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GROUP 3|BSMT-3C

Members:

Canlas, Alexander
Carreon, Hazel P.
Catacutan, Jamerose G.
Metchado, Mariah Danielie O.

PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING AND LEARNING

Teaching Principles
Teaching is a complex, multifaceted activity, often requiring instructors to juggle multiple tasks and goals simultaneously
and flexibly. The following small but powerful set of principles can make teaching both more effective and more efficient,
by helping teachers create the conditions that support student learning and minimize the need for revising materials,
content, and policies.

1.

Effective teaching involves acquiring relevant knowledge about students and using that knowledge to inform
course design and classroom teaching.
When teaching, teachers do not just teach the content, but they teach students the content. A variety of student
characteristics can affect learning. For example, students cultural and generational backgrounds influence how they see
the world; disciplinary backgrounds lead students to approach problems in different ways; and students prior knowledge
(both accurate and inaccurate aspects) shapes new learning. Although teachers cannot adequately measure all of these
characteristics, gathering the most relevant information as early as possible in course planning and continuing to do so
during the semester can (a) inform course design (e.g., decisions about objectives, pacing, examples, format), (b) help
explain student difficulties (e.g., identification of common misconceptions), and (c) guide instructional adaptations (e.g.,
recognition of the need for additional practice).

2.

Effective teaching involves aligning the three major components of instruction: learning objectives,
assessments, and instructional activities.
Taking the time to do this upfront saves time in the end and leads to a better course. Teaching
is more effective and student learning is enhanced when (a) instructors articulate a clear set of
learning objectives (i.e., the knowledge and skills that we expect students to demonstrate by
the end of a course); (b) the instructional activities (e.g., case studies, labs, discussions,
readings) support these learning objectives by providing goal-oriented practice; and (c) the
assessments (e.g., tests, papers, problem sets, performances) provide opportunities for
students to demonstrate and practice the knowledge and skills articulated in the objectives,
and for instructors to offer targeted feedback that can guide further learning.

3.

Effective teaching involves articulating explicit expectations regarding learning objectives and policies.
For example, what constitutes evidence may differ greatly across courses; what is permissible collaboration in one course
could be considered cheating in another. Thus, being clear about the instructors expectations and communicating them
explicitly helps students learn more and perform better. Articulating learning objectives (i.e., the knowledge and skills that

we expect students to demonstrate by the end of a course) gives students a clear target to aim for and enables them to
monitor their progress along the way.

4.

Effective teaching involves prioritizing the knowledge and skills instructors choose to focus on.
Coverage is the enemy: Dont try to do too much in a single course. Too many topics work against student learning, so it is
necessary for teachers to make decisions sometimes difficult ones about what they will and will not include in a course.
This involves (a) recognizing the parameters of the course (e.g., class size, students backgrounds and experiences, course
position in the curriculum sequence, number of course units), (b) setting our priorities for student learning, and (c)
determining a set of objectives that can be reasonably accomplished.

5.

Effective teaching involves recognizing and overcoming experts blind spots.


As experts, instructors tend to access and apply knowledge automatically and unconsciously (e.g., make connections, draw
on relevant bodies of knowledge, and choose appropriate strategies) and so they often skip or combine critical steps when
we teach. Students, on the other hand, dont yet have sufficient background and experience to make these leaps and can
become confused, draw incorrect conclusions, or fail to develop important skills. They need instructors to break tasks into
component steps, explain connections explicitly, and model processes in detail. Though it is difficult for experts to do this,
they need to identify and explicitly communicate to students the knowledge and skills they take for granted, so that
students can see expert thinking in action and practice applying it themselves.

6.

Effective teaching involves adopting appropriate teaching roles to support learning goals.
Even though students are ultimately responsible for their own learning, the roles they assume as instructors are critical in
guiding students thinking and behavior. Instructors can take on a variety of roles in their teaching (e.g., synthesizer,
moderator, challenger, commentator). These roles should be chosen in service of the learning objectives and in support of
the instructional activities. For example, if the objective is for students to be able to analyze arguments from a case or
written text, the most productive instructor role might be to frame, guide and moderate a discussion. If the objective is to
help students learn to defend their positions or creative choices as they present their work, their role might be to challenge
them to explain their decisions and consider alternative perspectives. Such roles may be constant or variable across the
semester depending on the learning objectives.

