, loose piece pattern, sweep pattern,
shall pattern etc.
* Wooden pattern are used for small sized production schedules
* Metal patters are used for large size production
* Match plate patterns are used for small castings in large quantities.
* Sweep patterns are used for symmetrical mouth particularly in large sizes.
1.3 Pattern allowance:
Shrinkage allowance: It is provided to compensate for the volumetric loss of metal during
cooling in the moulds. It is added to pattern made larger size by an amount equal to that of
shrinkage.
Machining allowance: It is provided on the pattern in order to get required surface finish for
the casting. It is added to pattern.
Draft allowance: All vertical Surfaces of the pattern are provided taper allowance so that
pattern can be removing easily. It is a positive allowance.
Color codes of patterns:

* Surface to be left unfinished - Black

* Surface to be machine - red
* Seats for loose pieces- Red stripes on yellow back ground.
* Core prints-

- Yellow

1.4 Moulding tools and equipments:

Shovel: used for mixing and tempering moulding sand.
Riddle: A riddle sometimes called a screen. Used for removing foreign material such as this,
shot metal, splinters of wood etc., from moulding sand.
Rammers: Used to pack the sand evenly around the pattern
Slick: Used for repairing and finishing the mould surface and edges after the pattern has been
withdrawn.
Lifters: Used for removing the sand particles from the mould.
Swab: Used for moisturizing the edges of sand mould.
Vent rod: Used to make series of holes in the sand of a mould to permit gases to escape.
Draw spike: Used to remove the pattern from the mould
Trowels: Used to shape and smoothen the surface of the mould and for doing minor repairs
Bellow: Used to blow loose particles of sand from the pattern and the mould cavity.
Moulding Box: Top part of Box is called cope, bottom part is called drag and middle part is
called cheek.
1.5 TYPES OF MOULDING SAND:
Green Sand: It is a mixture of silica sand with 18 to 30% Clay, and moisture 6 to8%. used for
small and medium size castings.
Dry sand: Which is free from moisture, used for making large casting
Lome sand: it contains 50%clay. It is particularly employed for large casting.
Facing sand : forms the face of the mould. Used to prevent the metal from burning into the
sand.
Core Sand: used for making cores sometimes called oil sand.
Parting sand: Used to keep the green sand from sticking to the pattern and also to allow the
sand on the parting surface of the cope and drag to separate without clinging.
1.6 PROPERTIES OF MOULDING SAND:
Porosity: It is the property of the sand which allows the gases and steam to escape through the
sand.
Flow ability: It is the ability to behave like a fluid so that, it will flow to all portions of a
mould and take up required shape.
Collapsibility: It is the property due to which the sand mould collapses after solidification of
the casting to allow a free Contraction of the metal.
Adhesiveness: Property due to which it is capable of adhering to another body.
Cohesiveness: This is the ability of sand particle to stick together.
Refractoriness: The ability of sand to with stand high temperature of the molten metal without
fusing.
1.7 MOULDING PROCESS:

Floor moulding: Production of Medium and large castings.

Pit moulding: moulds of large jobs are generally prepared in a pit dug in the foundry floor.
Bench moulding: For small casting which are light in weight.
MOULDING Machines:
Squeezer Machine: moulding sand in the flask is squeezed until the moulds attain the desired
density.
Jolt machine: The action of raising and sudden dropping of the table the sand get packed and
rammed. The sand is rammed hardest at the parting plane and around the pattern and remains
less dense in the top.
Jolt squeeze machine: - a combination of squeeze and Jolt action is often employed.
Sand Slinger: Ramming is obtained by the impact of sand which falls at a very high velocity.
1.9 SPECIAL MOULDING PROCESSES
* Co2 moulding process uses sodium silicate as the binder. Silica gel formation occurs in Co2
moulding.
* Therino setting Resin is used as the binder for shell moulding.
* Wax patterns are used in Investment casting.
2,0 PERMANENT MOULD CASTING
* Very high rate of production is achieved in die casting and tolerances of the order of 0.025
mm.
* Semi centrifugal casting is used to obtain gears, disked wheels, pulleys etc.
* True centrifugal is Ideal for hollow cylindrical castings such as bushings, gun barrels, cast
Iron pipes etc.
* In centrifugal casting, cores are not required for hollow castings.
2.1 GATING AND RISERING OF CASTING
* Gating system is provided to continuous, uniform feed of molten metal with as little
turbulence as possible to themould cavity.
* Sprue is a vertical passage through the cope and connects the pouring basin with the runner
or gate.
* Riser permit the molten metal to rise above the highest point in the casting after the mould
cavity is filled up.

9. MACHINE TOOLS
Lathe Machine
Lathe: The main function of a lathe is to remove metal in the form of chips from a work piece
to give it the required shape and size, this is accomplished by holding the work securely and
rigidly on the lathe and then rotating it against a cutting tool.
Specification of a lathe: The size of a lathe
(i) Height of centers from the bed (ii) Maximum swing over bed

is

(iii)Maximum swing over carriage. (iv) Maximum distance between centers

specified

by

(v) Overall length of the bed.

