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ACEG220 SOIL MECHANICS II

Lateral earth pressure


Objective
In this lecture we will learn the three types of lateral earth pressure and how to
calculate them.

solid element

vertical stress causes


vertical compression
and horizontal
expansion

(a)

(b)

Introduction
So far, in Soil Mechanics I and Soil Mechanics II, we have only been calculating the
vertical stress in soils. This is the stress caused by the weight of soil and buildings
above.
But this vertical stress also causes a horizontal stress in the soil. During the design of
retaining walls this horizontal stress in the soil is called the lateral earth pressure.
In this lecture we will assume that the water table is deep and total stresses equal
effective stresses.
Vertical stress v
As you learned in Soil Mechanics I the total vertical stress v in a soil is caused by
the weight of soil and buildings, etc. above. We calculate the vertical total stress v in
a soil simply by multiplying the bulk weight density of the soil bulk (kN/m3) by the
height of soil above. We then subtract the pore pressure to find the vertical effective
stress v. If we drew a graph of vertical effective stress v against depth and the
pore pressure were zero we would have a straight line (Figure 1). The vertical
effective stress v increases with depth.
effective stress
bulk weight
density of soil
bulk (kN/m3)

a small horizontal stress


stops the horizontal
expansion and only
vertical compression
occurs
(c)

Figure 2: Effect of vertical and horizontal stresses on a solid element


Figure 2c shows what happens to soil in the ground. The soil cannot expand
horizontally because the other soil surrounding it applies a horizontal stress. The
higher the vertical stress the higher the horizontal stress must be to stop horizontal
expansion.
The relationship between vertical and horizontal effective stresses in a soil is
described with earth pressure coefficients. An earth pressure coefficient is given the
symbol K and is equal to the ratio of horizontal and vertical effective stresses.
Earth pressure coefficient K =

h
v

(equation 1)

In-situ earth pressure


The horizontal effective stress h (or earth pressure) existing in the soil naturally
before we carry out any construction work is called the in-situ horizontal effective
stress h. It is calculated from the in-situ vertical effective stress v and the in-situ
earth pressure coefficient K0. K0 is difficult to measure in a site investigation so it is
often estimated from the equation:
in-situ earth pressure coefficient K 0 = 1 sin *

increasing
depth d
depth d

v = bulk d
(pore pressure zero)

Figure 1: Vertical effective stress v


Horizontal stress h
If you apply a vertical stress to a solid element (Figure 2a), it compresses vertically
but also expands horizontally (Figure 2b). But if you also apply enough horizontal
stress, you can stop the solid element from expanding horizontally and it only
compresses vertically (Figure 2c).

For most soils this would give a K0 value of between 0.25 and 0.65, which means
from equation 1 that the in-situ horizontal effective stress h (or earth pressure) is
generally about 0.25 to 0.65 times the in-situ vertical effective stress v.
The distribution of in-situ horizontal effective stress h with depth would look
something like the example in Figure 3 (assuming pore pressures are zero). The insitu horizontal effective stress h still increases as a straight line but is always less
than the vertical effective stress v as determined by the in-situ earth pressure
coefficient.

* this equation will generally give a good approximation for K0 for most soils but will not be appropriate for very dense
soils and in particular stiff clays.

effective stress

effective stress

wall allowed to
move forward
until soil fails

shear
failure

= 35
increasing
depth d

K0 = 1 sin
= 0.426

v
depth d

Ka =

h = 0.426 v

Figure 3: In-situ horizontal effective stress h

effective stress
wall supported
so that it does
not move
v
depth d

K0 = 1 sin
= 0.426

depth d

1 sin
1 + sin

= 0.271

Imagine that we built a wall in the soil in Figure 3 and excavated away the soil in front
of it. Imagine also that we supported the wall so that it could not move (Figure 4). The
earth pressure on the back of the wall equals the in-situ horizontal effective stress h
in the soil (plus any pore pressure).

= 35

v no change

= 35

h = 0.426 v
= earth pressure on
back of wall (not including
any pore pressure)

Figure 4: In-situ earth pressure on the back of a wall

Active earth pressure


If we allowed the wall in Figure 4 to move forwards slowly, the horizontal effective
stress h or earth pressure on the back of the wall would reduce. It would continue to
reduce until a minimum possible value of earth pressure were reached. This is the
earth pressure when the soil behind the wall fails in shear as shown in Figure 5. This
minimum earth pressure or failure earth pressure is called the active earth pressure.
The value of the active earth pressure is found from the active earth pressure
coefficient:

1 sin
Active earth pressure coefficient K a =
(assuming zero wall friction)
1 + sin

Figure 5: Active earth pressure on the back of a wall


An active state in the soil is described as a shear failure where the vertical stress in
the soil is higher than the horizontal stress.
Passive earth pressure
Now imagine that we pushed the wall very hard back into the soil. Now the horizontal
effective stress h or earth pressure on the back of the wall will increase. Eventually,
the horizontal stress will be higher than the vertical stress. If we push hard enough,
the soil behind the wall will eventually fail in shear as shown in Figure 6. This failure
occurs at a maximum value of earth pressure on the back of the wall. This maximum
pressure is called the passive earth pressure and its value can be calculated from the
passive earth pressure coefficient:
Passive earth pressure coefficient K p =

1 + sin
1 sin

When the earth pressure is above the active earth pressure, this is enough to support
the weight of soil behind the wall. But when the earth pressure reduces to the active
value, it is too low to support the weight of the soil behind the wall and the soil fails in
shear and moves downwards.

(assuming zero wall friction)

Again, the vertical effective stress v does not change because the weight of the soil
is the same. Only the horizontal effective stress h or earth pressure changes when
we push the wall into the soil.
effective stress

wall pushed
back into soil
until soil fails
shear
failure
= 35

1 + sin
Kp =
1 sin

depth d

= 3.69

Remember that the vertical effective stress v does not change because the weight
of the soil is the same. Only the horizontal effective stress h or earth pressure
changes when the wall moves.

h = 0.271 v
= active earth pressure on
back of wall (not including any
pore pressure)

v
no change

h = 3.69 v
= passive earth
pressure on back of wall
(not including any pore
pressure)

Figure 6: Passive earth pressure on the back of a wall


When the earth pressure behind the wall increases, there is enough weight in the soil
to stop the soil failing and being pushed up. But when the earth pressure increases to
the passive value, the weight of the soil is no longer enough to stop the soil failing in
shear and being pushed upwards.
A passive state in the soil is described as a shear failure where the horizontal stress
in the soil is higher than the vertical stress.

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