7.

Effective teaching involves progressively refining courses based on reflection and feedback.
Teaching requires adapting. Instructors need to continually reflect on their teaching and be ready to make changes when
appropriate (e.g., something is not working, wanting to try something new, the student population has changed, or there
are emerging issues in their fields). Knowing what and how to change requires them to examine relevant information on
their own teaching effectiveness. Much of this information already exists (e.g., student work, previous semesters course
evaluations, dynamics of class participation), or they may need to seek additional feedback with help from the university
teaching center (e.g., interpreting early course evaluations, conducting focus groups, designing pre- and posttests). Based
on such data, instructors might modify the learning objectives, content, structure, or format of a course, or otherwise
adjust their teaching. Small, purposeful changes driven by feedback and priorities are most likely to be manageable and
effective.

Learning Principles
1.

Students prior knowledge can help or hinder learning.


Students come into instructors courses with knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes gained in other courses and through daily
life. As students bring this knowledge to bear in classrooms, it influences how they filter and interpret what they are
learning. If students prior knowledge is robust and accurate and activated at the appropriate time, it provides a strong
foundation for building new knowledge. However, when knowledge is inert, insufficient for the task, activated
inappropriately, or inaccurate, it can interfere with or impede new learning.

2.

How students organize knowledge influences how they learn and apply what they know.
Students naturally make connections between pieces of knowledge. When those connections form knowledge structures
that are accurately and meaningfully organized, students are better able to retrieve and apply their knowledge effectively
and efficiently. In contrast, when knowledge is connected in inaccurate or random ways, students can fail to retrieve or
apply it appropriately.

3.

Students motivation determines, directs, and sustains what they do to learn.


As students enter college and gain greater autonomy over what, when, and how they study and learn, motivation plays a
critical role in guiding the direction, intensity, persistence, and quality of the learning behaviors in which they engage.
When students find positive value in a learning goal or activity, expect to successfully achieve a desired learning outcome,
and perceive support from their environment, they are likely to be strongly motivated to learn.

4.

To develop mastery, students must acquire component skills, practice integrating them, and know when to apply what they
have learned.
Students must develop not only the component skills and knowledge necessary to perform complex tasks, they must also
practice combining and integrating them to develop greater fluency and automaticity. Finally, students must learn when
and how to apply the skills and knowledge they learn. It is important that instructors develop conscious awareness of these
elements of mastery so as to help students learn more effectively.

5.

Goal-directed practice coupled with targeted feedback enhances the quality of students learning.

Learning and performance are best fostered when students engage in practice that focuses on a specific goal or criterion,
targets an appropriate level of challenge, and is of sufficient quantity and frequency to meet the performance criteria.
Practice must be coupled with feedback that explicitly communicates about some aspect(s) of students performance
relative to specific target criteria, provides information to help students progress in meeting those criteria, and is given at a
time and frequency that allows it to be useful.

6.

Students current level of development interacts with the social, emotional, and intellectual climate of the course to impact
learning.
Students are not only intellectual but also social and emotional beings, and they are still developing the full range of
intellectual, social, and emotional skills. While instructors cannot control the developmental process, they can shape the
intellectual, social, emotional, and physical aspects of classroom climate in developmentally appropriate ways. In fact,
many studies have shown that the climate they create has implications for students. A negative climate may impede
learning and performance, but a positive climate can energize students learning.

7.

To become self-directed learners, students must learn to monitor and adjust their approaches to learning.
Learners may engage in a variety of metacognitive processes to monitor and control their learningassessing the task at
hand, evaluating their own strengths and weaknesses, planning their approach, applying and monitoring various strategies,
and reflecting on the degree to which their current approach is working. Unfortunately, students tend not to engage in
these processes naturally. When students develop the skills to engage these processes, they gain intellectual habits that
not only improve their performance but also their effectiveness as learners.