Types of lathe
* Speed lathe has no carriage, gearbox; used for wood working, polishing and spinning.
Engine or center lathe widely used for many operations like turning, facing, taper turning &,
thread cutting, drilling etc.
.* Bench lathe is used for small and precision works.
Tool room lathe is used for very precision turning of tools, gauges and dies.
Turrent and capstan lathe are production lathes used for mass production.
Automatic lathes are high speed, heavy duty and mass production lathes with complete
automatic.
Special purpose lathes are designed to perform certain specified operations only. Eg. Crank
shaft, Duplicating lathe.
1.3 - Functions of lathe parts:
Bed: Base of the lathe. All parts are located on the bed. The bed has flat or inverted V guide
ways.
Outer ways provides bearing and sliding surface for the carriage
Inner ways provide ways for tail stock.
Automatic chip disposal is advantage in inverted V-guide ways.
Made gray cast iron alloy with nickel and chromium.
The bed material should have high compressive strengths, wear resistance and good absorb of
vibration.
Head Stock: Secured permanently at the left end of the bed.
* It carries a hollow spindle and a live centrecan be fitted into the hollow spindle.
The spindle got external thread and taper is 1:20.
a back gear is provide minimum speeds to the spindle.
Head stock can run at different speeds using (a) Belt drive on cone pulley (b) All geared Head
stock
(c) Variable speed motor.
*Tail Stock: Located on the inner ways at the right hand end of the bed.
it is used for supporting the right end of the work piece by means of a dead centre.
It holds a tool for performing operations liked drilling etc.
It can be also used for taper turning operation.
Carriage: it is supported on the lathe bed ways and can move in a direction parallel to the lathe
axis. It consists of saddle, cross slide, compound rest, tool post apron.
Saddle carries the cross slide, compound rest and tool post. It move along the guide ways.
Cross slide carries the compound rest and tool post. It can be moved by hand or by power feed.
Compound rest is mounted on the cross slide. It carries a circular base called swivel plate
which is graduated in degrees. It is used to set the tool for angular cuts, It moved by means of
hand wheel.
* Tool post is fitted over the compound rest. The tool is clamped in the tool post.
Lower part of the carriage is termed as the apron. It is attached to saddle and hangs in front of
the bed.

Feed mechanism: The lathe tool can be given three types of feed, namely, longitudinal, cross
and angular.
Feed rod is a plain long shaft used to move the carriage or cross slide all operations expect
thread cutting.
The lead screw is a long thread shaft is used to transverse the tool along the work to produce
screw threads. The half nut or split nut makes the carriage to engage or disengage the lead
screw.
Types of feeds: when the tool moves parallel to the lathe bed axis, called longitudinal feed, this
is achieved by moving the carriage.

When the tool moves perpendicular to the axis of the lathe bed axis the movement is called
cross feed, this is achieved by moving the cross slide.
When the tool moves at an angle to the axis of the lathe, the movement is called angular feed,
this is achieved by moving the compound slide.
1.5 Work holding and supporting devices: - The devices employed for holding and supporting
the work piece and the tool on the lathe are also called its accessories.
Chucks: Works of short length, large diameter and regular and irregular shapes can be held in
chucks the chuck is mounted on the spindle of the lathe.
Three jaw is also called self centering chuck. It consists of a cylindrical body having three jaws
fixed radially at its front. When the chuck key is tightened the work is centered automatically.
Four jaw is also called independent chuck. Irregular or eccentric jobs can be held in this chuck.
Collect chuck used for holding bars of small sizes. It is normally used in capstone and
automatic lathe.
Magnetic chuck is used for holding thin jobs of magnetic materials.
Centers are used for work holding in a lathe. A live center rotates with the work piece and a
dead centre is stationary which supports the right end of the work piece.
The included angle of the centre is 6o degree and is machined to standard morse taper.
Ordinary centre is used for general works and half centre is used for facing operation without
the removal of the centre.
Face Plate: It is a circular plat screwed to the lathe spindle. It consists of radial, plain and T
slots. Large and irregular jobs which can hold on face plate by bolts and clamps.
Angle Plate: It has two faces at right angle to each other, holes and slots are provided on both
faces to held the work in vertical
Mandrels: It is used for holding hollow work piece between centers.
Catch Plate or Driving Plate: It is a circular plate and transfer motion to the dog fitted with the
work piece. It is used to drive the work piece through the dog or carrier, when the work piece is
held between centers.
Carrier or Dog: It is used to transfer motion from the rotating catch plate.
Supporting devices: Used to long support work pieces.
Steady rest is fastened to the lathe bed at a convenient point.

Follower rest is bolted to the carriage and thus it supports the work immediately behind the
tool throughout the transverse.
1.6 Lathe Operations:
Turning: Tool is fed parallel to the lathe axis and cylindrical surface is produced.
Facing: It is the operation of machining of the end face of work to make it flat. The tool is feed
perpendicular to the axis of lathe.
Grooving: It is the process of reduces the diameter of a work piece over a very narrow surface.
It is also called under cutting or necking.
Parting: It is the operation of cutting the work piece. After it is machined to the desired size and
shape.
Knurling: It is the process of embossing a diamond shaped regular pattern on the surface of a
work piece. It is done to give a good gripping surface on the work piece.
Drilling: It is the operation of making a hole in the work piece. It is done when the job rotates,
the drill bit is fed into the work pieces by turning the tail stock hand wheel.
Boring: It is the operations of enlarging a hole, produced by drilling, boring is used when
correct drill is not available.
Reaming: It is the operation of finishing a drilling or bored hole to accurate size. The reamer is
held in the tail stock spindle.
Magnetic chuck is used for holding thin jobs of magnetic materials
Chamfering: It is the operation of beveling the extreme end of the work to protect the end of
the work piece from being damaged. It is an essential operation to be performed after thread
cutting.
Taper Turning: A taper is defined as the uniform Se in the diameter of a work piece measured
along its length.
Angle of Taper: If 'D' is large diameter, d is small diameter, 1' is length of tapered part, then
D- d
Tan a= l
Where a is angle of taper or half taper angle
Conicity : It the ratio of the difference between diameters of the taper to the length of taper.
D-d
Conicity (K) =-----l

Taper turning methods:

(a)Taper turning by the compound rest: The compound rest may be swivelled and set at the
desired half taper angle and tool is fed by rotating the compound rest wheel. It is suitable for
short but steep tapers.
(b) Form tool: This method is applicable for short work only taper turning is done by a form
tool.
Taper attachment: It is suitable for any length of the job. Internal taper can also be turned.