Teaching as a process or as a giving off process


Effective teaching is one that will bring about the intended learning outcome

An organization of meaningful learning


It is creating a situation or selecting life-like situation to enhance learning
To the traditionalist, it is imparting knowledge and skills required to master a subject matter
Process of dispensing knowledge to an empty vessel (mind of learner)
Its showing, telling, giving instruction, making someone understand in order to learn

PLANNING PHASE INCLUDES DECISION LIKE

The needs of the learner


The achievable goals & objectives to meet the needs
Selection of content to be taught
Motivation to carry out the goal
Strategies most fit to carry out the goals
Evaluation process to measure learning outcome

CONSIDERATIONS IN PLANNING

Learner
Availability of materials
Time requirement of particular activity
Strategy need to achieve the objective goal
Teacher

IMPLEMENTATION PHASE

Implementation means to put into action the different activities in order to achieve the objectives through the

subject matter.
Interaction of the teacher and learner is important in the accomplishment of the plan
Use of different teaching style and strategy are included in this phase

EVALUATION PHASE

A match of the objective with the learning outcome will be made


Answer the question if the plans and implementation have been successfully achieved

FEEDBACK AND REFLECTION

A continuous process of feedback and reflection is made in this three phases of teaching
Feedback is the reflection of the feedback;
What have you learnt? What went well, what could have been improved? What would you do differently next
time?

Reflection is the process embedded in teaching where the teacher inquires into his action and provides deep and
critical thinking

As involving more of the learner than the teacher


Active learning requires students to participate in class, as opposed to sitting and listening quietly.

Strategies include, but are not limited to:

Brief question-and-answer sessions


Discussion integrated into the lecture
Impromptu writing assignments
Hands-on activities;
and experiential learning events

Five Characteristics of Learner-Centered Teaching


1.

Learner-centered teachers teach students how to think, solve problems, evaluate evidence, analyze arguments,
generate hypothesesall those learning skills essential to mastering material in the discipline. They do not
assume that students pick up these skills on their own, automatically.
Learner-centered teachers talk about learning. They challenge student assumptions about learning and encourage

2.

them to accept responsibility for decisions they make about learning; like how they study for exams, when they
do assigned reading, whether they revise their writing or check their answers.
Learner-centered teachers include assignment components in which students reflect, analyze and critique what

3.

they are learning and how they are learning it. The goal is to make students aware of themselves as learners and
to make learning skills something students want to develop.
Learner-centered teachers search out ethically responsible ways to share power with students. They might give

4.

students some choice about which assignments they complete. They might make classroom policies something
students can discuss. They might let students set assignment deadlines within a given time window. They might
ask students to help create assessment criteria.
Learner-centered teachers work to develop structures that promote shared commitments to learning. They see

5.

learning individually and collectively as the most important goal of any educational experience.
Sources:
http://www.cmu.edu/teaching/principles/
http://www.cmu.edu/teaching/principles/
http://www.washington.edu/teaching/teaching-resources/engaging-students-in-learning/
http://archive.learnhigher.ac.uk/resources/files/Group%20work/feedback.pdf
http://www.facultyfocus.com/articles/effective-teaching-strategies/five-characteristics-of-learner-centered-teaching/

The principles of teaching and learning as a system of actions and


interactions

A. Action-Reaction learning system


Three different types of processes exist:
1. Perceptual system - A human user in the left portion of the illustration is being monitored
using this system. This system feeds learning engines with measurements which are
stored as a time series within.
a. time series - is the training data for the learning engine that is
attempting to learn or to improve more through time in hopes of modelling or
synthesizing similar behaviour itself.
Reaction - As defined in the dictionary, the way someone acts or feels in response to something that
happens,
is said, etc.
2. Synthesis
- it is the combination of formed elements or components
(http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/reaction)
generated by the perceptual system and learning engines through the input and output
relationship,
Interaction - As defined in the dictionary, it is the mutual or reciprocal action or influence.
(http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/interaction)
3. Learning engines - contains the measurements stored as a time series which are feeded by
the perceptual system.
SOURCE: http://www.cs.columbia.edu/~jebara/htmlpapers/ARL/node13.html