Tail Stock Set Over: In this method the tail stock may be set over by loosing the nut from its
centre line. Used for turning small taper on long jobs and external taper one
D- d
Set over (s)= 2
1.8 Thread Cutting: It is the operation to produce helical groove on a cylindrical or conical
surface by feeding the tool longitudinally, the rotation of lead screw is used to traverse the toot
along the work to produce screw threads.
The longitudinal feed should be equal to the pitch bf the thread to be cut per evolution of the
work piece.
Speed of spindle

Pitch of lead screw

Speed of lead screw

Pitch of thread to be cut

I case of cutting right hand threads, both the spindle and the lead screw will rotate in the same
direction and carriage must move towards head stock.
For cutting left hand threads, the spindle and lead screw will rotate opposite to each other and
carrage must move away from the head stock.
1.9 Capstan and turret lathes: in these lathes tail stock is absent and it is replaced by hexagonal
turret.
Automatic indexing and bar feeding mechanism is used to reduce the time required to produce
a component.
* Altogether 14 different tools can be mounted in the lathes.
* Used for mass production.
Turret lathe Vs Capstan Lathe:
* The turret of turret lathe is directly mounted on the bed. The turret of a capstan1athe is
mounted on a short slide which slides on saddle.
Turret lathe provide almost rigidity to the tool support, in capstan lathe, over hanging of ram
present anon rigid Construction.
Turret lathe is suitable for heavy jobs. Capstan lathe is suitable for bar works.
1.10. Definitions:
Steed: Speed is the rate of rotation of work piece, express in revolution per minute (rpm) and
denoted by N.
Cutting Speed: It is the speed at which metal is removed by the tool from the work piece. ,
Cutting speed (v) 11DN/1000 m/min
Where D is the diameter of the work piece in mm.
Feed: Feed is the distance the tool advances for each revolution of the work piece. It is express
in mm/rev.
Dept of cut: It is the perpendicular distance measured from the machined surface to the uncut
surface of work. It is expressed in MM.
Depths of cut = d1-d2/2
If d1 = diameter of work before machining, d2= diameter of work after machining.

DRILLING MACHINE
Drilling: It is the operation of producing hole in the work piece by using a rotating cutter called
drill. In the drilling machine, the work piece is held stationary and as the drill rotates it is fed
into the work piece.
Type of drilling machines
Portable drilling machine: it is very small and compact drilling machine. it may be operated by
hand or by an electric motor.
The maximum size of drill it Call hold is up to 18mm.
* This machine is specified by the maximum drilling capacity.
Serit Drilling Machine: it is a light seed machine tool. it is mounted on a bench it is called
bench type and if mounted on face it is floor type.

It is specified by the diameter of the largest work piece that can be drilled.
* It can drill holes from 1.5mm to 15mm diameter.
The drill is fed into the work piece by hand only using rack and pinion arrangement.
Upright drilling machine: It is similar to sensitive drilling machine except that it has power
feed mechanism for rotating drill and it designed for medium size work.
* Round column drilling machine is also known as pillar drilling machine.
The box column machine is more rigid than a round column machine.
The maximum size of holes can be drill up to 50mm.
Radial Drilling Machine: It is used for drilling large and heavy work pieces.
Three movements are possible in a radial drilling machine to locate the drill quickly over any
point on the work.
It have an additional swivelling adjustment in either the head or the arm and can drill holes at
any angle.
* It is specified by the length of the arm and column diameter.
Gang Drilling taws Machine: When a number of single spindle drilling machine columns are
placed side by side on a commonbase and have a common work table. A series of operation can
be done on the job.
Multi spindle tingling machine: These machines have several spindles driven by a single motor
and all-spindles are fed simultaneously.
22 Drilling Machine Operations: Operations that can be performed in a drilling machine are
Drilling (b) Reaming

(c) Counter boring

(d) Counter sinking (d) Tapping

Counter Boring: It is the operation of enlarging one end of a drilled hole. The enlarged hole
forms a square shoulder with the original hole. Counter boring is done to accommodate the
heads of bolts, studs and pins.
Counter Sinking: It is the operation of making a cone shape enlargement of the end of a hole. It
is done to accommodate flat head screw or counter sank rivet fitted into the hole.
Tapping: It is the operation of cutting internal threads by means of a cutting tool called tap.
Tap grill size: the size of the tap is equal to the outside diameter of its threads. Therefore the
drilled hole must be smaller than the tap by twice the depth of the thread.
Drill size= Tap size - 2 x depth of thread