B. Interaction is closely
interacting with others or
concepts,
improve
enhance
retention.
interaction may be
Every
day,
teachers
decisions and facilitate
between themselves and
they
share
this
all over the country
decisions
and
ways. The Classroom
System
(CLASS),
University of Virginias
Study of Teaching and
view
classrooms
discuss them using a
support for improving the
interactions
and,

linked
to
successful
learning;
with information can help clarify
problem
solving,
and
While the simplest form of
questions and answers.
make countless real-time
dozens of interactions
their students. Although
commonality, educators
often talk about these
interactions in different
Assessment
Scoring
developed
at
the
Center
for
Advanced
Learning, helps educators
through a common lens and
common language, providing
quality
of
teacher-student
ultimately, student learning.

How is the CLASS organized?


The CLASS describes ten dimensions of teaching that are linked to student achievement and social development. Each of
the ten dimensions falls into one of three broad categories: emotional support, classroom organization, and
instructional support.
A. Emotional support refers to the ways teachers help children develop warm, supportive relationships,
experience enjoyment and excitement about learning, feel comfortable in the classroom, and experience
appropriate levels of autonomy or independence. This includes:
1. Positive climate the enjoyment and emotional connection that teachers have with students, as
well as the nature of peer interactions;
2. Negative climate the level of expressed negativity such as anger, hostility or aggression
exhibited by teachers and/or students in the classroom;
3. Teacher sensitivity teachers responsiveness to students academic and emotional needs; and
regard for student perspectives the degree to which teachers interactions with students and
classroom activities place an emphasis on students interests, motivations, and points of view.
B. Classroom organization refers to the ways teachers help children develop skills to regulate their own
behavior, get the most learning out of each school day, and maintain interest in learning activities. This includes:
1. Behavior management how well teachers monitor, prevent, and redirect misbehavior;

maximum time

2. Productivity how well the classroom runs with respect to routines, how well students understand
the routine, and the degree to which teachers provide activities and directions so that
can be spent in learning activities; and
3. Instructional learning formats how teachers engage students in activities and facilitate
activities so that learning opportunities are maximized.

C. Instructional support refers to the ways in which teachers effectively support students' cognitive
development and language growth. This includes:
1. Concept development how teachers use instructional discussions and activities to promote
students higher-order thinking skills and cognition in contrast to a focus on rote instruction;
2. Quality of feedback how teachers expand participation and learning through feedback to
students; &
3. Language modeling the extent to which teachers stimulate, facilitate, and encourage students
language use.

SOURCE: http://www.readingrockets.org/article/teacher-student-interactions-key-quality-classrooms

The principles of teaching and learning as an adjustive act

warrant.

A. Teaching as basically an adjustive act to the part of the teacher to promote students learning.
- Such adjustive act requires the teacher to make the most out of the given situation.
- At times he may be assuming a dominant role; at some other time he may be having a very minimal
interference on his students learning or possibly no interference at all as the situation may

Fred stocking (1963) - described this adjustive act of the teacher, allowing him to assume a range of
changing functions, as:
a. A good teacher can tell his students a lot of questions; but the best teacher can play dumb while
helping his students think out the answer for themselves.
b. A good teacher is an eager and enthusiastic talker; but the best teacher knows to be quiet and
patient while his students struggling to formulate their own thoughts in their own words.

young

c. A good teacher is humble: he naturally feels that the accumulated wisdom of his subject is far more
important than himself. But the best teacher is even humbler for he respects the feeling of
people that they are naturally far more important than a silly old subject.

course

d. A good teacher knows that his students ought to be responsible, honest, and good citizens; but the
best teacher knows that responsibility, honesty, and good citizenship cannot be taught in a
because such qualities are communicated through daily actions, not daily lectures.
e. A good teacher strives to keep his class under control; but the best teacher knows that he must first
be able to control himself.
f. A good teacher earns his salary many times over; but the best teacher also earns a deep and secret
satisfaction which would be ruined if he tried to talk about it in public or convert it into cash.
e. The students of a good teacher pass their courses, graduate, and settle down with good jobs; but the
best teachers students go on receiving awards everyday of their lives, for they have discovered that the
life an inquiring mind is exciting.

Principles of teaching and learning as providing the learner with basic


tools of learning
- Teaching as providing the learner with basic tools of learning so in the process he becomes a selfsufficient and self-reliant individual.
- One uniqueness of the teaching profession lies on the nature of activities given to students. These
activities are unmistakably inherent in the profession and not in any of the other fields of human
endeavor.
Dela cruz and Acua (1986) - specifically pointed out such activities as contained in their definition which
is found below:
- Teaching is to develop further skills of students through thinking, speaking, and writing tasks and
through the ideas and concepts in reading and listening selections.
- Time and again, the DECS emphasizes the return of our schools to the development of
tools of learning.

the fundamental

*The three Rs (reading, riting, and rithmetic). Take note also that once a student acquired
such basic tools in learning, he is expected to be on his own. In the lingo of educators, these
skills are basic to his becoming a functionally literate person.
*One who functions effectively and can adapt himself well in this ever-changing world. Among
the sociologists, they may likely view such acquisition of learning skills as indispensable to
making the young people become acceptable members of society.
Stanford Center for Research and Development in Teaching (1970) - teaching is a highly complex informationprocessing activity that might be described as an orchestration of skills. Such skills may consist of both intellectual and
manipulative which are needed to be developed among students.

SOURCE:
https://books.google.com.ph/books?
id=OW2TIRbsqHYC&pg=PA9&lpg=PA9&dq=learning+as+adjustive+act&source=bl&ots=kbZyZCybYN&sig=IifoeGAiFQyLdo
wP4CJKXXZfV2g&hl=en&sa=X&ei=2iCXVebvLY2zoQTdx6uYAQ&ved=0CCQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=learning%20as
%20adjustive%20act&f=false

As inherently a humane activity


It is considered to be inherently humane activity because teaching involves a wide range of human interactions,
organizational arrangements, and material resources that converge on the teaching-learning process.

1. Human Interaction
Teaching is considered a system of actions varied in form and content but directed toward learning. It is in the performance
of these actions and in the interactions of the teacher with his students that learning takes place. This actions and
interactions are personal but they are also logical in that they have a certain structure, a certain order, such that no matter
in the world teaching takes place, it does so in accordance with operations that reflect the very nature of a teachinglearning situation
2. Organizational Arrangements
Teaching is an activity with four phases:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Curriculum Planning Phase - helping to formulate the goals of education, selecting content and stating
objectives;
Instructing Phase - creating intentions regarding instructional strategies and tactics, interacting and acting on
situational feedback about instruction;
Measuring Phase - selecting and creating measurement devices; measuring, learning, organizing and analyzing
measurement data and;
Evaluating Phase - evaluating the appropriateness of objectives of instruction and the validity and reliability of
devices used to measure learning.

3. Material Resources
The process of teaching includes:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

selection and development of instructional units;


planning individual lessons;
organizing material for instructional purposes;
designing the methods to be used;
classroom management;
evaluation of pupils' achievements and;
reporting of pupils' grades

Reference:
https://books.google.com.ph/books?
id=KWWLgq5UfYcC&pg=PA15&lpg=PA15&dq=learning+and+teaching+as+inherently+a+human+activity&source=bl&ots=
9-ulugGCc6&sig=5uzvIClR3iEfWEhu1C3TXpPWJI&hl=en&sa=X&ei=v7OWVeeTF5eVuATX66qQBw&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=learning%20and
%20teaching%20as%20inherently%20a%20human%20activity&f=false