2.3Tool holding Devices: The different methods are used for holding the drill in a drill spindle
are
(a) By directly fitting in the Spindle: The tool shank is forced into the tapered hole of the
spindle and the tool is gripped by friction. The tool may be move from the taper hole using a
drift.
Drill Sleeve: If the taper shank of the tool is smaller than the taper in the spindle hole, a taper
drill sleeve is used.
Drill Socket: When the tapered tool shank is larger than spindle taper, drill sockets are used to
hold the tool.
Drill Chuck: The drill chuck is used to hold smaller size driers. It has two or more adjustable
jaws set radially to hold straight shank drills.
14 Twist Drill Nomenclatures:
(a)Tang: It is the flattened end of taper shank. It fits into the slot in the machine spindle.
Shank: It may be to tapered or straight. Morse taper is used for taper shank.
Lip of cutting edge: It is the edge which actually cuts the material.
Flutes: Flutes are helical grooves cut on the body of the drill. The functions of flutes are to
form the cutting edges, to allow the chips to escape and to allow the cutting fluid to reach the
cutting edges.
Point Angle: Point is the cutting end of the drill and point angle is the angle it between the
cutting lips. The usual point angle is 118 degrees, but for harder, steel alloys, the angle
increases.
2.5 1 Drill Sizes: In metric system drills are commonly manufactured froth 0.2 to 100
mm. in British system the drills are manufactured in three different sizes
Number sizes: The drill size varies from No. 1 to No. 80.
Letter sizes: In this system the drill sizes range from A to Z.
(c) Fractional sizes: In this system the drill sizes range from 1/64 inch to 5 inch.
Cutting Speed: It is expressed in m/min
n DN
Cutting speed (V) 1000 m/min
D is the diameter of the drill. N is the rpm of the drill spindle.
Feed: The feed of a drill is the distance the drill moves into the work at each revolution of the
spindle. It is expressed in mm/rev or per min.
The feed per min = feed per rev x rpm
Depth of Cut: The depth of cut in drilling is equal to one half of the drill diameter.
T=d mm
2

3.0 Boring machines: They are used to bore holes in large and heavy parts like engine drams,
engine cylinders, machine housing.

3.1 types of Boring machines;

Horizontal Boring Machines: Work is supported on a table which is stationary and the tool
revolves in horizontal axis.
Vertical Boring Machine: The work rotates on a horizontal table about a vertical axis and the
tool is stationary except for feeds.
Jig boring Machine: it is the most actuate of all machine tools. Used for production of Jigs,
Fixtures, Tools and other precision parts. The machining accuracy is a firm.

SHAPING MACHINE
Shaper: Shaper is a reciprocating type of machine tool intended, primarily to produce flat
surface. Here tool is allowed to reciprocate.
. 4.1 Classification of Shapers: Shapers are classified as follows.
(I) according to the type of design of the table
(a) Standard shaper. (b) Universal shaper
According to the position and travel of the ram
(a) Horizontal type

(b) Vertical type

According to the type of driving mechanism used for giving reciprocating motion to the tarn.
Crank type

(b) Hydraulic type

(c) Geared type

According to the Design of table:

a) Standard Shaper: The table as two movements only, vertical and horizontal to give the feed.
Universal shaper: Table can be tilted about two more axes. One axis is parallel to the ram axis
and other perpendicular to the first axis. A universal shaper is mostly used in tool room work.
According to the position and travel or the ram z
Horizontal type: ram
produce flat surface.

reciprocates along Horizontal direction. They are used mainly to

Vertical Type: ram reciprocates along vertical axis. They are used for machining internal
surface, keyways, slots and grooves.
According to the type of driving mechanism used for giving reciprocating motion to the ram.
Crank Shaper: It uses a crank mechanism to convert circular motion of a large gear called bull
gear into reciprocating motion.
Geared Shaper: Reciprocating motion of the ram is obtained using rack and pinion mechanism.
Hydraulic Shaper: Reciprocating motion is obtained using hydraulic power. Infinite number of
cutting speeds can be obtained from zero to the maximum value and the control is easier.
4.3. Specifications of a shaper: The size of the shaper is specified as follows.
(i) Maximum length of stroke
shaper.

(ii) The maximum size of cube that can be held in a

A number of other details are required to specify a shaper fully.

(i)Maximum vertical adjustment of the table (ii) Power of the drive motor
(iii) Type of driving mechanism
(v) Floor space and net weight

(iv) Type of shaper

4.4 Quick Return Mechanism: The quick return of the ram can be obtained by any one of the
following mechanisms
(a) Crank slotted link mechanism

(b) Whitworth quick return mechanism

Hydraulic mechanism
The average time ratio of cutting stroke to return stroke in a shaper is 3:2.
4.5 Shaper operations: The basic operations performed on a shaper are machining horizontal
surface, vertical surface, angular surface, cutting slots keyways and machining irregular
surface.
4.6 Cutting Speed: Cutting speed is the speed at which the tool traverses through the material.
Cutting Speed = Length of the cutting stroke
Time taken for the cutting stoke
Feed: It is the relative movement of tool or work in a direction perpendicular to the movement
of the ram. It is express in mm per stroke. The feed is always given at end of return stroke.
Depth of Cut : It is the thickness of metal removed in one cut It is expressed in mm.

SLOTTING MACHINE
5.0 Slotter: Slotting machine is a reciprocating type of machine tool similar to a shaper. The
main difference is that in a slotter the ram holding the tool reciprocates in a vertical axis, where
as in a shaper the ram holding the tool reciprocates in a horizontal axis.
5.1 Types of stotters :
Puncher Stotter : They are heavy duty machines, equipped with a powerful motor and can cut
metal at a very high speed.. It consists of a square or circular table.
Stoner Specifications: The size of a slotter is specified by the maximum length of the stroke of
the ram. The size of a slotter usually ranges from 80to 900mm.
Precision Slotter . It is a lighter machine and it is operated at high speeds. It is designed to take
light cuts giving accurate finish. these are usually fitted whit worth quick return mechanism.
To specify the machine fully the following particulars are also given.
(1) The diameter of the table in mm (ii) Cross and longitudinal movement of the table
(iii) Number of speeds and feeds
(v) Floor space required

(iv) Power of the motor and

Slotter Operations: The following operations are performed on a slotter

(I) Flat surface machining (ii) Circular surface machining
(iii) Irregular surface and can machining

(iv) Cutting slots, keyways and grooves

PLANING MACHINE
Planer is the largest reciprocating type machine tool. It is primarily intended to produce plane
and flat surface by a single point cutting pool. The main difference between a shaper and a
planer is that in a planer the work is moved against a stationary tool and the is fed into the
work. Where as in a shaper the tool moves across the stationary work and fed across the tool.