As structuring the learning environment


A key component of being an effective teacher begins with providing structure in the classroom. Providing structure
maximizes student learning opportunities, minimizes distractions and generally makes the overall atmosphere of the
classroom more pleasant. Most students will respond positively to structure especially those who do not have any structure
or stability in their home life.
A structured classroom also translates to a safe classroom. Students enjoy being in a safe learning environment. Too often
teachers provide students with freedoms in which they often abuse. A lack of structure can destroy a learning
environment, undermine a teachers authority, and generally leads to failure for the teacher and the students. An
unstructured environment can be described as chaotic, non-productive, and generally as a waste of time.
Providing and keeping your classroom structured does take a strong commitment from the teacher. The rewards are well
worth any time, effort, and planning it takes to remain structured. Teachers will find that they enjoy their jobs more, see
more growth in their students, and that everyone in general is more positive.
Reference: http://teaching.about.com/od/Information-For-Teachers/a/Keys-To-Providing-Structure-In-The-Classroom.htm

As an inquiry process
Teaching as inquiry places importance on teachers prioritizing what and how they teach, based on the needs of their
students and making evidence-informed decisions about strategies that are most likely to work in meeting those needs,
then checking how students responded to the teaching.
Teaching as inquiry involves three key inquiries:
First is the focusing inquiry about what is most important given where your students are at, their interests, and the
local and national curriculum aspirations. It requires teachers to establish priorities given the time constraints they face.
Next is the teaching inquiry determining what strategies are most likely to help your students learn. Attention to
evidence about what has worked for others is important since it increases the likelihood that what you do will work. The
teaching inquiry is also informed by practitioners expertise both matter.
After teaching takes place, comes the third inquiry the learning inquiry, when the teacher investigates what
happened as a result of the teaching and what implications this has for future teaching.
Inquiry can be something teachers think through during a lesson. It can be that moment-by-moment decision-making
where teachers establish what is important in the next two minutes, decide how to address that, and see how effective
that was. It can also involve more in-depth inquiries that occur over the course of a unit, a term, a year, or longer and use
the full array of evidence and student data.
Teaching as inquiry can be carried out in a range of ways by teachers individually or in collaboration as a department or a
syndicate, across the whole school or across a cluster of schools.

IMPORTANT DIFFERENCE
Teaching as inquiry is when teachers inquire into: what is most important; what strategies or approaches are most
likely to work; and the impact of teaching on students.
Inquiry learning is just one approach teachers might use (but dont have to) in which students learn about learning,
investigation and research as they explore topics of interest.

Reference: http://www.edgazette.govt.nz/Articles/Article.aspx?ArticleId=7880

Teaching as a complex process


Teaching is a complex process; it is more than just asking perfect questions, or getting students to talk to other. Think of a
car engine, if we only have few working parts of the engine or even missing parts, the car wont run. Similarly, we need to
think about the whole process to support students mathematical learning.
The Common Core standards outlines the content that students need to learn and it also outlines the Standards of
Mathematical practice that explicates process students must learn. We need to figure how how to integrate the Common
Core Standards and the Standards of Mathematical Practice so that it fits naturally with the process of planning and
teaching. For learning to take place, we need to think about the big picture. This is particularly true about implementing
the Common Core standards.
The National Research Council identified three environments that need to intersect to optimize learning. These include the
following:
1.
2.
3.

Learner centered environment where what students prior knowledge and learning styles are considered.
Knowledge Centered Environment is what content and curriculum that students need to learn.
Assessment Centered environment involves adjusting teaching based on assessment.

Learning takes place within the community and the broader community of the classroom. Lets examine what a teacher
does daily in the classroom.

Set up the classroom environment- this includes designing the physical space and the social environment.
(The classroom culture, development or routines for participation.)
Planning lessons
Delivering the lesson how we structure time (think about when and how whole class discussions can be
effectively used to optimize student learning.)
Assessment.

The most efficient way to improve teaching involves visualizing and understanding the big picture.

Teaching as an art and science


Teaching is both a science and art. Eisner pointed out a couple of distinguishing marks between these two facets of
teaching. Firstly, while the former is primarily directed to inform the head, the latter is more suited to satisfy the soul.