6A Types of planning machine:

Standard or Double housing planer: It consists of two massive vertical housing connected by a
cross rail.
Open side planer: It has a housing on one side of the base only as a cantilever. It allows large
and wide jobs.
Pit Planer: The table is made stationary and the columns carrying the cross rail are made to
reciprocate. It is used for very large work.
Edge or plate planer: It is used for squaring and bevelling the edges of steel plates for different
pressure vessels and ship building works.
Divided table planer: It consists of two tables on the bed which may be reciprocated separately
or together. This type of design saves idle time while setting the work.
6.2 Driving Mechanism: Mechanisms used for driving the table of planer are
(a) Crank drive

(b) Open & Cross belt drive

(c) D.C reversible motor drive

.
(d) Hydraulic drive.
6.3 Specification of a planer: Its size is given by the largest rectangular solid that can
reciprocate under the tool. It is known by
The horizontal distance between the two vertical housings.
Vertical distance between the table top and the cross rail when the latter is in its top most
position.
Maximum length of table travel or length of stroke.
Planer Operations: The common operations performed in a planer are
(1) Planning flat horizontal surface
Oil) Planning curved surface
(ii) Planning vertical surface
(iv) Planning slots & grooves
(vi) Machining dovetails

Planing at an angle

6.5 planer Vs Shaper:

Planer is specially adopted to large work. Whereas the shaper can do only small work.
On the planer the work is moved against stationary tool but on shaper the tool moves across the
work which is stationary.
In a planer, work setting required much of skill and where as shaper work may be clamped
easily and quickly.
* On the planer the quick return mechanism is incorporated for the table but in a shaper the
quick return mechanism is used for driving the ram.
* Planer tool are much more robust that used in a shaper.

MILLING MACHINE

Milling : A milling is a machine tool that removes metal in the form of chips by a rotating
multi point cutter. It removed metal in the form of chips by a rotating multipoint cutter. It
removes metal at a very fast rate.
Types of milling machines:
Column and knee type: It consists of a column and a knee which can be moved up and down, a
long cross and longitudinal directions.
(a) Plain milling machine: table consists of three movements only
(5) Universal milling machine: fourth motion of table i.e. Rotation is apart from standard table
motions.
(c) Vertical milling machine: The spindle of the machine is vertical. The machine is used for
machining grooves, slots and flat surface.

7.2 Specification of milling machine: The size of column and knee type milling machine is
specified by
(i) Maximum length of longitudinal, cross and vertical travels of the table.
7.3 Milling Operations: The different operations performed in the milling machine are
Plain milling: Plain milling is the operation of producing plain, flat and horizontal surface
parallel to the axis of rotation of the cutter, including slots and grooves. This also called slab
milling, when very wide plain milling cutter is used.
Face Milling: It is performed by a face milling cutter rotated about an axis perpendicular to
the work piece.
Side Milling: It is the operation of producing a flat vertical surface on the side of work piece
using a side milling cutter.
End Milling: It is the operation of a flat surface which may be horizontal, vertical or inclined to
the table. It is also used for producing slots, grooves and keyways.
Angular Milling: It is the operation of producing an angular surface on a work piece. The
angular groove may be single or double angle.
Gang Milling: It is the operation which involves the use of a combination of more than two
cutters.
Saw Milling: It is the operation of producing narrow slots or grooves. Parting off operation can
also be done using the slitting saw.
T-Slot Milling: A T-Slot is produced using a T-Slot cutter. The T-slot milling cutter is a special
form of end mill.
Form milling: It is the operation of producing the required profiles on the work piece. The
profile may be concave, convex or any other shape.
Gear Cutting: The gear cutting operation may be done using a form cutter, having formed
Cutting edges of involute shape.
7.4 Tool holding devices Arbors: It is a short shaft. The cutters having a bore at the centre are
mounted on the arbor.
Collects: It is used to hold straight shank milling cutters.
Adaptors: It is used to hold, shank type cutters whose shank is smaller than that of hole in the
spindle.
7.5 Milling processes:

Up milling: It is also called Conventional Milling. It is the process of removing metal by a

milling cutter rotated against the direction of travel of the work piece. The cutting force in up
milling increases from zero to the maximum value per tooth movement of the cutter.
Down milling: It is also called climb milling. Metal is removed when the cutter teeth move
downwards. Here the cutter rotates in the same direction as the travel of the work piece.

smile apart from standard table motions.