Secondly, while the former makes teaching more skillfully executed the latter makes teaching more adaptive and flexible to
meet the highly varied and complex needs of the learners.
Based on the first difference, it could be presumed that teaching as a science emphasizes the cognitive and the
psychomotor aspects of learning or simple the subject matter that must be put across into the learners level of awareness
as well as the skillful performances that they should eventually be able to possess the learning process, they should
eventually be able to possess the needed knowledge and skills.
Such knowledge and skills are indispensable to their everyday existence as they find them useful particularly in matters of
making life decisions and of solving crucial problems. Likewise, teaching as an art presupposes the need for the learners to
appreciate and improve on whatever knowledge he has gained and skills he has acquired. Hence, this facet
tends to give more credence to the effective aspect of learning. At this point one may ask this question: which of the two is
more important? The answer is plain and simple. Both are equally important as far as the total personality
development of the learner is concerned. It follows then that the learner must know something before he can
appreciate it. He can never appreciate something that he doesnt know of or something that does not exist in him.
Something is derived from something; nothing can be taken from nothing.
The second difference even presents a more in-depth perspective. Teaching as a science, on one hand, views the
teacher as an academician as well as craftsman. As an academician, he is pictured to be disciplined, organized,
systematic, and therefore scientific in his teaching. As such, he is expected to have a mastery of subject matter and to
organize it well in a form that is comprehensible to his learners.
As a craftsman, he has a repertoire of teaching methods and quite skillful in their use. Teaching as an art, on
the other hand, goes beyond this prescribed level of instruction, it does not view a teaching method as a
preconceived and scripted sequence of classroom acts in carrying out an activity or in developing a particular
lesson.
Those facet views the teacher as an innovator, one who is willing to modify and to create a new forms of teaching, While
teaching as a science regards teaching as a mechanical and routinized in order to make it more systematic and more
efficient, teaching as an art looks at teaching as a dynamic and imaginative process, the latter aims at making
teaching more relevant and responsive to the learners' needs, interests, and abilities. Moreover, while the former aims at
optimum efficiency devoid of creating something new, the latter is destined to come out with something novel innovative.

Teaching applying principles of other significantly related disciplines

Process Principles

Application entails generalizing the sequence of events to new cases. So we can look at a "new" plant and describe what
phase or change is going to occur next (e.g., the flower will form seeds), or we can look at it and describe what phase or
change occurred immediately prior to now, or we can look at all of the various phases or changes which occurred and
arrange them in the proper sequence.

Causal Principles

We saw that process principles are applied by describing the sequence of events in a new situation. But causal principles
are much more complex. There are three very different forms of behavior by which causal principles can be applied.
These three behaviors can most easily be understood by looking at the two changes which comprise a simple causeeffect principle: the cause and the effect. For example, in the law of supply and demand, an increase in price (the
cause) results in a decrease in demand (the effect).
1.

2.

3.

Prediction. One way to apply a causal principle is when a particular cause is given and the learner must predict
what its particular effect will be. For example, the learner is told that the price of gasoline will soon increase due
to a gasoline tax, and is asked what effect it is likely to have. "Implication" is another term which is commonly
used.
Explanation. Another way a causal principle can be applied occurs when a particular effect is given, and the
learner must explain what its particular cause was. For example, the learner is told that consumption of sugar in
the U.S. decreased considerably in the early 1960s and is asked for a possible reason. "Inference" is another
common term for this form of application.
Solution. A third way a causal principle can be applied is when a particular desired effect is given, and the
person must select and implement the necessary particular causes to bring it about. It is similar to procedure
using, except that the appropriate procedure is unknown and must be invented or derived by the person. For

example, the learner is asked to figure out how to decrease the consumption of electricity (to reduce pollution
and conserve fossil fuels). "Problem solving" is the common term for this form of application.
These three forms of behavior are in addition to the one for process principles:
Description. In a process principle, the kind of behavior that represents application of the principle is to describe what
occurs in what order in a particular situation.

Source:https://mathdiscussions.wordpress.com/2013/03/23/why-think-about-the-process-ofteaching-to-improve-learning/

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