GRINDING MACHINES:
3.0 Grinding: A metal cutting operation performed by means of rotating abrasive wheel that
acts as a cutting tool called grinding. Accuracy in dimension is in the order of 25 microns.
Kinds of Grinding:
Rough or non precision Grinding: Snagging and off hand grinding are examples for rough
grinding, examples for this are trimming of surface left by the sprues and risers on castings,
removal of flash on forging etc.
Precision Grinding: This is connected with producing good surface finish and high degree of
accuracy. The type of surface to be ground, is classified as
(a) External cylindrical grinding
(c) Surface grinding

(h) Internal Cylindrical

(d) Form grinding

Grinding machines:
Rough Grinders: The removal of stock without any reference to the accuracy. They are mainly
of the following type
(a) Bench & floor stand grinders

(b) portable & flexible shift grinders

(c) Swing frame grinders (d) abrasive belt grinders

Precision grinders: Are those that finish parts to very accurate dimensions.
(a) Cylindrical Grinders: It is primarily used for grinding plain cylindrical parts, contoured
Cylinder, tapers etc. There are four movements involved in a cylindrical centre type grinding;
Work must revolve
(ii) The wheel must revolve
(iii)The work must move past the wheel

(iv) The wheel must move past the work.

Plain center type grinders are essentially a lathe on which a grinding wheel has been
substituted for a single point tool.

* In universal centre type grinder, the head stock spindle can be swivelled, at an angle in a
horizontal plane.
(b) Centreless grinders: It is a method of grinding exterior cylindrical, tapered and formed
surfaces on work pieces that are not held and rotated on centers.
* It requires a grinding wheel, regulating or back up wheel and a work rest.
Centre less grinding may be done in one at three ways, through feed, inked, and end feed.
Through feed is used for long and slender shafts, where no shoulders or other forms are not
present.
enfeed is used for components having forms or shoulders.
Endfeed is used for components to produce tapes components.
(c)
Internal grinders: Used to finish straight, tapered or formed holes to correct size. There are
three general types of internal grinders.
(a) Chucking

(b) Planetary

(c) Centre less

Surface grinder: They are employed to finish plane or flat surfaces and also capable of grinding
irregular, curved, tapered surfaces.
Tool and cutter grinder: They are used mainly to sharpen and recondition multiple tooth cutters
like remers, milling cutters, drills, taps etc.
(e) Special grinding machines: These are used to do highly specialized work. Ex: - Crank shaft
grinders, piston grinders, thread grinders and tool post grinders.
8.3 Wheel Materials:
Abrasives: It is a substance used for grinding and polishing operations. They are classified into
two groups.
Natural: Includes sandstone or quartz, emery, corundum diamond.
Artificial: Include chiefly Silicon carbide and aluminum oxide.
Grit, Grade and structure of grinding wheel:
Grit or grain it indicate the size of abrasive grains used in making a wheel.
* Coarse Wheels are used for fast removal of materials and for soft and ductile materials.
Fine grain wheels are used to grind hard and brittle materials. .
Grade: It refers to the hardness with which the band holds the cutting point.
The grade shall be denoted by a alphabet. A to H indicates soft grade, I to P indicates medium
and Q to Z indicates hard grain.
Structure of Grain Spacing: The structure refers to the number of cutting edges per unit area of
wheel face as well as to the number & size of void spaces between grains, denoted by numbers.
Soft and ductile materials require an open structure.
Hard and brittle materials require dense structure.
9.0 Surface finishing operations:
Honing: It is a grinding process for finishing round holes by means of bonded abrasive stones
hones.
*

Amount of material removed is less 0.25 nun.

Automobile cylindrical liners are honed for surface finish.

91 Lapping: It can be used on flat cylindrical and spherical surface.

* Metal that can be removed is 0.005 to 0.01mm.

* It is used for slip gauges, piston pins, roller bearings and optical parts.
93 Super finishing: Generally all machining and grinding leave surface with fragmented, metal
which cause excessive wear and noisy operations. It is removed using super finishing.
A very fine grit abrasive stone is used.
* Amount of material removed is around about 0.005 mm.
9.4 Buffing: It is a final operation to remove the polish of a metal and to bring maximum luster.
* Polishing wheels with fine abrasive particles are used.
Pickling: It refers to the removal of surface oxides and scale from by acid solutions.
Commonly pickling solutions contain sulphuric or hydrochloric acids.
It is commonly done on rolled shapes, wires, sheets heat treatment steel parts.
* In some applications, such as on aluminum, pickling is called oxidizing.
9.6 Electro Plating: It is the most popular means of applying metallic coatings on the surface of
metals and sometimes on non-metals.
* This is done for protection against corrosion or against wear and abrasion and for appearance.
The four Common plating metals are chromium, nickel, copper, zinc, and tin.
* The four essential elements of a plating process are the cathode, anode, electrolyte and direct
current.
9.7 Hot Dipping -. A protective coating may be applied on
molten metal namely zinc, tin or an alloy of lead and tin.

by dipping them into certain

* The process of zinc coating on steel is called galvanizing.

Gear cutting: Gears can be best produce on mass production by hobbing.
* Gear finishing operation is called gear shaving.

Thin gears from sheet metal can be produced commercially by stamping.

Gear bobbing process is faster than milling because several teeth cut at time. .

LAWS OF MOTION
1.0 Mechanics: It is the branch of Physics which deals with action of forces.
Kinematics deals with motion of bodies and not about magnitude of forces.
Dynamics is the mathematical and physical study Of the behavior of bodies under the action of
forces that produce motion in a body.
Statics is the mathematical and physical study of the bodies in equilibrium under the action of
forces.
1.1 Kinematics:
Displacement is the shortest distance between initial and final position of the particle.
* Speed is the ratio of the distance travelled to time. It is a scalar quantity.
The displacement of a body in unit time is called velocity.

* A moving particle is said to have uniform velocity when equal displacement of particle takes
place in equal intervals of time.
* When n a body moves with uniform velocity, its acceleration is zero.
* The negative acceleration of a body is called Retardation.
1.2 Equations of motion: A body moving with uniform acceleration 'a'. Let its initial velocity
be u and attains a velocity 'V'. after covering a distance 's in the time 't.
Linear motion: v = u + at ; S = ut + 1 ate ; v2 a u2 = 2 as ; S.= u (n - 1/2) a
'S.' is the distance covered by the body in n th second.
1
Vertical motion v = u gt ;hut 2 gt2 ; v2 - tr2 = 2 gh
1
Circular motion 7. w = w 4- a i; 8= 0) + 2 a t2 ; 22 - (I) 12= 2 a o
Where w = angular velocity (rad/s) a = angular acceleration (rad/s2) 0 = angular displacement
(rad)
u2
Maximum height reached by the vertically thrown body 'H =
29
* Time of ascent is the time taken to reach the height by the body Y =
Time of descent is the time taken to travel from highest point to the position from which it has
projected upwards.
t=
Time of flight of a body is sum of time of ascent and time of descent. T =
13
Motion in two dimensions:
Projectile: A body which moves in a two dimension plane in the gravitational field of earth is
called a projectile.
Trajectory: The path followed by the projectile is called trajectory. The path of trajectory
parabola.
2u Sin&
* Time of flight (T) = g
Where '0 is angle of projection 'u' is initial velocity.
Range (R): The horizontal displacement undergone by a projectile, when it returns to its initial
elevation.
Sin20
R=Maximum height: The maximum height of a projectile is reached at a time when its vertical
velocity component has decreased to zero.
In long jump, the maximum span of jump is obtained when the angle of take off is 45.
Mass: It is the amount of matter contained in a given body. It does not vary with the change in
its position on the earth surface. It can be measured by Balance lever.

Weight: It is the gravitational force of attention of the body towards the centre of earth. It
varies with place to place. Weight is measured by spring balance.
2.0 Newton's law of motion:
Newton's first law: The momentum of body remains as along as no external force acts on it.
* First law introduces the concepts of 'force and inertia' and leads their definitions.
Force: Force is that which changes or tends to change the state of rest or of uniform motion of
a body.
Inertia: Inertia is the inability of a body to change its state.
Newton's Second law: Rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to applied force.
F=ma,

Units:

S. I -- Newtons

C.G.S-- dynes

M.K.S.kgm/s2.

Newton's Third law : To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Impulse: Is the product of force and time of application of force .
Impulse It (I) =Fx t=m (V - u)
Units:

C.G.S-- dyne-sec SI --Ns

2.1 Law of conservation of momentum: When no external force acts on a system, the algebraic
sum of the momentum of the bodies in the system remains constant any direction after any
number of collisions.
m2 112 = Ent vi+ m2 v2
u1 & u2 velocities of bodies before collision V1 & V2 are velocities after collision.
* If second body is moving in opposite direction to first one before collision.
rn2 u2 = mt vi in2 v2
Jet planes and Rockets work on the principle of conservation of momentum (or) Newton's third
law of motion.
Recoil of a gun is due to the principle of conservation of momentum (or) Newton's third law of
motion.
2.2 Law of conservation of energy: According le law of conservation of energy, energy can be
neither be created nor be destroyed, it Can be transferred from one form to another form.
Mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy by a dynamo.
Electrical energy is convened into heat energy is convened into heat energy and light energy by
arc lights, electric bulbs and heaters.
Sound energy is converted into electrical energy by microphones.
Internal combustion engines convert chemical or heat energy into mechanical energy.
*

Water falling from a certain height converts P.E. into Kinetic energy.

* Battery converts chemical energy into electrical energy.

* Steam engine converts heat energy into mechanical energy.

* Pelton wheel converts potential energy into mechanical energy.

Electrical motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
3.0 Rotational motion:
A body is said to have rotate. Motion when it moves in a circular path about a fixed point or
about an axis.
Eg : The motion of a grinding wheel, a fly wheel and the rotatory motion of the earth about its
own axis.
The angle subtended by an arc of length equal to its radius, at its centre is called radian. One
radian is equal to 57.18'
* The rate of angular displacement of a body is called velocity (w).
Linear velocity is the product of angular velocity (w ) and radius of the path (r) ie V = r w.
Angular acceleration (a ) is the rate of change of angular velocity.
Centripetal acceleration of a particle in circular motion with constant speed 'vs isdirected
towards the centre.
* The centripetal force is that force, which acting at right angles to the motion of the body
causes it to move in a circular path with constant angular velocity. This force is needed to keep
a body in circular motion.
The gravitational force applied by the sun on the earth makes revolve round the Sun. This
radial force, directed towards the centre of the earth's force, is centripetal force.
* The force experienced by a body moving in a circular path radially outwards is called the
centrifugal force.
Separation of cream by skimming milk, centrifugal pump basing on centrifugal
Torque is the product of force and perpendicular distance of the point from the line of action of
the force (T= f x f)
* In rotatory motion, moment of a force or Torque is the product of moment of inertia (I) and
angular acceleration ( a )
Power (P) is the product of torque (1) and angular velocity (to ).

In general, most of bodies like motion of the earth, have both translatory and rotatory motions.
The total kinetic energy is the sum of its translatory and rotational kinetic energies.
1
Total K.E = mv2 + - 1 2- I w2
The angular velocity of seconds hand of watch is T1/30 rad/sec.

Apparent weight of a person in a lift:

* w = mg is the real weight of a person.
* If the lift moves up with constant acceleration (a) the apparent weight of the person W1 = m
(g+a)
if the lift moves down with a constant acceleration W = m (g-a)

If the lift moves up or down with uniform acceleration W3= mg

In the case of a freely falling lift, the apparent weight of the person is zero.
5.0 Work, Power and energy:
Work is the product of force and displacement measured in the direction of force. W = F. S. Cos
a
Units: C.G.S system: Erg S i system : Joules, 1 Joule = 107 erg
One kilo Watt hour (Kwh) or unit is equal to 36 x 105 joules.
Power is the time rate at which work is done.

P= W/t, Units C.G.S System = erg/sec,

s.i. System= j/S (or)Watt/
* Energy is the capacity to do work; it has the same units as work.
Mechanical energy is of two forms, potential energy and kinetic energy.
Potential energy is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position, p E= mgh
I
Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by virtue of its motion, K. E =1/2 mv2.
*The relation between momentum and energy is , K.E = p2/2m where p is the momentum of
body.
Two bodies of different masses have the same kinetic energy. When heavier mass has
greater momentum than the lighter mass.
A Dimensional formula-:
Force :
MIT-2
Momentum and Impulse : M.LT- '
Power :
MUT'
Work and energy
: ML2 T2
Angular velocity : r
Angular acceleration: i1/42
Stress :
Ii4L-1T-2
Surface tension
: M1:2
Viscosity
:Mi..-41"
Latent Heat
:12 T-2
Electric charge : AT
Moment of Inertia
: MI?
Gravitation constant
: Ma.' lir
Pressure
: ML-ir
Young's, modulus: MU' r
Specific heat
: L2 T2 K'
Vectors and Scalars:
Vector: A physical quantity which has magnitude and direction is called vetor. E.g.
Displacement, velocity, momentum and force.
Scalar: A physical quantity which has only magnitude is called Scalar. Eg. Mass, time, speed,
energy, volume, density and work.
8.0 Friction:
Friction: The force which always opposes the motion of one body over there body in
contact with it is called the friction..
Static friction: The maximum frictional force present when a body just tends to slide over
the surface of another body is called the static friction.
Dynamic friction: The frictional force present when one body slides over other body are known
as dynamic friction or kinetic friction.
Rolling friction: When a body like awheel, cylinder, or drum rolls over the. Surface of another
body the friction is called roiling friction
8.2. Coefficient of friction:
* The Coefficient of friction between two surfaces is the ratio of the frictional force to the
normal reaction.
p=
Where '11 is the Coefficient of friction.
'F is the frictional force. 'R' is the Normal
reaction.
s
k> p r p S is the coefficient of static friction
R., is the coefficient of
kinetic reaction.
p is the coefficient of rolling friction.

Angle of friction: Incase of limiting friction, if the normal reaction and the frictional force be
compounded into a single force, which is referred to as resultant. The angle which this resultant
makes with the normal reaction is called the angle of friction.
Tan a = F/R =

8.4 The laws of limiting friction:

* Friction always opposes motion.
The force of friction is proportional to the normal reaction between the two surfaces in contact.
Friction is independent of the areas of the surfaces in contact, but depends on the material,
nature and condition of thesurfaces in contact.
9.0 Planetary motion:
Laws of universal gravitation: The gravitational force of attraction between two bodies is
directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between their centres.
Irr12
Gmtnk
Fa
or F=
r2
Where 'G' is the universal gravitational constant.
G = 6.67 x 10^4 dyne - cm2 gm2 in C.G.S system.
= 6.67 x 10^-11 Newton - m2 kg2 in S. I. system.
GM
Relation between 'G' and 'g' is g =
10.0 Simple harmonic motion
A body is said to have simple harmonic motion, if its acceleration is always directed towards a
fixed point on its path and is proportional to its displacement from the fixed point.
The maximum displacement of the vibrating particle on either side of the mean position is
called its amplitude.
Period of Oscillation (t): The time for one complete Oscillation of the particle is called period of
Oscillation or vibration.
T=
211 ...: aildisplacemmt = li
IV
accleratioi
a
Frequency (n): The number of vibrations made by the particle in unit time is called frequency

* Simple Pendulum: The period of a simple pendulum is directly proportional to the square root
of its length
=T=2rlage (or) g=41121---,3-1
T1
Li
TRANSMISSIONI
1.0 * in transmission of power, mechanical, electrical, hydraulic and pneumatic driven are
employed. Belts, ropes, chain drives and gears are examples of mechanical drives.

I.1 Belt and rope drives

Belts or ropes are used to transmit power from one shaft to another by means of pulleys.
Belts are made of leather, rubber, cotton, balata, fabric.
12 Types of Belts: According to the speed of the drive belts classified into the following three
groups.
(a) Light drives: These are used to transmit small powers at belt speed up to about 10 m/s, as in
agricultural machines and small machines tools.
(h).Medium drives : These are used to transmit medium power at belt speeds over 10 m/s but
up to 22 mts, as in machine tools.
(c) Heavy drives: These are used to transmit large powers at belt speeds above 22 m/s, as in
compressors and generators.
According to the shape, belts are classified into three types.
(a) Flat belts
(b) V-belts
(c) Circular belts or ropes
13 Flat Belts: These are used to transmit power, from one pulley to another when the two
pulleys are not more than 8 meter apart.
The standard flat belt thicknesses are 5, 6.5, 8, 10 and 12 mm.
1.4 types of flat belt drives:
Open belt drive:
It is used for shafts arranged in parallel and rotating in the same direction.
* Angle of contact is less in these belts, when compared with cross belts.